Networking

Networking, in the context of computers, refers to the practice of connecting computers and other
devices together to share resources and communicate. This can include the sharing of files, internet access,
printers, and other peripherals, as well as the ability to communicate via email, messaging, or other protocols.

Key Aspects of Networking:

1. Connectivity: Establishing connections between devices using wired (Ethernet cables,

fiber optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) methods.
2. Communication: Enabling data exchange between connected devices through various
protocols and services.
3. Resource Sharing: Allowing multiple devices to access shared resources such as files,
printers, and internet connections.
4. Management: Monitoring, controlling, and securing the network to ensure optimal
performance and protection against threats.

Basic Networking Concepts

1. Network Types

LAN (Local Area Network): Connects computers within a small geographic area, such
as a single building or campus.

WAN (Wide Area Network): Connects LANs over large geographical areas, such as
cities, countries, or continents.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, typically within a city.

PAN (Personal Area Network): Connects devices within the range of an individual,
usually within a few meters (e.g., Bluetooth connections).

2. Networking Devices

Networking devices are hardware components that facilitate the communication and interaction
between different devices on a network.

1. Router

Function: Connects different networks and routes data packets between them. Routers
direct traffic based on IP addresses.

Use Case: Connecting a home network to the internet, linking office networks to each other
and to the internet.
Types: Home routers, enterprise routers, edge routers, core routers.

2. Switch

Function: Connects devices within the same network and uses MAC addresses to forward
data to the correct destination.

Use Case: Connecting computers, printers, and servers within a local area network (LAN).

Types: Unmanaged switches (simple, no configuration), managed switches (configurable for

network management), PoE (Power over Ethernet) switches.

3. Hub

Function: Basic device that connects multiple Ethernet devices, making them act as a single
network segment. It broadcasts data to all connected devices.

Use Case: Simple and small networks where bandwidth efficiency and collision domains are
not major concerns.

Types: Active hub (amplifies the signal), passive hub (does not amplify the signal).

4. Modem

Function: Modulates and demodulates signals for transmission over telephone lines, cable
systems, or satellite connections, allowing digital data to be sent over these mediums.

Use Case: Connecting to the internet via DSL, cable, or satellite.

Types: DSL modem, cable modem, satellite modem, fiber optic modem.

5. Access Point (AP)- Wireless access point

An access point (AP) in networking refers to a device that allows wireless devices to connect
to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless communication standards. Here
are the key aspects and functionalities of an access point:

Function: Provides wireless connectivity to a wired network, allowing Wi-Fi enabled devices
to connect.
Use Case: Extending wireless coverage within a home, office, or public space.

Types: Standalone access points, controller-based access points, mesh access points.

6. Gateway

Function: Acts as a node that connects two different networks, often involving different
protocols.

Use Case: Connecting a company’s network to external networks, such as the internet.

Types: Network gateways, protocol gateways, application gateways.

7. Repeater

Function: Receives and retransmits signals to extend the range of a network.

Use Case: Extending the reach of a network in large buildings or over long distances.

Types: Wi-Fi repeaters, Ethernet repeaters, optical repeaters.

8. Bridge

In networking, a bridge is a device that connects and filters traffic between two or more
network segments, allowing them to function as a single network. Here are the key aspects
and functionalities of a network bridge:

Function: Connects two separate networks and filters traffic between them based on MAC
addresses.

Use Case: Segmenting a large network into smaller, more manageable sections to reduce
traffic.

Types: Transparent bridges, translational bridges.

9. Firewall

Function: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on
predetermined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted network and an
untrusted network.
Use Case: Protecting an internal network from unauthorized access and cyber threats.

Types: Hardware firewalls, software firewalls, next generation firewalls (NGFW).

10. Network Interface Card (NIC)

Function: Hardware component that connects a computer to a network, enabling

communication.

Use Case: Providing network connectivity for desktop computers, laptops, and servers.

Types: Ethernet NICs, Wi-Fi NICs, fiber optic NICs.

11. Load Balancer

Function: Distributes network or application traffic across multiple servers to ensure no

single server becomes overwhelmed.

Use Case: Improving the performance and reliability of websites, databases, and
applications.

Types: Hardware load balancers, software load balancers.

12. Proxy Server

Function: Acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other
servers. It provides anonymity, content filtering, and improved performance.

Use Case: Enhancing security, controlling internet usage, and speeding up access to
frequently visited sites.

Types: Forward proxies, reverse proxies.

13. VoIP Devices

Function: Convert voice signals into digital data for transmission over IP networks.

Use Case: Facilitating voice communication over the internet.

 Types: VoIP phones, VoIP adapters, IPPBX systems.

14. Print Server

Function: Connects printers to client computers over a network, allowing multiple users to
share printers.

Use Case: Centralizing print management in offices and organizations.

Types: Hardware print servers, software print servers.

15. NAS (Network Attached Storage)

Function: Provides centralized storage that can be accessed by networked devices.

Use Case: Data storage and sharing in homes, offices, and enterprises.

Types: Home NAS, enterprise NAS.

3. Protocols

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The fundamental protocol suite

for the internet, responsible for data transmission.

HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring web pages on the
internet.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers on a network.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.

DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names to IP addresses.

IEEE Standards(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers )

IEEE 802 Overview and architecture of LAN/MAN.

IEEE 802.1 Standards related to network management

IEEE 802.2 Standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standard (CSMA/CD access method). – MAC Layer

IEEE 802.4 Token passing bus access methods and physical layer specifications. –
MAC Layer

IEEE 802.5 Token ring access methods and physical layer specifications. – MAC
Layer

IEEE 802.6 Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks

IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN.

IEEE 802.8 Fibre optics.

IEEE 802.9 Integrated services LAN

IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN/MAN security.

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN and Mesh (Wi-fi Certification)

IEEE 802.12 Demand-priority access method, in the physical layer,

IEEE 802.13 -Not Used-(Reserved for Fast Ethernet Development)

IEEE 802.14 Cable Modems

IEEE 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network

IEEE 802.16 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network

Wireless Standards and Speeds

Data transfer mode refers to the method by which data is transmitted between devices or
over a network. There are several modes of data transfer, each with its characteristics and use
cases:

1. Simplex: In simplex mode, data flows in only one direction, from the sender to the
receiver. There is no feedback mechanism, and communication is unidirectional.
Examples include keyboards and monitors, where data flows in only one direction.
2. Half Duplex: In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions, but not
simultaneously. Communication alternates between sending and receiving. It's like a
walkie-talkie, where one party speaks while the other listens, and then they switch
roles. Ethernet using CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) is an example of half-duplex communication.
3. Full Duplex: Full-duplex mode allows simultaneous bidirectional communication,
where data can be transmitted and received simultaneously. This mode offers higher
throughput compared to half-duplex. It's like a telephone conversation, where both
parties can speak and listen at the same time. Modern Ethernet networks typically
operate in full-duplex mode.
Network Topologies

Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

Bus Topology: All devices share a common communication line.

Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular format.

Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected, providing multiple pathways for data.
IP Addressing

IPv4: 32bit address format (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

IPv6: 128bit address format designed to replace IPv4 (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

Networking Concepts

Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer across a network path.

Latency: The delay before a transfer of data begins following an instruction.

Throughput: The actual rate at which data is successfully transferred.

Packet: A small unit of data transmitted over a network.

Subnetting: Dividing a network into smaller, manageable subnetworks.

Network Security

Firewall: A network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic.

VPN (Virtual Private Network): Creates a secure connection over the internet to a private
network.

Encryption: The process of converting data into a code to prevent unauthorized access.

Antivirus/Antimalware: Software designed to detect and remove malicious software.

Authentication: The process of verifying the identity of a user or device.

Wireless Networking

WiFi: Wireless technology that allows devices to connect to a network.

Bluetooth: Wireless technology for exchanging data over short distances.

NFC (Near Field Communication): Shortrange wireless communication for devices to

communicate when in close proximity.

Emerging Networking Technologies

5G: The fifth generation of mobile network technology, offering higher speeds and lower
latency.

IoT (Internet of Things): Network of physical objects embedded with sensors and software
to exchange data.

SDN (SoftwareDefined Networking): An approach to networking that uses softwarebased

controllers to manage network resources.

Edge Computing: Bringing computation and data storage closer to the location where it is
needed to improve response times.
Practical Networking Skills

Setting Up a Network: Configuring routers, switches, and access points.

Network Troubleshooting: Diagnosing and fixing network connectivity issues.

Network Monitoring: Using tools to monitor network performance and security.

Configuring Firewalls and VPNs: Setting up security measures to protect the network.
Network Models

ISO (International Standard Organization) – proposed an OSI Model

(Open System Interconnection model) that allows two systems to
communicate regardless of their architecture.

OSI Model – it is a model for understanding and designing a

network architecture that is flexible, robust, and compatible.

It consists of 7 layers; each layer defines a part of the process of

moving information across a network.

· Physical Layer:

 The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

 It deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium.
 Functions include transmitting raw data bits over a physical medium, defining the
electrical, mechanical, and procedural characteristics of the physical interface, and
managing the physical connection between devices.
· Data Link Layer:

 The Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node communication, ensuring that
data packets are delivered error-free and in sequence.
 It provides error detection and correction, as well as framing, addressing, and flow
control.
 Divided into two sublayers: LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access
Control).

· Network Layer:

 The Network Layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to the
destination across multiple network nodes.
 It handles logical addressing, such as IP addressing, and determines the best path for
data transmission.
 Key protocols include IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol).

· Transport Layer:

 The Transport Layer ensures reliable end-to-end communication between host

devices.
 It provides error recovery, flow control, and segmentation of data into smaller packets
for transmission.
 Key protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for connection-oriented
communication and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for connectionless
communication.

· Session Layer:

 The Session Layer establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions

between applications.
 It manages dialogue control, allowing multiple applications to communicate over the
network.
 Functions include session establishment, synchronization, and checkpointing.

· Presentation Layer:

 The Presentation Layer is responsible for data translation, encryption, and

compression.
 It ensures that data exchanged between applications is in a format that the application
layer can understand.
 Functions include data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression.

· Application Layer:

 The Application Layer provides network services directly to end-users and application
processes.
 It enables communication between different applications and supports various
network applications and protocols.
 Examples of protocols at this layer include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP
(File Transfer Protocol), and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).