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THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

1. INTRODUCTION ::

Study of cell is called Cytology.

Cells are the structural and functional units oflife

2. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT ::

> Robert Hooke (1665) observing a slice of cork in which he saw honey comb like structure which
he called cell

> RudolfVirchow (1855) stated that all cell arise from the division of pre-existing cells.

> Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann (1839)

(A) Postulates of Cell Theory:

> Living things made of minute units, the cells, which are the small entities. Thus cells the structural
unit of life

> Cells are normally alike in metabolic activities & structures.

> A cell bounded by a cell membrane & some times cell wall also. It contains protoplasm & nucleus.

> The function ofan organism is the result of the activities & interactions of the constituent cell

(B) Modern Cell Theory:

➤ It is also referred as cell principle.

Life exists only in cell.

➤ Living beings are multinucleate mass ofprotoplast, containing nuclear material & some cell organell
limited by a cell membrane

> Cell have basic similarity in chemical composition & physical structure.
> Cell anse from pre-existing living cells by division

> Cell working & structure is controlled by DNA.

> Cells have genetic information, stored in their DNA.

➤ A cell can act (grow, divide & die) Independently.

➤ A cell is made of living substance called protoplasm. Term 'Protoplasm' was coined by Purkinje
(1839)

> Protoplasm with cell organelles comprises cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is a part of cell between plasma membrane & nuclear envelope.
> Single celled organisms (unicellular organisms) are Bacteria. Amoeba and Chlamydomonas
> Many celled organisms (multicellular organisms) are Fungi, Plants and Animals

Protoplasm is a aggregate of molecules of organic (as protein, carbohydrates, fats or lipids).

nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) and Inorganic (water, ions, salt etc.) compounds
> All kinds of true cells share the following three basic characteristic
They contain a set of genes
They contain a limiting plasma membrane

They contain a metabolic machinery

Organisms are again divided into following two main types

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(a) Prokaryotes (b) Eukaryotes

> Differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Cells Cells

Size of cell is generally Large (5-100 μm)

small (1-10μm)

b Nucleus Absent Nucleus Present

Contain single Contain many

chromosome chromosome

d Nucleolus is absent Present

Membrane bound cell Present

organelles are absent

(Ribosomes are present)
Cell division take place Cell division occurs
fission or budding by mitosis or meiosis
(No mitosis)

Ex. BGA, PPLO etc. Ex. Amoeba, Paramecium etc.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL ::

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1 Animal cells are Plants cells

generally small in size are larger

2 Cell wall is absent. Cellwall is present

3 Except the protozoan Plastids are present

Euglena no animal
cell possesses plastids.
4 Animals cell have a Plants cellhave

single highly complex many simpler units

and prominent Golgi of Golgi apparatus

apparatus called dictyosomes

5 Animal cells have Plant cells lack

centrosome and centrosome and

centroles centrioles

4. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF CELL AND CELL ORGANELLES

(A) Structure of Cell:

The size, shape number and volume of cell vary greatly among unicellular and multicellular organisms

Cell shape :

> The shape of cell may be variable or fixed

Variable shape occur in Amoeba, WBC etc

Fixed shape occur in most plant and animals

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Cell
Plant

Vacuole
Ribosomes

Centroles
-ER

Starch gram
Nucleus

Nucleolus.
Cell wal
Mitochondrion

Serrall

vacuole Chloroplast

Golg complex

Animal Cell
PlantCell
STRUCTURE OF CELL

Cells may be diverse shapes such as polyhedral (8, 12 or 14 sides) spherical (eg eggs of mainly
animals), spindle shaped (Smooth muscle fibres), elongated (eg. Nerves cells) so on

Cell Size :

> The size of different cells ranges between broad limits.

> Some plants and animals cells are visible to the naked eye

> Most cells are visible only with microscope

> The prokaryotic cells usually range between 1 to 10 µm.

> The eukaryotic cells usually range between 10 to 100 μm

> Amoeba proteus may reach a diameter of 0.5 mm.

> The smallest cells are those of Mycoplasma laidlawiil (0.14 in diameter) or PPLO (pleura
pneumonia like organism)

> The largest cell is egg of an Ostrich

Cell Number:

> The number of cell in living organisms also varies greatly

> In unicellular organisms, a single cell occur its body eg. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella Amoeba
> In human body, the estimated number of cell is 100 trillion (10¹)
(B) Component of cell :

> Major components are -

A living part of cell Non living part of cell

a Plasma membrane a Cell wall

b. Cytoplasm b. Vacuoles

(1) ER c Cell inclusions

(n) Mitochondria

(m) Golgi apparatus

(N) Ribosomes

(v) Lysosomes
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(vi) Centroles

(animals only)

Plastids

(plants only)

4.1 Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall :

Extracellular fluid
Glycoprotein

Peripheral protein

kommionWt
(trans membrane)
Phospholipids:
proteins
Polar head (hydrophilic)

Fatty acid tails Peripheral protein

(hydrophobic)

Polar head (hypdrophilic)

Integral protein

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF PLASMAMEMRANE

(A) Plasma Membrane :

Introduction :

> Cell surface in all the cells is enclosed by a living membrane which is called cell membrane by
C. Nageli and C. Kramer (1855)

Historical Account :

➤ J.Q. Plower (1931) coined the term Plasmalemma for cell membrane

Ultrastructure:
> Plasma membrane forms outer covering of each cell

> It is present in both plant and animal cells.

> Plasma membrane is a living, thin, delicate elastic, selectively permeable membrane

> It separates contents of a cell from the surrounding medium.

Fluid Mosaic Model:

➤ In 1972, Singer Nicolson proposed this model. According to this, cell membrane consists-two
layers of phospholipid molecules, phospholipid & protein molecules are arranged as a mosaic
Phospholipid molecules have their polar heads directed outward non polar tail pointing inward
> The proteins are of two types

> Peripheral or integral Peripheral proteins are located superficially while integral proteins are embeded
in the phospholipid matrix. The protein monolayers have elasticity & mechanical support to the lipid
matrix
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Functions of Plasma Membrane:

> The main function of plasma membrane is to regulate the movement of molecules inside and outside
the cell

Definition of Diffusion :

> The tendency of molecules or ions of liquids, gases and solids to move from regions of higher
concentrations to lower concentration due to their random-motion, until they are evenly distributed
throughout the available space is called diffusion
Definition of Osmosis:
> It may be defined as a special type of diffusion that occurs in a liquid medium through a
semipermeable membrane. In this process the movement of molecules of a solvent (or water), from
the region ofhigher concentration ofwater (1.e. dilute solution) to the region of lower concentration
of water (1.e stronger solution) takes place till the concentration on both the sides are equalised,
when both are separated by a semipermeable membrane.
Semipermeable memberane allows only solvent molecules to pass through it but not the solute molecules
In plants, the cell contains a solution called cell sap which is more concentrated (containing some
solute particles) than that of water. When the cell is immersed in water, the diffusion of water
molecules from the outside into the cell takes place resulting in endosmosis (ie inward flow) and
the reverse process is known as exosmosis (ie outward flow). Due to endosmosis, gradually the
cell sap becomes diluted and enlarged with more water. This process will continue till an equilibrium
is reached ie the concentration of both the solutions is equalised.
> Plasma membrane helps in maintaining distinct composition ofcell
(B) Cell Wall :
> In plants cell, there occurs a rigid cell wall which lies outside the plasma membrane.
> It is made up of a fibrous polysaccharide (carbohydrates) called cellulose
Cellulose is responsible for providing structural strength to the plants.
4.2 Nucleus:

Introduction:

> The nucleus is the most important component of the cell and controls all functional activities ofthe
cell

Historical Account :

> Robert Brown (1831) discovered a dense, spherical body in the cells of an 'orchid' and named
it as 'Nucleus

Ultrastructure:

➤ It is a prominent, spherical or oval structure, usually located near the centre of cell
> It is the controlling centre of all cell activities
> It is enclosed by a double layered membrane called nuclear membrane
> The chief components of the nucleus are

(a) Chromatin material

(b) Nucleolus

> Chromatin material - Which is in the form of an intertwined mass of thread like structure
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> Chromatin material mainly consist of DNA
> DNA responsible for hereditary information from one generation to another
> Double Helical structure of DNA was proposed by Watson & Crick
> Chromosomes - DNA condenses into compact rod like bodies called chromosomes Their
number in humans is 46 (23 pairs.)

Functions of Nucleus:

Fachromatan
Nuclear pore
Pernaclear space

Heterochromaton

Pernacleolar
chromatin

Nuclear envelope
Inner membrane
Ladeplass

Outer membrane
Nacleolus

ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STRUCTUREOF

NUCLEIS

> The nucleus control all metabolic activities of the cell.

> It regulates the cell cycle.
> It is concerned with the transmission ofhereditary traits from the parents to offspring
4.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum (E. R.):
Introduction:

> In the cytoplasm some closed or open, branched cavities are present which are bounded by
membranes to form a network of membranous system called Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Historical Account:

> K.R.Porter (1948) reported this net-like system under electron microscope
Ultrastructure:

> A system of membranes attached to the nucleus and present in the cytoplasm is called ER
> The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is divided into two parts
(a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
> RER possesses rough wall because ribosomes remain attached on the surface RER is present in
cells which are involved in protein synthesis

> SER mainly present in cells which are involved in lipoproteins and glycogen synthesis. It performs
detoxification

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Ribosomes SPOP
> It forms supporting skeleton framework of the cell
SUR CHORDS
Certain enzymes present in smooth ER synthesis fats
(lipids), steroids and cholesterol

Rough ER is concerned with protein synthesis

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> Smooth ER is involved in the process of

detoxification 22 Lumen

4.4 Ribosomes:

Introduction:

> Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and

A. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
eukaryotic cells In prokaryotes, they are found in
B. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
the cytoplasm in free form, called monosomes.
Ribosomes are the smallest organelles in the cell.
Historical Account:

> In plant cells ribosomes were first of all observed

by Robinson and Brown (1953) In animal cells
these are called Palade particles, observed by
Palade (1955)

Ultrastructure:
Cisternac Vesicles Tubules

> Ribosomes are dense, spherical and granular ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

particles. These are also known as RNP particles
(Ribonucleoprotein particles)

> Ribosomes occur freely in the matrix or remain -Head

Platform.

attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Also with

305 Subunit
in chloroplast, mitochondria and nuclei. Thus
called organelle with a organelle Base

Small
Each ribosome is made up of two subunits, a subunit Central

smaller subunit and larger subunit protuberance

> Two subunits of ribosomes are attached with the

help of Mg¹ ions Radgr

> Many ribosomes may be associated with mRNA SOS Subunit

to form polyribosomes.
Large
subunit
Functions of Ribosomes:

PARTSOFRIBOSOME
> Ribosomes play an important part in the protein
synthesis Ribosomes are the protein
factories ofthe cell

4.5 Mitochondria :

Introduction:

➤ A single mitochondrion is present in Inner membrane space

Outer
unicellular green alga, Micrastenas Number Ribosome Matris INA

រដ្ឋវិញAND
ofmitochondria varies from 50-50,000 per

cell Mitochondria of a cell are collectively

known as chondriome.

Historical Account:

➤ C. Benda (1897) gave the name Cristal inner ATP synthase

membrane
particles
Mitochondria (Mitos, thread+ Chondrion,
INTERNALSTRUCTURE OFAMITOCHONDRION
granules)
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> Term Bioplast' for mitochondria was used by Altman.

Ultrastructure:

> Mitochondria are rod shaped organelles, bounded by a double membrane envelope
> The outer membrane is smooth, the inner membrane surrounds a central cavity of matrix. Central
cavity is filled with gel like substances
> Inner membranes folds are called cristae, these folding are tubular and called microvilli
> Mitochondria contain electron transport systems aggregated into compact structure F, particles
or exysome, tennis racket like bodies on inner membrane involved in oxidation & phosphorylation
> Kreb's cycle occurs in mitochondria

> Each particle is made up of base, stalk and head

Functions ofMitochondria:

> Mitochodria are called power plants or power houses or cellular furnaces
> Synthesis of ATP (Adenosine Tri-phosphate) in mitochondria is called oxidative phosphorylation.
> Mitochondria as place of cellular respiration was first observed by Hogeboom.

4.6 Plastids :

Introduction:

> Plastids are organelles enclosed by a double membrane found in all plants
Historical Account :

> E.Heckel (1865) gave the term plastid Plastids are largest cell organelles

Ultrastructure:

> Plastids occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells.

> Plastids are self replicating organelles like mitochondria ie they have the power to divide

> Schimper divided plastids into three types:

(a) Chromoplast - Coloured plastids

(except green colour)

(b) Chloroplast - Green coloured plastids

(c) Leucoplast - Colourless plastid

> Plastids also have double membrane butno cristac

Functions of Plastids :

> Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilized it to manufacture food for the plant
> Chromoplast impart various colour offlower to attract insect for pollination

4.7 Golgi Complex:

Introduction:

➤ Golgi bodies are absent in prokaryotic cells Golgi complex is found in all eukaryotic cells except
RBCs

Historical Account :

➤ Camillo Golgi (1898), a zoologist, observed Golgi bodies in the form of a network in nerve cells
of barn owl

Ultrastructure:
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> It is also called Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus or Dictyosome (in plants cell)
> It is made up of cisternac
> Golgi bodies are interconnected with the tubules

Functions ofGolgi Apparatus :

> The main function of Golgi apparatus is secretory

> It produces vacuoles or secretory vesicles which contain cellular secretions like enzymes, proteins,
cellulose etc

> Golgi apparatus is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes
4.8 Vacuoles. Lysosomes. Peroxisomes and Centrosome :

оде -Transfer
vesicles

Cisterna

Transface

-Secretory vesicles

DETAILEDSTRUCTUREOFGOLGICOMPLEX

Introduction:

> Vacuoles serve as temporary storehouse for many of the cell's solutes and macromolecules,
Ultrastructure:

> Vacuoles - The Vacuoles are liquid filled spaces in the cell.
> Each vacuole remains surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast

Functions of Vacuoles:

> Vacuoles help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell (osmoregulation)

(a) Lysosomes :

Introduction :

> Lysosomes are generally found in the cytoplasm of animal cells. Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism
Historical Account :

➤ The term lysosome was introduced by de Duve in 1955

Ultrastructure:

> It is also called demolition squads, scavengers, cellular house keepers and suicide bags.

> Lysosome are simple tiny spherical sac like structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm
> Lysosome is small vesicle surrounded by a single membrane and contains powerful enzymes

Functions of Lysosomes:

> Lysosomes serve as interacellular digestive system, hence called digestive bags

Lysosomes also remove the worn out and poorly working cellular organelles by digesting them to
make way for their new replacement.
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(b) Peroxisomes:

Introduction:

> Peroxisomes are round to oval bodies, limited by a single membrane

Historical Account :

> Peroxisomes were observed by Tolbert and Yamazaki.

Ultrastructure:

> Peroxisomes are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative enzymes
They are bounded by single membrane.
> They are mostly found in kidney and liver cells.
➤ These are specialized for carrying out of some oxidative reactions
Functions of Peroxisomes :

Peroxisomes are specialized for carrying out some oxidative reactions.

(c) Centrosome :

Introduction:
> Outside the nuclei of animal cells is an area called the centrosome

Historical Account :

➤ T. Boweri (1888) coined the term centrosome. Each centrosome consists of two sets of centrioles.

Ultrastructure:

> Centrosome is found only in animal cells.

> It is not bounded by any membranes.

Consists ofcylindrical, rod, like structures called centrioles.
> Centrioles are made up of microtubules.

Functions of Centrosome :

> Centrosome helps in cell division in animals cells.

> In plants cells, cell division involves polar caps for the spindle formation

4.9 Cytoskeleton (Cilia and flagella):

> In many eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic cells of both plants and animals a cytoskeleton has been
reported in recent years.

> The elements ofthis cytoskeleton are proteins.

The cytoskeleton consists of following two elements within a cell.

(a) Microtubules

(b) Microfilaments

Cilia and flagella ofeukaryotic cells are microscopic, contractile & filamentous process ofcytoplasm
> Cilia is shorter than flagella and are numerous.
4.10 Microtubules & Microfilaments :

(A) Microtubules:

Introduction:
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> These are cylindrical structures formed by the polymerization of two-part subunits of globular
protein tubulin into helical stacks
Historical Account :

The term "microtubule' was coined by Slautterback in 1963

Ultrastructure:

> Microtubules radiate from each end of the cell Which helps in the movement of chromosomes
> These are found in many plant and animal cells.
Function:

> Microtubules help in the structure and movement ofcilla and flagella
➤ It also play a role in cell division.
(B) Microfilaments:
Ultrastructure

> These are long and helically intertwined polymers Microfilaments are made up of protein actin.
Function:

> These filaments help in cell movement and in formation of cell furrow and cell plate
CELL DIVISION ::

> Cell multiplication is needed for the growth, development and repair of the body Cell multiples
by dividing itself again and again this process called cell division
> Cell divisions are two types

(a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

5.1 Mitosis:

Stages of Mitosis :

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase are roughly the five stages or phases of
mitosis

(a) Interphase :
> The period between one cell division and the next is called interphase in which the cell is said
to be in the resting stage.

Interphase, however, includes three phases, i e Gl-phase, S-phase and G2-phase G1-phase
is a resting phase or pre-DNA synthesis phase
DNA synthesis takes place
➤ During S-phase.
G2-phase is again a resting phase and it may be described as a post-DNA synthesis phase
> The main mitosis division takes place during M-phase which involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase

(b) Prophase :
> Prophase is actually the first and the longest phase in the mitosis cell division.
> Chromosomes become visible in the nucleus as short, thick and helically-cotled threads
> Each chromosome splits into two chromatids joined at the centromere
> Nuclear membrane dissolves away
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Nucleolus also dissolves away and finally disappears
(c) Metaphase :

➤ It is the second stage in the mitotic cell division

> Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate and they are lost completely
> Spindle tubules start appearing, and these tubules get attached to chromosomes at the centrometes
> Chromosomes move actively, become shorter and thicker and arrange themselves in the centre or
on the equator of the spindle
> Separation of the two chromatids from each chromosomes also begins at the end of metaphase
(d) Anaphase :
> It is the third stage of mitosis

> Chromatids separate from each other at centromeres

> Separated sister chromatids, each with a centromere, are called daughter chromosomes They
move to the ends of opposite poles of the spindle
> Daughter chromosomes appear in V, U or J-shaped during their movement towards the poles
> During the late anaphase stage, the cell starts constricting in the middle region.
(e) Telophase :

> Telophase is the last stage of mitotic cell division

> Chromatids or daughter chromosomes are now at the end of the spindle
> Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reform around each group of chromosomes and thus two new
nuclei are reorganized at each pole.
> Chromosomes begin to lose their compact structure.
> Spindle apparatus disappears gradually
5.2 Karyokinesis:

Division of nucleus is called karyokinesis and the process of the division of cytoplasm is called
cytokinesis

> In animal cells, a circular constriction appears at the equator, the constriction deepens and eventually
divides the cell into two.

➤ In plant, there is no constriction A cell plate or new cell wall forms across the cell resulting in the
separation oftwo daughter cells

Significance of Mitosis:

> Mitosis occurs during the growth and development of multicellular plants and animals
> Mitosis ensures that the two daughter cells inherit the same number of chromosomes.

➤ It helps the cell in maintaining proper size

> In unicellular organisms mitosis helps in asexual reproduction during which two or more individuals
arise from the mother cell

> If mitosis becomes uncontrolled it may cause tumour or cancerous growth

5.3 Meiosis

► Meiosis is also called reduction division because the chromosomes in this division are reduced
from the diploid to the haploid number

> Meiosis occurs in all organisms which reproduce sexually

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> Meiosis produces haploid sex cells from diploid

cells

> Mexosts involves two cell division, viz, meiosis

I and meiosis II

➤ In meiosis 1, the replicated homologous

chromosomes pair with each other on the
spindle, cross over and then separate to either
(A) INTERPHASE
end of the spindle

> On the other hand, in meiosis II, the chromatids

of each chromosome move towards the
centromere, and these chromatids separate at)TELOPHASE (8) EARLY PROPHASE
each end of the second spindle.

> As a resultof this process, a diploid cell divides

^^^A
to form four haploid cells.

First Meiosis Division:

First meiosis division is actually the reduction

division. It consists ofprophase I, metaphase I, BANAPHASE CLATE PROPHASE

anaphase I and telophase I

(D)METAPHASE
(a) Prophase I:

> Prophase I is the longest phase ofmeiosis and VARIOUS STAGES OFMITOSIS

includes five sub-phases.

(i) Leptotene :

> This is the first stage in the first meiosis prophase

> In this stage, the chromosomes appear as separate thin and fine thread-like structures.
(i) Zygotene:

> Homologous chromosomes come together, or arrange themselves side by side in pairs to form
bivalents

➤ This pairing ofhomologous chromosomes during zygotene in the first meiosis prophase is called
synapsis
(iii)Pachytene:

> The bivalents or chromosomes become shorter and thicker

> They replicate or split into chromatids but remain linked at the centromeres
> Each bivalent thus now consists of four chromatids

> Crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous pair takes place.

(iv)Diplotene:
> The centromeres of paired chromosomes or bivalents move away from each other and crossing
over can also be seen

The points in a bivalent where the two chromosomes appear to be joined and crossed over are
called chiasmata

Chiasmata formation and crossing over are the distinguishing features of diplotene

(v) Diakinesis:
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(C)
(B)ZYGO
MEJOSISI

(EYDIAKI

VV

MEIOSIS

(J) SPER

DIFFERENTSTAGESOF

This is the last stage of first meiosis prophase.

X
> The chromosomes become shortest and thickest

> Terminalisation of chiasmata.

> Nuclear membrane starts disintegratingfollowed

. Nucleolus also disintegrates. Diakinesis by
metaphase I.
(b) Metaphase I :

> Nuclear membrane disappears completely at the beginning of metaphase 1.

> Pairs of homologous chromosomes are lined up at the centre.

> Spindle apparatus starts appearing. Few spindle fibres get attached with the centromeres of
chromosomes.

> Metaphase I change into anaphase I.

(c) Anaphase I :
> Partners of homologous chromosomes separate completely and move to opposites poles ofspindle
during anaphase I, which in turn changes into telophase L

(d) Telophase I:

> The separated partners ofhomologous chromosomes collect at the poles of the spindle and nuclear
membranes form around them. Two daughter haploid nuclei are thus formed. The chromosomes
lengthen as they uncoil. Nucleoli start reappearing
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Second Meiosis Division:

Like mitosis, the second meiosis divisions also consists of four phases, i.e. prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II and telophase II.

Prophase II:

➤ In both the haploid nuclei, each chromosome splits up into two chromatids with a single functional
centromere. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate partially or completely.
Metaphase II :

➤ The chromatids arrange themselves at metaphase plate or spindle.

Anaphase II:

➤ During anaphase II, the centromere splits. The two chromatids belonging to each chromosomes
may now be called chromosomes and pass to the two opposite poles of spindle.

Telophase II:

➤ The haploid set of chromosomes at two different poles of spindle uncoil and form chromatin
material. Nuclear membrane forms around each haploid set of chromosomes. Nucleolus also
reappears.

Significance of Meiosis:

> Meiosis results in the formation of haploid gametes (sperm and ovum)
➤ The phenomenon of crossing over provides new combinations of chromosomes and, hence new
combinations of genes and also of characters in offspring.
> The four chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes are passed on to four different
daughter cells. This is called the segregation of chromosomes. This causes genetic variations
in daughter cells.

➤ Failure of meiosis leads to the formation of diploid gametes which on fusion form polyploids.

6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS CELL DIVISION ::

Special Note:

Besides mitosis and meiosis, there is also a third type of division. It is called amitosis. It is a direct
division ofthe nucleus by constriction.

S.No. Mitosis Meiosis

It occurs in reproductive cells (germ cells

1 It occurs in all somatic cells.
or sex cells)

In the resultant daughter cells, the number In resultant daughter cells the number of
2 ofchromosomes remains the same (i.e. chromosomes reduces to half (i.e. haploid)
diploid) hence called equational division. hence, called reductional division.

By mitosis two daughter cells are By meiosis, four daughter cells are
3
produced. produced.

During mitosis no crossing overtakes

During meiosis crossing over take place.
place.

Daughter cells have identical Chromosomes ofthe daughter cells are

chromosomes which are also identicalto with combined components (genes) of
that ofparent cell (i.e., remains constant) both parents (i.e. genetic variability occurs)