Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-I LAB

TABLE OF CONTENTS

No Experiments
1 Layout of Mechanics of solids lab & Introduction to all apparatus
2 Determination of stresses on the members
3 Determination of strain on the members
4 Determination of shear force & bending moment diagram under one point
loading of beam of different materials
5 Determination of shear force & bending moment diagram under two point
loading of beam of different materials
6 Determination of shear force & bending moment diagram under point
loading of beam of different materials
7 Determination of deflection of pin connected frame
8 Determination of deflection of fixed frame
9 Determination of deflection of pin connected truss
10 Determination of experimental value of the tension in supporting cables of
suspension bridge
11 Determination of compressive strength of different specimens of concrete
12 Determination of tensile strength of steel sample

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 1
Layout of Mechanics of solids lab &
Introduction to all Apparatus

No Apparatus Name Location

1 Fatigue testing machine T1
2 Creep testing machine T2
3 Centre Of Gravity Apparatus T2
4 Strut Buckling Apparatus Between T2 & T3
5 Deformation of Frame Apparatus T3
6 Flywheel On wall near T2
7 Universal Truss Apparatus T4
8 Unsymmetrical Cantilever Beam T5
9 Shear Force and Bending Moment Apparatus T5
10 Suspension Bridge T6
11 Three Hinged Arc T7
12 Deformation of Curved Beam T8
13 Roof Truss Apparatus (2) T9 & T11
14 Torsion of Bar Apparatus T10
15 Vibration of Spiral Spring Apparatus On wall near T11
16 Moment of Inertia Apparatus Near T6
17 UTM (Universal Testing Machine) Between T6 & T7

Internal Details
Term Item No of Items Dimension (L*W)
T (1-11) Table 11 (6’) * (3’)
Ts Table 1 ( 3’ 4” )* (1’ 9”)
D1 Door 1 5’ 4”
D2 Door 1 5’ 9”
W1 Window 4 10’
W2 Window 2 4’ 2”
W3 Window 1 7’

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fatigue testing machine: -

Fatigue testing machines conduct tests by measuring
the force put onto the sample over many, many cycles until the sample fails. Fatigue
tests help to determine a test sample's life expectancy under actual service loads in
real-world applications. The elongation, impact, tearing and indentation tests performed
by fatigue testing machines are used to determine peak load, elongation percentage,
modulus of elongation, and yield to break, all of which are crucial factors for describing
a material's durability.

Fig(1.1) : Fatigue Testing Machine Apparatus

Creep testing machine: -

This simple machine uses specimens of lead and
different plastics which creep significantly at room temperature and under low loads. Its
main part is a simple lever (load beam) with a mechanical advantage of 8:1. The load
beam gives a steady and uniform tensile load. A digital indicator measures the
extension (creep) of the specimen under load. To ensure correct loading of the
specimen, the load beam has a ball-bearing pivot.

Fig(1.2) : Creep Testing Machine Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Centre Of Gravity Apparatus: -

A simple and economical apparatus for
demonstration of geometrical center of gravity of two-dimensional objects, PVC rod
mounted on a base with a suspension screw at the top, 4 clear acrylic laminas-circular,
triangular, square and trapezoidal. Each lamina has suspension holes along its periphery.
The point of intersection of lines drawn from the point of suspension of 2 or more holes of
a lamina gives the center of gravity of that lamina.

Fig(1.3) : Centre Of Gravity Apparatus

Strut Buckling Apparatus: -

The Universal Strut Apparatus has been developed
to enable students to carry out a series of tests to determine the crippling load for struts
of varying slenderness ratios and end fixing conditions. The apparatus has been
designed to accommodate struts of suitable lengths within the range 400 to 800 mm.
The struts are rectangular in cross section, thus ensuring that the deflection occurs in a
predetermined plane.

Fig(1.4) : Strut Buckling Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Deformation of Frame Apparatus: -

Deformation of frames apparatus
includes of a U-shaped frame and an S-shaped frame. For experiment one end of a
frame is clamped to a clamping pillar the other end is free that caused statically
determinate condition. Using a roller bearing at the non-clamped end creates statically
indeterminate frame. For loading 2 sets of weights are used that they are movable and
2 dial gauge indicate the deformation of frame under load. Main frame of the apparatus
is made of anodized aluminum that enables to move elements easily.

Fig(1.5) : Deformation Of Frame Apparatus

Flywheel: -
A flywheel is a mechanical device which uses the conservation of angular
momentum to store rotational energy; a form of kinetic energy proportional to the
product of its moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed.

Fig(1.6) : Flywheel Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Universal Truss Apparatus: -

Apparatus consists of 4 panels of a PRATT truss,
each panel being 40cm in horizontal direction and 30cm in vertical direction. Load can
be applied on each panel point. All tension members are provided with detachable
springs so as to obtain appreciable deformation of the member. Direction of the
diagonal members may be changed. Apparatus can be used to illustrate visually the
nature of forces set up in various members of the Truss. Apparatus is supplied complete
with a supporting stand an d a set of weights.

Fig(1.7) : Universal Truss Apparatus

Unsymmetrical Cantilever Beam: -

The Unsymmetrical Cantilever Apparatus
allows students to load a cantilever and accurately measure its deflection in any
coplanar direction. Students mount a test beam vertically in a frame. The top of the test
beam fixes to a holding ring that can rotate through 360 degrees.

Fig(1.8) : Unsymmetrical Cantilever Beam Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Shear Force and Bending Moment Apparatus: -

Shear Forces occurs
when two parallel forces act out of alignment with each other. At any point within a
beam, the Bending Moment is the sum of: each external force multiplied by the distance
that is perpendicular to the direction of the force.

Fig(1.9) : Shear Force And Bending Moment Apparatus

Suspension Bridge: -
Apparatus consists of two mild steel cables 0.5cm diameter
in cross section and 150cm long, pinned to two supports 90cm apart situated
symmetrically. One of the ends can be converted to a roller by applying a known load at
the end with the help of suspended pulley system.

Fig(1.10) : Suspension Bridge Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Three Hinged Arc: -

A three-hinged arch consists of a curved beam mounted on
two fixed supports, and usually featuring the so-called crown hinge at its crown. The
hinges on the two fixed supports absorb vertical and horizontal forces, and are known
as abutment hinges.

Fig(1.11) : Three Hinged Arc Apparatus

Deformation of Curved Beam: -

This apparatus is design to demonstrate
phenomena of deflection in a curved bar. In this apparatus dial gauge is attached to the
frame to calculate the extent of deflection. The study of how curved bars deflect is thus,
important so as to estimate the total mechanical displacement of structures that
incorporate curved sections. One of the more effective methods used to estimate
deflections in curved bars come from Castiglione’s first theorem or from a unit-load
method.

Fig(1.12) : Deformation Of Curved Beam Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Roof Truss Apparatus: -

The basic roof truss consists of two rafters or struts and
a restraining tie. Both rafters are pivoted at their apex. The other end of one of the
rafters is pivoted to a free standing base, whilst the remaining rafter end runs on ball
bearings along a track.

Fig(1.13) : Roof Truss Apparatus

Torsion of Bar Apparatus: -

Torsion Of Bars Apparatus. The torsion head and
chuck are used to apply torsional loads to the specimen. A rotation scale and pointer
can be attached to any point on the specimen's length to find the angle of twist of the
specimen.

Fig(1.14) : Torsion Of Bar Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Vibration of Spiral Spring Apparatus: -

This unit is designed to determine
the time period of spiral spring and its frequency. Spiral spring is a type of spring which
is formed by a metallic strip wound around a rod at same point. The apparatus consists
of a shaft on which the spiral spring is attached. A metallic rod, containing masses at its
edges, is used to deflect the shaft. The deflection can be measured through a protector
and the extent to which the spring was deflected initially can also be found.

Fig(1.15) : Vibration Of Spiral Spring Apparatus

Moment of Inertia Apparatus: -

This apparatus uses the three-string pendulum
method to determine the moment of inertia of a rigid body. A photoelectric sensor
combined with a time counting device is used to measure the torsional oscillation period
of a hanging plate. Through the experiments, students can understand the physical
principle of the moment of inertia and learn the measurement method with factors
related to the amount of moment of inertia.

Fig(1.16) : Moment Of Inertia Apparatus

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

UTM (Universal Testing Machine): -

A Universal testing machine (UTM) is
used to test the mechanical properties (tension, compression etc.) of a given test
specimen by exerting tensile, compressive or transverse stresses. The machine has
been named so because of the wide range of tests it can perform over different kind of
materials. Different tests like peel test, flexural test, tension test, bend test, friction test,
spring test etc. can be performed with the help of UTM.

Fig(1.17) : Universal Testing Machine

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 2

Determination of Stresses on the members

Objective: -
The objective of the job is to measure the stress in the members to study
types of stress or effect of stress and member.

Apparatus: –
• Hooke’s Law Apparatus
• Weight Hanger
• Weight Hanger
• Vernier Caliper

Weight Weight

Hanger

Fig(2.1) : Hooke’s Law Apparatus, Weights and Hangers

Fig(2.2) : Vernier Caliper and its parts

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Stress: -
The external force divided by the area to which the force is applied is equal to the
internal reaction is called Stress. If stability is maintained. Therefore, unit is same as for
pressure Pascal (N/m2). Common units are Mega-Pascal (N/mm2 ) or GPa (KNmm-2).
The six major types of stress are:
• Compression
• Tension
• Shear
• Bending

Compression Stress: -
Compression stress is the result of axially-loaded forces
pointing towards the center of an object. There are two major issues with compression
stress: Compression forces can cause an object to shorten, or they can cause an object
to buckle. When an object buckles, it bends in such a way that it can no longer hold the
load, even though structurally speaking, the object can hold more stress than is applied
to it.
Shear Stress: -
Shear stress is caused when the forces applied to an object are
parallel to the object's cross-section. This stress can cause the object to deform and, in
some cases, pull apart. As the object deforms, it changes. The shape of the object can
change, which can affect how the object withstands other forces.
.
Tension Stress: -
Tension stress is caused when axially-loaded forces are pulling
away from an object's center, and perpendicular to the object's surface. Tension stress
can cause lengthening of an object. There are several materials, concrete for example,
where the object can only withstand a fraction of the stress when the object is in
compression.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Bending Stress: -
Bending stress is seen in longitudinally-loaded objects. The forces
cause the object to bend, usually in a downward direction.

Formula: -

σ=P/A
Where,
P=Applied force
A=Cross-Sectional Area
σ =Stress
Procedure: –
1. First of all arrange all related apparatus on a table.
2. Then check the zero error of Vernier Scale.
3. Measure the diameter of diameter of spring with Vernier Scale.
4. Calculate the area of the in mm2.
5. Then apply different loads on spring with the help of weight hangers with load
applied on spring, the spring will be stretched.
6. After this process, calculate the stress with different weights with the help of
formula in different units.
7. Repeat same procedure for different loads.

Fig(2.3) : During Performing Job in lab

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(2.4) : During Performing Job in lab

Observations and Calculations: -

Sr Weight Diameter 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒅𝟐 /𝟒 σ = P / A σ = PSi
No (N) (N/mm2)
1 5 12.10 115 0.044 6.381
2 10 12.10 115 0.087 12.617
3 15 12.10 115 0.131 18.998
4 20 12.10 115 0.174 25.234

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 3
Determination of Strain on the members
Objective: -
1. How to calculate strain?
2. Effect under different loads?
3. Relation between Stress and Strain?

Apparatus: –
• Hooke’s Law Apparatus
• Weight Hanger
• Weight Hanger
• Scale

Scale

Weight
Hanger Weight

Fig(3.1) : Hooke’s Law Apparatus, Weights and Hangers

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Strain: -
It is the deformation produced in the material due to simple stress. It usually
represents the displacement between particles in the body relative to a reference
length. Types of strain:

Compressive strain: -
Strain measure under compressive loading is known as
compressive strain. It tends to increase the cross-section area and decrease the length
of the body.

Fig(3.2) : Compressive Strain

Tensile Strain: -
Strain measure under tensile loading is known as tensile strain. It
tends to decrease the cross section and increase the length of the body.

Fig(3.3) : Tensile Strain

Shear Strain: -
When the shear stress is applied on a body, it tends to deform the shape
of the body as shown in the figure. The change in tangential angle in the direction of the
loading is called shear strain.

Fig(3.4) : Shear Strain

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Formula: -
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 (𝐒𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞,𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡) − 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 (𝐒𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞,𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡)
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 (𝐒𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞,𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡

Procedure: –
• First of all arrange all related apparatus on a table.
• ( Use same loads as in above job so we can relate stress and strain according to
respective loads.)
• Take reading without any load.
• Then apply different loads on spring with the help of weight hangers with load
applied on spring, the spring will be stretched.
• After this process, calculate the strain with different weights with the help of
formula.
• Repeat same procedure for different loads.

Fig(3.5) : During Lab performance of job

Observations and Calculations: -

Original Length = Lo = 20
Stretched Length = L1 = 21.5
Change in Length = ɸL = L1 - Lo =1.5
Strain = ɸL / Lo = 0.075
Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Sr Weight Original Stretched Change in Strain (ɸL Stress

No (N) Length (L0) Length (L1) Length (ɸL) / L0)
1 5 20 0 0 0 6.381
2 10 20 21.5 1.5 0.075 12.617
3 15 20 23 3 0.15 18.998
4 20 20 25 5 0.25 25.234

Relation b/w Stress and Strain: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 4

Determination of Shear Force & Bending Moment

Diagram under three Point Loading of Beam of
different Materials
Objective: -
1. To determine flexural strength of given beam
2. To study the effect of loading on different beams of different materials
3. To check load carrying capacity of beams of different materials

Apparatus: -
1. UTM(Universal Testing Machine with1000 kN capacity)
2. Measuring Tape / Scale

Fig(4.1) : Measuring Tape and UTM

Sample / Material: -
1. PCC Beam (100*100*500)
2. RCC Beam (100*100*500)
3. Wooden Beam (100*100*500)

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Shear Force: –
The shear force at any point along a loaded beam may be defined as
the algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on the beam.
The net effect of the shear force is to shear off the beam along with the point at which it
is Acting Shear force is taken +ve if it produces a clockwise moment and it is taken -ve
when it produces an anticlockwise moment.
Bending Moment: –
Bending moment at any point along a loaded beam may be defined
as the sum of the moments due to all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on
the beam. The bending moment tries to bend the beam. Clockwise moments due to
loads acting to the left of the section are assumed to be +ve, while anticlockwise
moments are taken -ve.

Sign Convention Used For Shear Force And Bending Moment

Shear Force: -
Force acting in the right-hand side of the section in the upward
direction is taken -ve and force in the right-hand side of the section acting in the
downward direction is taken as +ve. Similarly, a force in the left-hand side of the section
is taken +ve if it is acting in an upward direction and it is taken as negative if it is acting
in a downward direction.

Bending Moment: -
First of all remove all the loads and reactions from any one side
of the section. Now introduce each load and reaction one at a time and find its effect in
the section. A bending moment that causes concavity upwards is taken +ve and called a
sagging bending moment. A bending moment that is causing convexity upwards is
taken -ve and called a hogging bending moment.

Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams

Fig(4.2) : Shear force and bending moment diagram

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

A shear force diagram shows the shear force at every section of the beam due to
transverse loading on it. Its baseline is equal to the span of the beam, drawn on a
suitable scale. For point loads S.F. diagram has a straight horizontal line, for UDLC
Uniformly Distributed Load, It has straight inclined lines, and for uniformly varying loads
it has a parabolic curve.
A bending moment diagram is a diagram which shows the bending moment at every
section of the beam due to transverse loading on it. In the case of a simply supported
beam bending moment is zero at the ends, and for a cantilever, it is zero at the free
end. For point loads, the B.M. diagram has straight inclined lines, for UDL, it has a
parabolic curve and for the uniformly varying load, it has a cubic curve.

What is beam?
A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the
lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the (beam) axis is called a beam.
The loads act transversely to the longitudinal axis, which produces the shear
forces and bending moment. The lateral load acting on beams is the main cause of the
bending of the beam. They are responsible for transferring a load from the slab to the
column. The load distribution pattern is,
Slab |> Beam |> Column |> Foundation
That beam is connected with the column, and this connection is called direct
support, while the beam connects with the beam, which is called indirect support.

Types: -
• Simply Supported beams
• Cantilever beams
• Fixed beams
• Over hanging
• Continuous beam

Fig(4.3) : Types of beams

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Purpose of beams: -
It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting its
bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete (RCC)or steel. We use it
in structure to

• Resist loads
• Counter bending moment and shear forces.
• Connect the frame together.
• Provide a uniform distribution of loads.

Importance of Beams: -
Beams support the weight of a building's floors, ceilings
and roofs and to move the load to the framework of a vertical load bearing element. In
order to withstand the combined weight of stacked walls and transfer the support load,
often larger and heavier beams called transfer beams are used.

Sample Preparation
Wooden Beam: -
Bought a wooden beam from timber market according to my
required dimensions of (500*100*100) mm.

Fig(4.4) : Wooden beam Sample

PCC & RCC Beam: -

For the preparation of PCC beam of required dimensions (Length*Width*Hight)
(500*100*100) mm we will calculate the volume of concrete which will be mm3 .

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝛒=
𝑉
𝐦=𝐕𝛒
Mass Calculation,

Volume = 𝐕 = 100mm ∗ 100mm ∗ 500mm

Density = 𝛒 = 2300
100m 100m 500m
Mass = 𝐦 = ∗ ∗ ∗ 2300
1000 1000 1000
𝐦 = 11.5 kg = 12kg

Ratio = 1 : 2 : 4
Total sum = 1+2+4 =7
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
General formula, ∗ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑘𝑔)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚

1
Cement = ∗ 12 = 1.75 kg
7

2
Sand = ∗ 12 = 3.5 kg
7

4
Aggregate = ∗ 12 = 7 kg
7

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚
Water Cement Ratio = ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
100

7
Water = ∗ 1.75 = 1.25 kg
100

• Mix the cement, sand and aggregate using water.

• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine.
• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine. Order of filling is

1st Layer >> Steel Cage + 2nd Layer >> 3rd Layer

• Next day remove from mold and put it in water tank for curing for 28 days.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(4.5) : PCC and RCC beams Sample preparation

Procedure: -

• Measure the exact dimensions of the sample before placing it on UTM.

• Calculate exact Volume of sample.

Volume = Length * Width * Hight

• Adjust the support for required distance and clamp the lower table.
• Fix the roller of the transverse test brackets such that the load comes at center
and measure the length of span which is mm after putting the wooden
beam sample in UTM jaws.
• The load 1 kN/sec by using software of UTM.
• Note the peak load when wooden beam is breaking or being cracked.
• Note deflection from the screen of computer.

Fig(4.6) : Job performance in Lab

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(4.7) : Computer screen showing of UTM showing Max load

Observation and Calculations: -

For Volume,

507 + 506 + 504 + 505

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 505.5𝑚𝑚
4
98 + 99 + 98 + 99
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = = 98.5𝑚𝑚
4
98 + 97 + 97 + 98
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = = 97.5𝑚𝑚
4

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

3𝑃𝐿
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑀𝑃𝑎) =
𝑏∗𝑑∗𝑑
Where,

P = load

L = Span length

Sr Sample Length Width Hight Load (N) Fluxural Strength

No Type (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)=3PL/bd2
1 Wooden 505 97.5 98.5 87650 112.58
2 PCC 504 105 104 8600 91.77
3 RCC 503 107 99 34550 39.83

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 5

Determination of Shear Force & Bending Moment

Diagram under four Point Loading of Beam of different
Materials
Objective: -
4. To determine flexural strength of given beam
5. To study the effect of loading on different beams of different materials
6. To check load carrying capacity of beams of different materials

Apparatus: -
3. UTM(Universal Testing Machine with1000 kN capacity)
4. Measuring Tape / Scale

Fig(5.1) : Measuring Tape and UTM

Sample / Material: -
4. PCC Beam (100*100*500)
5. RCC Beam (100*100*500)
6. Wooden Beam (100*100*500)

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Shear Force: –
The shear force at any point along a loaded beam may be defined as
the algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on the beam.
The net effect of the shear force is to shear off the beam along with the point at which it
is Acting Shear force is taken +ve if it produces a clockwise moment and it is taken -ve
when it produces an anticlockwise moment.
Bending Moment: –
Bending moment at any point along a loaded beam may be defined
as the sum of the moments due to all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on
the beam. The bending moment tries to bend the beam. Clockwise moments due to
loads acting to the left of the section are assumed to be +ve, while anticlockwise
moments are taken -ve.

Sign Convention Used For Shear Force And Bending Moment

Shear Force: -
Force acting in the right-hand side of the section in the upward
direction is taken -ve and force in the right-hand side of the section acting in the
downward direction is taken as +ve. Similarly, a force in the left-hand side of the section
is taken +ve if it is acting in an upward direction and it is taken as negative if it is acting
in a downward direction.

Bending Moment: -
First of all remove all the loads and reactions from any one side
of the section. Now introduce each load and reaction one at a time and find its effect in
the section. A bending moment that causes concavity upwards is taken +ve and called a
sagging bending moment. A bending moment that is causing convexity upwards is
taken -ve and called a hogging bending moment.

Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams

Fig(5.2) : Shear force and bending moment diagram

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

A shear force diagram shows the shear force at every section of the beam due to
transverse loading on it. Its baseline is equal to the span of the beam, drawn on a
suitable scale. For point loads S.F. diagram has a straight horizontal line, for UDLC
Uniformly Distributed Load, It has straight inclined lines, and for uniformly varying loads
it has a parabolic curve.
A bending moment diagram is a diagram which shows the bending moment at every
section of the beam due to transverse loading on it. In the case of a simply supported
beam bending moment is zero at the ends, and for a cantilever, it is zero at the free
end. For point loads, the B.M. diagram has straight inclined lines, for UDL, it has a
parabolic curve and for the uniformly varying load, it has a cubic curve.

What is beam?
A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the
lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the (beam) axis is called a beam.
The loads act transversely to the longitudinal axis, which produces the shear
forces and bending moment. The lateral load acting on beams is the main cause of the
bending of the beam. They are responsible for transferring a load from the slab to the
column. The load distribution pattern is,
Slab |> Beam |> Column |> Foundation
That beam is connected with the column, and this connection is called direct
support, while the beam connects with the beam, which is called indirect support.

Types: -
• Simply Supported beams
• Cantilever beams
• Fixed beams
• Over hanging
• Continuous beam

Fig(5.3) : Types of beams

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Purpose of beams: -
It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting its
bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete (RCC)or steel. We use it
in structure to

• Resist loads
• Counter bending moment and shear forces.
• Connect the frame together.
• Provide a uniform distribution of loads.

Importance of Beams: -
Beams support the weight of a building's floors, ceilings
and roofs and to move the load to the framework of a vertical load bearing element. In
order to withstand the combined weight of stacked walls and transfer the support load,
often larger and heavier beams called transfer beams are used.

Sample Preparation
Wooden Beam: -
Bought a wooden beam from timber market according to my
required dimensions of (500*100*100) mm.

Fig(5.4) : Wooden beam Sample

PCC & RCC Beam: -

For the preparation of PCC beam of required dimensions (Length*Width*Hight)
(500*100*100) mm we will calculate the volume of concrete which will be mm3 .

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝛒=
𝑉
𝐦=𝐕𝛒
Mass Calculation,

Volume = 𝐕 = 100mm ∗ 100mm ∗ 500mm

Density = 𝛒 = 2300
100m 100m 500m
Mass = 𝐦 = ∗ ∗ ∗ 2300
1000 1000 1000
𝐦 = 11.5 kg = 12kg

Ratio = 1 : 2 : 4
Total sum = 1+2+4 =7
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
General formula, ∗ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑘𝑔)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚

1
Cement = ∗ 12 = 1.75 kg
7

2
Sand = ∗ 12 = 3.5 kg
7

4
Aggregate = ∗ 12 = 7 kg
7

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚
Water Cement Ratio = ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
100

7
Water = ∗ 1.75 = 1.25 kg
100

• Mix the cement, sand and aggregate using water.

• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine.
• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine. Order of filling is
• 1st Layer >> Steel Cage + 2nd Layer >> 3rd Layer
• Next day remove from mold and put it in water tank for curing for 28 days.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(5.5) : PCC and RCC beams Sample preparation

Procedure: -

• Measure the exact dimensions of the sample before placing it on UTM.

• Calculate exact Volume of sample.

Volume = Length * Width * Hight

• Adjust the support for required distance and clamp the lower table.
• Fix the roller of the transverse test brackets such that the load comes at center
and measure the length of span which is mm after putting the wooden
beam sample in UTM jaws.
• The load 1 kN/sec by using software of UTM.
• Note the peak load when wooden beam is breaking or being cracked.
• Note deflection from the screen of computer.

Fig(5.6) : Job performance in Lab

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(5.7) : Computer screen showing of UTM showing Max load

Observation and Calculations: -

For Volume,

507 + 506 + 504 + 505

Average Length = = 505.5mm
4
98 + 99 + 98 + 99
Average Width = = 98.5mm
4
98 + 97 + 97 + 98
Average Hight = = 97.5mm
4

Volume = Ave Length ∗ Ave Width ∗ Ave Hight

3PL
Fluxural Strength (MPa) =
b∗d∗d

Where,

P = load

L = Span length

Sr Sample Length Width Hight Load (N) Fluxural Strength

No Type (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)=3PL/bd2
1 Wooden 505 97.5 98.5 184300 236.72
2 PCC 504 105 104 2575 2.74
3 RCC 503 107 99 15975 18.42

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 6
Determination of Shear Force & Bending Moment
Diagram under Uniformly distributed Loading of Beam
of different Materials
Objective: -
1. To determine flexural strength of given beam
2. To study the effect of loading on different beams of different materials
3. To check load carrying capacity of beams of different materials

Apparatus: -
• UTM(Universal Testing Machine with1000 kN capacity)
• Measuring Tape / Scale

Fig(6.1) : Measuring Tape and UTM

Sample / Material: -
7. PCC Beam (100*100*500)
8. RCC Beam (100*100*500)
9. Wooden Beam (100*100*500)

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Shear Force: –
The shear force at any point along a loaded beam may be defined as
the algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on the beam.
The net effect of the shear force is to shear off the beam along with the point at which it
is Acting Shear force is taken +ve if it produces a clockwise moment and it is taken -ve
when it produces an anticlockwise moment.
Bending Moment: –
Bending moment at any point along a loaded beam may be defined
as the sum of the moments due to all vertical forces acting on either side of the point on
the beam. The bending moment tries to bend the beam. Clockwise moments due to
loads acting to the left of the section are assumed to be +ve, while anticlockwise
moments are taken -ve.

Sign Convention Used For Shear Force And Bending Moment

Shear Force: -
Force acting in the right-hand side of the section in the upward
direction is taken -ve and force in the right-hand side of the section acting in the
downward direction is taken as +ve. Similarly, a force in the left-hand side of the section
is taken +ve if it is acting in an upward direction and it is taken as negative if it is acting
in a downward direction.

Bending Moment: -
First of all remove all the loads and reactions from any one side
of the section. Now introduce each load and reaction one at a time and find its effect in
the section. A bending moment that causes concavity upwards is taken +ve and called a
sagging bending moment. A bending moment that is causing convexity upwards is
taken -ve and called a hogging bending moment.

Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams

Fig(6.2) : Shear force and bending moment diagram

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

A shear force diagram shows the shear force at every section of the beam due to
transverse loading on it. Its baseline is equal to the span of the beam, drawn on a
suitable scale. For point loads S.F. diagram has a straight horizontal line, for UDLC
Uniformly Distributed Load, It has straight inclined lines, and for uniformly varying loads
it has a parabolic curve.
A bending moment diagram is a diagram which shows the bending moment at every
section of the beam due to transverse loading on it. In the case of a simply supported
beam bending moment is zero at the ends, and for a cantilever, it is zero at the free
end. For point loads, the B.M. diagram has straight inclined lines, for UDL, it has a
parabolic curve and for the uniformly varying load, it has a cubic curve.

What is beam?
A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the
lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the (beam) axis is called a beam.
The loads act transversely to the longitudinal axis, which produces the shear
forces and bending moment. The lateral load acting on beams is the main cause of the
bending of the beam. They are responsible for transferring a load from the slab to the
column. The load distribution pattern is,
Slab |> Beam |> Column |> Foundation
That beam is connected with the column, and this connection is called direct
support, while the beam connects with the beam, which is called indirect support.

Types: -
• Simply Supported beams
• Cantilever beams
• Fixed beams
• Over hanging
• Continuous beam

Fig(6.3) : Types of beams

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Purpose of beams: -
It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting its
bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete (RCC)or steel. We use it
in structure to

• Resist loads
• Counter bending moment and shear forces.
• Connect the frame together.
• Provide a uniform distribution of loads.

Importance of Beams: -
Beams support the weight of a building's floors, ceilings
and roofs and to move the load to the framework of a vertical load bearing element. In
order to withstand the combined weight of stacked walls and transfer the support load,
often larger and heavier beams called transfer beams are used.

Sample Preparation
Wooden Beam: -
Bought a wooden beam from timber market according to my
required dimensions of (500*100*100) mm.

Fig(6.4) : Wooden beam Sample

PCC & RCC Beam: -

For the preparation of PCC beam of required dimensions (Length*Width*Hight)
(500*100*100) mm we will calculate the volume of concrete which will be mm3 .
Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝛒=
𝑉
𝐦=𝐕𝛒
Mass Calculation,

Volume = 𝐕 = 100mm ∗ 100mm ∗ 500mm

Density = 𝛒 = 2300
100m 100m 500m
Mass = 𝐦 = ∗ ∗ ∗ 2300
1000 1000 1000
𝐦 = 11.5 kg = 12kg

Ratio = 1 : 2 : 4
Total sum = 1+2+4 =7
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
General formula, ∗ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑘𝑔)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚

1
Cement = ∗ 12 = 1.75 kg
7

2
Sand = ∗ 12 = 3.5 kg
7

4
Aggregate = ∗ 12 = 7 kg
7

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚
Water Cement Ratio = ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
100

7
Water = ∗ 1.75 = 1.25 kg
100

• Mix the cement, sand and aggregate using water.

• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine.
• This mixture fill in the mold layer by layer and compact it by using vibrating
machine. Order of filling is

1st Layer >> Steel Cage + 2nd Layer >> 3rd Layer

• Next day remove from mold and put it in water tank for curing for 28 days.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(6.5) : PCC and RCC beams Sample preparation

Procedure: -

• Measure the exact dimensions of the sample before placing it on UTM.

• Calculate exact Volume of sample.

Volume = Length * Width * Hight

• Adjust the support for required distance and clamp the lower table.
• Fix the roller of the transverse test brackets such that the load comes at center
and measure the length of span which is mm after putting the wooden
beam sample in UTM jaws.
• The load 1 kN/sec by using software of UTM.
• Note the peak load when wooden beam is breaking or being cracked.
• Note deflection from the screen of computer.

Fig(6.6) : Job performance in Lab

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Fig(6.7) : Computer screen showing of UTM showing Max load

Observation and Calculations: -

For Volume,

507 + 506 + 504 + 505

Average Length = = 505.5mm
4
98 + 99 + 98 + 99
Average Width = = 98.5mm
4
98 + 97 + 97 + 98
Average Hight = = 97.5mm
4

Volume = Ave Length ∗ Ave Width ∗ Ave Hight

3PL
Fluxural Strength (MPa) =
b∗d∗d

Where,

P = load

L = Span length

Sr Sample Length Width Hight Load (N) Fluxural Strength

No Type (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)=3PL/bd2
1 Wooden 505 97.5 98.5 953 1.22
2 PCC 504 105 103 114.63 0.125
3 RCC 504 104 104 168.53 0.181

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 7
Determination of Deflection Of Pin Connected Frame
Objective: -
• Determine the deflection in frame
• To study the effect and to study the point of applications of different loading

Apparatus: –
• Deformation of frame apparatus
• Scale / Ruler / Measuring Tape
• Hanger
• Weights

Fig(7.1) : Deformation of frame apparatus with weights, hangers and dial gauges

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Frames: -
Different types of frame structures are available that have been used in
building construction. They are classified into two major types namely
rigid frame structure and braced frame structure. A Frame structure is a structure
having the combination of beam, column and slab to resist the lateral and gravity loads.

Frame structures types: -

Frames structures can be categorized as:
1. Rigid frame structure
Which can be further differentiated as:
• Fixed ended
• Pin ended
2. Braced frame structure:
Classification:
• Portal frames
• Gabled frames
Rigid Structural Frame: -
The word rigid implies the ability to stand the deformation.
Rigid frame structures can be defined as the structures having columns & beams, made
monolithically & acting together to tolerate the moments which are producing as a result
of applied load.

Rigid frame structures offer further stability. These kinds of frame structures bear
the moment, shear & torsion more efficiently as compared to any other type of frame
structures. This is the reason, why this frame system is utilized in world’s most amazing
structure Burj Al-Arab.

Fig(7.2) : Rigid frame structure

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Braced Structural Frames: -

With this frame system, bracing are commonly
provided between columns & beams to surge their resistance besides the sideways
forces and lateral forces because of an applied load. Bracing is typically done by
positioning the diagonal members amid the columns & beams.

This frame system offers more effective resistance against the wind forces &
earthquake and is also more effective than the rigid frame system.

Fig(7.3) : Braced frame structure

Procedure: -
1. First of all, set the S-shaped frame which have one end is fixed and other in
connected to pin type support.
2. After fixing its ends on both side set up dial gauge at its top and side of frame
3. Set zero on both dial gauges.
4. Now attach a hanger on the top side and measure its length from both sides.
5. Now apply the weight on hanger and note down reading.
6. Then I apply the loads of 5N, 10N, 15N and 20N on hanger.
7. Then change the position of hanger and note readings.
8. Similarly repeat the same process for different loads and positions and note
down all readings.

Fig(7.4) : During performing and observing deflection

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Observations and Calculations: -

Least count of dial gauge is 0.01mm. maximum
reading of dial gauge is 20mm. Total top length of top is 59cm.
Applied load = 5N
Distance 31cm / 28cm
Dial gauge reading = 2
Deflection = 2 * 0.01mm
Deflection = 0.02mm

Distance Applied Load Deflection / Deformation

Top Side
52.5 – 6.5 5N 0.14mm 0.7mm (Inward)
52.5 – 6.5 10 N 0.13mm 0.12mm (Inward)
52.5 – 6.5 15 N 0.70mm 0.20mm (Inward)
40.30 – 18.70 5N 0.03mm 0.03mm
40.30 – 18.70 10 N 0.02mm 0.09mm
40.30 – 18.70 15 N 0.09mm 0.14mm

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 8
Determination of Deflection of Fixed Frame
Objective: -
• Determine the deflection in frame
• To study the effect and to study the point of applications of different loading

Apparatus: –
• Deformation of frame apparatus
• Scale / Ruler / Measuring Tape
• Hanger
• Weights

Fig(8.1) : Deformation of frame apparatus with weights, hangers and dial gauges

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Frames: -
Different types of frame structures are available that have been used in
building construction. They are classified into two major types namely
rigid frame structure and braced frame structure. A Frame structure is a structure
having the combination of beam, column and slab to resist the lateral and gravity loads.

Frame structures types: -

Frames structures can be categorized as:
1. Rigid frame structure
Which can be further differentiated as:
• Fixed ended
• Pin ended
2. Braced frame structure:
Classification:
• Portal frames
• Gabled frames
Rigid Structural Frame: -
The word rigid implies the ability to stand the deformation.
Rigid frame structures can be defined as the structures having columns & beams, made
monolithically & acting together to tolerate the moments which are producing as a result
of applied load.

Rigid frame structures offer further stability. These kinds of frame structures bear
the moment, shear & torsion more efficiently as compared to any other type of frame
structures. This is the reason, why this frame system is utilized in world’s most amazing
structure Burj Al-Arab.

Fig(8.2) : Rigid frame structure

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Braced Structural Frames: -

With this frame system, bracing are commonly
provided between columns & beams to surge their resistance besides the sideways
forces and lateral forces because of an applied load. Bracing is typically done by
positioning the diagonal members amid the columns & beams.

This frame system offers more effective resistance against the wind forces &
earthquake and is also more effective than the rigid frame system.

Fig(8.3) : Braced frame structure

Procedure: -
• First of all, I set up U-shaped steel frame kept both ends fixed.
• Fix the two dial gauges on top and side of the frame.
• Make sure to set up dial gauge to zero.
• Now attach a hanger on the top of frame and measure the distance from ends of
top side.
• Apply different weights of 5N, 10N, 15N etc. and note down the reading on dial
gauges.
• Now change the position of hangers and apply different loads and note down all
readings one by one.

Fig(8.4) : During performing and observing deflection

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Observations and Calculations: -

Least count of dial gauge is 0.01mm.
maximum reading of dial gauge is 20mm. Total top length of top is 59cm.
Applied load = 5N
Distance 31cm / 28cm
Dial gauge reading = 17
Deflection = 17 * 0.01mm
Deflection = 0.17mm

Distance Applied Load Deflection / Deformation

Top Side
15/30 5N 0.08mm 0.04mm
15/30 10 N 0.16mm 0.09mm
15/30 15 N 0.25mm 0.16mm
6/24 5N 0.03mm 0.02mm
6/24 10 N 0.06mm 0.05mm
6/24 15 N 0.09mm 0.9mm

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 9
Determination of Deflection of Pin Connected Truss
Objective: -
• To find force in roof truss apparatus
• Effect of change of load on member of roof truss apparatus
Apparatus: –
• Roof Truss Apparatus
• Hanger
• Spring Balance

Fig(9.1) : Roof Truss Apparatus with weights, hangers and dial gauges

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
TRUSS: -
Trusses are simply defined as triangulation of members to make the
stabilized structure. Triangulation is the stable configuration mathematically. Generally, a
truss has the members called as top chord, bottom chord, vertical chord and diagonal
chord. The main functions of the trusses are
1. Carrying the loads from the over structures
2. Providing adequate lateral stability to the entire structure

Fig(9.2) : Truss Structure

There are some basic assumptions in the designing process. It should be clarified
that the construction of the trusses should conform with the design assumptions to avoid
the unwanted failures due to the dispersion of the forces and loads. Following are the
assumptions in truss design.

Fig(9.3) : Forms of Trusses

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

1. Truss members will carry only the axial forces

2. The nodes i.e the connections of the members are designed as pinned joints so
that moments won’t be transferred to the members of the truss
3. All the external loads and the reactions are act only on the nodes
4. Generally, the truss should be in a plane.

Typically the members of the trusses are made as I sections, angles, T sections, Tube
sections, Square sections and channel sections. I sections are more preferable as a
optimized section in terms of the structural forces.

TYPES OF TRUSSES: -
1. Simple truss – indicates a single triangular truss. These trusses are
most often used as the roof trusses.
2. Planar truss – as the name implies it is a two-dimensional truss. If all
the members and the nodes are in a planar surface, then this truss is
a planar truss.
3. Space frame truss – Contrast to planar truss, the members and the
nodes are located in the three-dimensional space. Electrical and
telecom towers are the one of the simplest examples that we are
seeing in the day-to-day life.

Fig(9.4) : Types of trusses

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Procedure: -
• First, I set up the roof truss apparatus.
• Then attach a hanger on top joint of truss apparatus.
• Now I apply different loads on hanger and note down reading.
• Repeat same procedure for different loads and note down all readings.

Fig(9.5) : During performing job

Observations and Calculations: -

No Load Initial Reading Final Reading F (g) F (kg)
1 0 500 500 0 0
2 10 500 800 300 0.3
3 15 500 1000 500 0.5
4 20 500 1150 650 0.65

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 10
Determination of Experimental Value of the Tension in
Supporting Cables of Suspension Bridge
Objective: -
• To determine the tension in cables of suspension bridge
• To study the effect of change of load on tension of cables

Apparatus: –
• Suspension Bridge Apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights

Fig(10.1) : Suspension bridge apparatus with hangers and weights

Related Theory
Bridge: -
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle, such as a body of water,
valley, or road, without closing the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of
providing passage over the obstacle, usually something that is otherwise difficult or
impossible to cross.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

7 Different Types of Bridges: -

• Arch Bridge.
• Beam Bridge.
• Cantilever Bridge.
• Suspension Bridge.
• Cable-Stayed Bridge.
• Tied-Arch Bridge.
• Truss Bridge.
Cable Bridge: -

Fig(10.2) : Cable bridges structures

There are two type of cable bridges: -
• Cable-stayed bridge
• Cable Suspension Bridge

Cable-Stayed Bridge: -
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which
cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run
directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of
parallel lines.

Fig(10.3) : Cable-Stayed Bridge

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Cable Suspension Bridge: -

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck
is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The basic structural
components of a suspension bridge system include stiffening girders/trusses, the main
suspension cables, main towers, and the anchorages for the cables at each end of the
bridge. The main cables are suspended between towers and are finally connected to the
anchorage or the bridge itself, and vertical suspenders carry the weight of the deck and
the traffic load on it. Like other cable supported bridges, the superstructure of suspension
bridges is constructed without false work as the cable erection method is used. The main
load carrying member is the main cables, which are tension members made of high-
strength steel.

Fig(10.4) : Cable Suspension Bridge

Procedure: -
• Check the apparatus of suspension bridge
• The is no load as suspension bridge
• Now apply the load on both ends on hangers for example it is 4N on one side
and 4N on other side.
• Now for making the arch portion of bridge in equilibrium position apply the load
on bridge on specific point balance. It should be 5N on one side and 5N on other
side and 2N on center. Now it is balance.

Fig(10.5) : During Lab performance of job

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 11
Determination of Compressive Strength of Different
Specimens of Concrete
Objective: -
• To determine the compressive strength of concrete specimens
• To compare the compressive strength of different specimens

Apparatus: –
• Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
• Scale / Ruler

Fig(11.1) : UTM and meter rule

Samples Used: -
• Cube (100mm * 100mm * 100mm)
• Cube (150mm * 150mm * 150mm)
• Cylinder (Diameter = 150mm * Hight = 300mm)

Fig(11.2) : Samples od cubes and cylinder

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Related Theory
Compressive Strength: -
Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress
that, under a gradually applied load, a given solid material can sustain without fracture.
The formula for calculating compressive strength is:

Compressive Strength = Force / Area

Where in compressive strength (CS) is equal to the force (F) at the point of failure
divided by the cross-sectional area. Compressive strength tests must be performed with
equal opposing forces on the test material. Test materials are normally in cylinders, cubes
or spheres.

Fig(11.3) : Compressive Load / Force

Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform

irreversibly. Compressive strength is a key value for designing structures. The
compressive strength of concrete is the most common performance measurement used
by engineers when designing buildings and other structures.

What is the Compressive Strength?

Compressive strength is the ability to carry
loads of material or structure on its surface without any cracking or deformation. An object
under compression will reduce in size and, under tension, the size will continue to
lengthen.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

Importance of Compressive Strength in Concrete: -

Concrete is a mixture of sand, cement
and aggregate. The concrete strength depends on the individual compressive strength of
its components (cement, sand, aggregates), the quality of the materials used, curing
methods, water-cement ratio, the ratio of air entrainment mixture and many other factors.
Effects of temperature.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

The Compressive strength test helps us to know the overall strength and the
above factors. By conducting this test, one can easily determine the strength psi of the
concrete and the quality of the concrete being produced.
The Concrete Cube Test will give compressive strength of concrete which gives
an idea of all the properties of concrete. By this unique test, we can decide whether the
concreting was done correctly or not.
The compressive strength of concrete ranges from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa
(4400 psi) for residential concrete and is high in commercial structures. Some applications
use forces greater than 10,000 psi (70 MPa).

Procedure: -
• Take the cubes and cylinder from concrete lab which were already casted and
cured.
• Keep the sample of concrete cube on UTM. Clamp the jaws and apply the load
gradually.
• After applying the load wait for its failure.
• When cracks appear on concrete cube sample note the peak value from
computer screen.
• Repeat this procedure for remaining samples of cube and cylinder and note
down peak loads from computer screen.

Fig(11.4) : Samples during and after performing job

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Observations and Calculations: -

Volume = Length*Wight*Hight
V = L*W*H
Compressive Strength = Force / Area

C.S = F/A

Area of Cube = Length = L2

Area of Cylinder = π/4 * D2

Area of Cube (150mm * 150mm * 150mm) = (150)2 = 22500 mm2
Load of Failure = 348000 N
C.S = F/A = 348000/22500 = 12.2MPa
C.S (PSi) = 12.2 * 145.02 = 2243PSi

Fig(11.5) : Computer screen showing of UTM showing Max load

No Sample Size(mm) Load Area C.S (F/A) C.S

Type (N) (mm2) (MPa) (PSi)

1 Cube 100mm*100mm*100mm 122000 10000 12.2 1769

2 Cube 150mm*150mm*150mm 348000 22500 15.47 2243
3 Cylinder (Diameter=150mm) 160350 17671 9.07 1315
*(Hight=300mm)

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
 Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Job # 12
Determination of Tensile Strength of Steel Sample
Objective: -
• To Determine Tensile Strength of Steel Sample

Apparatus: -
• UTM
• Vernier caliper

Fig(12.1) : UTM and Vernier Caliper

Related Theory

Fig(12.2) : General Stress Strain curve of steel sample

Proportional Limit: -
The proportional limit is the maximum stress that a dental material
sustains without any deviation, or the magnitude of elastic stress above which plastic
deformation occurs. So, the proportional limit is defined as the highest stress at which the
stress-strain curve is a straight line.

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Elastic Limit: -
Elastic limit, maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material
that can arise before the onset of permanent deformation. When stresses up to the elastic
limit are removed, the material resumes its original size and shape. Stresses beyond the
elastic limit cause a material to yield or flow.
Yield Point: -
Yield point, in mechanical engineering, load at which a solid material that
is being stretched begins to flow, or change shape permanently, divided by its original
cross-sectional area; or the amount of stress in a solid at the onset of permanent
deformation.
Ultimate Strength: -
The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the engineering
stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a
structure in tension.
Rupture Strength: -
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate
strength or tensile strength. Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture.
This is also known as the breaking strength.

Actual Rupture Strength: -

Nominal stress developed in a material at rupture. It is not
necessarily equal to ultimate strength. And, since necking is not taken into account in
determining rupture strength, it seldom indicates true stress at rupture.
Procedure: -
• Initially the steel sample is cleaned and gauge.
• Measure the diameter of steel sample using vernier caliper.

Fig(12.3) : During checking tensile stress using UTM

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

• Open or adjust the upper and lower jaws of UTM according to the length of steel
sample.
• Now grip the steel bar and start applying the tension using UTM controlling
computer.
• Now observe the computer screen it will elongate with increasing the stresses.
• At a point the steel bar will break and note that reading it will be termed as
breaking load.

Observations and Calculations: -

Diameter =14 mm
Load = 66310 N
Area = (3.14 / 4) *142
Area = 153.95 mm2
Tensile Strength = Load / Area
Tensile Strength = 6310 / 153.95
Tensile Strength = 430.72 N/mm2

No Applied Diameter Area Tensile Strength MPa*145.02

Load (mm) (mm2) L/A=MPa (N/mm2) =Psi
1 66310 14 153.95 430.72 62463
2 210500 25 493.93 428.88 62180
3 87400 16 201.08 434.65 63033

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10
Submitted To: Engr Waqas Aziz

Remarks: -

Composed By:
Farhan Zafar | BECV-023R20P-10