CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Computer System

 A computer is an electronic device that processes data to generate useful

information.
 The main components of a computer include the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), memory, input/output devices, and storage devices.
 The CPU, often referred to as the brain of the computer, performs most of
the processing inside a computer.
 Memory, such as RAM and ROM, is essential for storing data temporarily and
permanently.
 Input devices like keyboards and mice allow users to interact with the
computer.
 Output devices like monitors and printers display or produce the results of
the computer's processes.
 Storage devices, such as hard drives and SSDs, provide long-term data
storage.
 Computers come in various forms, including servers, desktops, laptops,
tablets, and smartphones.
 Each form factor is designed for different uses, from powerful servers to
portable smartphones.
 The versatility of computers makes them indispensable in modern life.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The CPU is the primary component of a computer that performs most of the
processing.
 It consists of two main parts: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control
Unit (CU).
 The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on the data.
 The CU directs all operations within the computer by fetching instructions
from memory.
 CPUs can be found in a wide range of devices, from personal computers to
smartphones.
 Modern CPUs are often referred to as microprocessors because they are
implemented on a single chip.
 The speed and efficiency of a CPU determine the overall performance of a
computer.
 CPUs have evolved from simple processors to complex multi-core units.
 Multi-core processors can handle multiple tasks simultaneously, improving
performance.
 Advances in CPU technology continue to drive the development of faster and
more efficient computers.

Input Devices

 Input devices are hardware components that send data to a computer.

 Keyboards allow users to input text and commands into a computer.
 Mice and touchpads enable users to interact with graphical elements on the
screen.
 Scanners convert physical documents into digital format.
  Touch screens allow direct interaction with the computer by touching the
display.
 Other input devices include joysticks, trackballs, and digital pens.
 These devices translate physical actions into digital signals that the computer
can process.
 Input devices are essential for user interaction with the computer system.
 They come in wired and wireless forms, offering flexibility in use.
 The development of more intuitive and efficient input devices continues to
enhance user experience.

Output Devices

 Output devices are hardware components that convey information from a

computer to the user.
 Monitors display visual output, allowing users to see text, images, and videos.
 Printers produce hard copies of digital documents and images.
 Speakers and headphones output audio from the computer.
 Projectors display computer output on large screens for presentations and
entertainment.
 Other output devices include plotters and braille readers for specialized uses.
 The quality of output devices affects the clarity and accuracy of the
information presented.
 Advances in display technology have led to high-resolution monitors and
immersive VR headsets.
 Output devices are crucial for making computer data accessible and usable to
humans.
 They often work in tandem with input devices to create a seamless user
experience.
 Evolution of Computer

 The history of computers dates back to early calculating devices like the
abacus.
 The first mechanical computers, such as Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine,
laid the groundwork for modern computing.
 The development of electronic computers began in the mid-20th century
with machines like the ENIAC.
 The invention of transistors and integrated circuits revolutionized computer
design, making them smaller and more powerful.
 The personal computer (PC) emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, bringing
computing to homes and offices.
 The advent of the internet in the 1990s connected computers globally,
leading to the information age.
 Mobile computing took off in the 2000s with smartphones and tablets,
making technology portable and accessible.
 Advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning are shaping the future
of computing.
 Quantum computing, still in its early stages, promises to solve complex
problems beyond the reach of classical computers.
 The evolution of computers is marked by continuous innovation, leading to
the powerful and versatile devices we use today.
Von Neumann Architecture

 The Von Neumann architecture is a computer design model that uses a single
storage structure for instructions and data.
 Named after John von Neumann, this architecture forms the basis of most
modern computers.
 It consists of four main components: the CPU, memory, input/output devices,
and communication channels.
 The CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes, and executes them.
 Memory stores both data and instructions, allowing the CPU to access them
as needed.
 Input devices provide data to the computer, while output devices display the
results of processing.
 Communication channels, such as buses, connect these components,
enabling data transfer.
 The architecture supports sequential execution of instructions, which
simplifies design and programming.
 One limitation is the "Von Neumann bottleneck," where the CPU's
performance is limited by the speed of memory access.
 Despite this, the Von Neumann architecture remains fundamental to
computer engineering.
 Computer Memory

 Computer memory is essential for storing data and instructions needed for
processing.

Primary Memory

1. Essential Component: Primary memory is crucial for a computer system as

programs and data must be loaded into it before processing can occur.
2. Direct CPU Interaction: The CPU interacts directly with primary memory to
perform read or write operations.
3. Types of Primary Memory: It consists of two types: Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
4. RAM Characteristics: RAM is volatile, meaning it retains data only while the
power is on. It temporarily stores data and programs needed for processing.
5. ROM Characteristics: ROM is non-volatile, meaning it retains its contents
even when the power is off. It stores permanent data, like the startup
program that loads the operating system.
6. Speed Comparison: RAM is faster than secondary memory and is usually
referred to as the main memory.

Cache Memory

1. Speed Enhancer: Cache memory is placed between the CPU and primary
memory to speed up CPU operations.
2. High-Speed Memory: It is a very high-speed memory that stores copies of
frequently accessed data from primary memory.
3. Reduced Access Time: By storing frequently accessed data, cache memory
reduces the average time required to access data from primary memory.
4. First Check by CPU: When the CPU needs data, it first checks the cache. If the
data is found, it is read from the cache, otherwise, it accesses the primary
memory.
5. Role in Performance: Cache memory plays a crucial role in improving the
overall performance and efficiency of the CPU by minimizing delays in data
access.

Secondary Memory
 1. Large Storage Capacity: Secondary memory offers a larger storage capacity
compared to primary memory, making it suitable for long-term data storage.
2. Non-Volatile: It is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even when the
computer is turned off.
3. Slower Access: Secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary
memory but cannot be accessed directly by the CPU.
4. Data Transfer Requirement: Data from secondary memory must be
transferred to primary memory for the CPU to access it.
5. Examples: Common examples of secondary memory devices include Hard
Disk Drives (HDDs), CDs, DVDs, memory cards, and modern Solid State Drives
(SSDs).
6. Portable Storage: The availability of portable and small-sized flash drives has
made data transfer between computers easier and more convenient.

S. Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

No.

Volatile memory is the Non-volatile memory is the

type of memory in which type of memory in which
1.
data is lost as it is data remains stored even if
powered-off. it is powered-off.

Contents of Volatile Contents of Non-volatile

2. memory are stored memory are stored
temporarily. permanently.

It is faster than non- It is slower than volatile

3.
volatile memory. memory.

RAM(Random Access ROM(Read Only Memory) is

4. Memory) is an example of an example of non-volatile
volatile memory. memory.

5. In volatile memory, data In non-volatile memory,

S. Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory
No.

can be easily transferred in data can not be easily

comparison to non-volatile transferred in comparison to
memory. volatile memory.

In Volatile memory,
In Non-volatile memory,
6. process can read and
process can only read.
write.

Non-volatile memory
Volatile memory generally generally has more storage
7.
has less storage capacity. capacity than volatile
memory.

In volatile memory, the In non-volatile memory, any

program’s data are stored kind of data which has to be
8.
which are currently in saved permanently are
process by the CPU. stored.

Volatile memory is more Non-volatile memory is less

9.
costly per unit size. costly per unit size.

Volatile memory has a Non-volatile memory has a

10. huge impact on the huge impact on a system’s
system’s performance. storage capacity.

In volatile memory, In non-volatile memory,

11. processor has direct access processor has no direct
to data. access to data.
 S. Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory
No.

Volatile memory chips are Non-volatile memory chips

12. generally kept on the are embedded on the
memory slot. motherboard.

Advantages- Advantages-

 Fast speed  More reliable

 Low power  Stores data
13. consumption permanently
 Better system  Inexpensive memory
performance as it  Helps in booting of
increases speed operating system

Disadvantages-

 Expensive Disadvantages-

14.  Limited storage space  Slow speed

 Stores data  Can only read data
temporarily

 Data Transfer Between Memory and CPU

Types of Buses

1. Data Transfer Mechanism: Data needs to be transferred between the CPU

and primary memory, as well as between primary and secondary memory.
This is accomplished using physical wires called buses.
2. Three Types of Buses:
1. Data Bus: Transfers data between different components.
 2. Address Bus: Transfers addresses between the CPU and main memory.
It specifies the memory location the CPU wants to read from or write
to.
3. Control Bus: Communicates control signals between different
components of a computer.
3. System Bus: The data bus, address bus, and control bus collectively form the
system bus, facilitating overall communication within the computer system.
4. Direct CPU Interaction: Since the CPU interacts directly with main memory,
any data from input devices or hard disks must be placed in the main
memory for processing.
5. CPU Address Specification: The CPU places the address of the main memory
location it wants to read or write on the address bus.
6. Control Signals: The CPU specifies read or write control signals through the
control bus while executing instructions.
7. Bidirectional Data Bus: The data bus is bidirectional, allowing data to be read
from or written to the main memory. In contrast, the control bus and address
bus are unidirectional.
8. Write Operation: To write data into memory, the CPU places the data on the
data bus, which is then written to the specified address provided via the
address bus.
9. Read Operation: During a read operation, the CPU specifies the address, and
the data is placed on the data bus by the memory controller.
10. Memory Controller Role: The memory controller manages the flow of data
into and out of the computer's main memory, ensuring efficient data transfer
between the CPU and memory.

 Microprocessors
  Microprocessors are the heart of modern computing devices, integrating the
functions of a CPU on a single chip.
 They perform a wide range of tasks, from simple calculations to complex
algorithms.

1. Historical Size of CPUs: Initially, a computer's CPU occupied a large room or

multiple cabinets, but technological advancements have significantly reduced
its physical size.
2. Microprocessor Development: A processor (CPU) implemented on a single
microchip is called a microprocessor. Nowadays, almost all CPUs are
microprocessors, and the terms are used synonymously.
3. Microprocessor Function: A microprocessor is a small-sized electronic
component inside a computer that performs data processing tasks, including
arithmetic and logical operations.
4. Integrated Circuits: Modern microprocessors are built on integrated circuits
containing millions of small components such as resistors, transistors, and
diodes.
5. Advancements in Microprocessors: Over time, microprocessors have evolved
with increased processing capabilities, reduced physical size, and lower costs,
now capable of processing millions of instructions per millisecond.

Microprocessor Specifications

1. Word Size: The maximum number of bits a microprocessor can process at a

time. Initially, it was 8 bits, but now ranges from 16 to 64 bits.
2. Memory Size: Linked to word size, the size of RAM has grown from very small
(4MB) to up to 16 Exabytes (EB) as word size increased.
3. Clock Speed: Indicates the speed at which a computer can execute
instructions, measured in pulses per second. Earlier measured in Hertz (Hz)
and Kilohertz (kHz), now it is in Gigahertz (GHz).
4. Cores: A core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Modern processors may
have multiple cores, such as dual-core, quad-core, and octa-core, enabling
multitasking and improved performance.

Microcontrollers

1. Definition: A microcontroller is a small computing device with a CPU, fixed

RAM, ROM, and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip, unlike
microprocessors which only have a CPU.
2. Applications: Used in various devices like keyboards, mice, washing machines,
digital cameras, pendrives, remote controllers, and microwaves.
3. Specific Tasks: Microcontrollers are designed for specific tasks, reducing their
size and cost.
4. Embedded Systems: Due to their small size, microcontrollers are embedded
in other devices or systems to perform specific functions, such as controlling
the washing cycle in automatic washing machines.
5. Automation: Microcontrollers enable repetitive execution of tedious tasks
automatically without human intervention, saving time.