ECOCRITICISM

Ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary field of literary and cultural studies that emerged in the late 20th century. It focuses on the
relationship between literature, culture, and the environment. Ecocriticism emerged in the 1960s with the start of the
environmental movement and the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962, but really began to take off in the 1980s.
Different tropes of ecocriticism include- pastoral, wilderness, and ecofeminism.

WILDERNESS-

Wilderness examines the ways in which the wilderness is constructed, valued, and engaged with. The word “wilderness” derives
from the Anglos-Saxon “wilddeoren”, where “deoren” or beasts existed beyond the boundaries of civilization. So useful is the word
“wild” to designate the realms of the “deoren” that neither its spelling nor its meaning has changed in a millennium and a half. In
both British and American cultures, the idea of wilderness can be categorized into a few common themes. There are two branches
of wilderness ecocriticism: Old World and New World.

Old World wilderness portrays wilderness as a place as a threat or a place of “exile”, as we find in stories from the Bible and early
British culture. In early American literature, this Old-World wilderness is sometimes associated with demonic activities. In the
earliest Western Eurasian documents, such as ‘The Epic of Gilgamesh’, depict wilderness as a threat. The Judaic scriptures view it
with ambivalence at its best. After ejection from Eden, wilderness is a place of exile. However, Abraham led his people through
wilderness and found a nation and Moses led the people of Israel through the wilderness to return home. The ambivalence of the
Judeo-Christian approach towards wilderness had been replaced by outright hostility in early modern literature. Thomas Burnet in
his ‘ Sacred Theory of the Earth’ [1648] explained mountain ranges as an outcome of God’s displeasure with mankind.

New World portrays the wilderness as a place of sanctuary where one can find relaxation and reflection, similar to classical
pastoral ecocriticism. This is how wilderness is depicted in later American literature. This portrayal of wilderness has had a
significant influence on the American identity and often suggests that encountering the wilderness can lead to a more genuine way
of living or an “authentic existence”. Thoreau is perhaps one of the most iconic figures in American nature writing. His works,
particularly "Walden" and “Maine Woods” can be considered early examples of wilderness tradition, where he talks about the
landscape of America. Thoreau’s most enthusiastic disciple, John Muir is known for his advocacy of wilderness preservation. His
writings, including "My First Summer in the Sierra" and "The Yosemite," played a crucial role in the establishment of the national
parks system in the United States. The key figures in modern American wilderness writing are Thoreau and Muir in the nineteenth
century and Mary Austin, Aldo Leopold, and Edward Abbey in the twentieth century.

The wilderness is frequently depicted as a place of sublime beauty and awe-inspiring landscapes. This theme is evident in works
like Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein," where the Arctic wilderness serves as a backdrop for the tragic narrative, emphasizing the
power and mystery of nature. Wilderness can serve as a metaphor for inner journeys and personal quests. Characters navigating
through the wilderness may undergo psychological and emotional transformations, mirroring their internal struggles. The journey
through the wilderness becomes a metaphor for self-discovery and growth. This theme is evident in works like Cheryl Strayed's
"Wild," a memoir of a woman's solo hike along the Pacific Crest Trail. In some literature, the wilderness takes on mythical or
folkloric qualities. It becomes a space where magical or supernatural events unfold, blurring the lines between reality and fantasy.
This theme is present in fantasy literature like J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings," where characters venture into wild,
enchanted landscapes. In dystopian literature, the wilderness can symbolize the aftermath of societal collapse or environmental
catastrophe. These settings explore the consequences of human actions on the natural world and may depict a desolate, post-
apocalyptic wilderness. Cormac McCarthy's "The Road" is an example where a father and son navigate a bleak, post-apocalyptic
landscape.

Throughout literature, wilderness embodies the unknown, a realm where characters grapple with challenges, embark on spiritual
journeys and confront the dichotomy between civilization and the wild. The idea of wilderness in literature extends beyond a mere
physical landscape and often carries symbolic, metaphorical, and cultural significance.
PASTORAL

The pastoral trope is a significant concept in ecocriticism. It is found primarily in British and American literature, focuses on the
dichotomy between urban and rural life, often idealizing nature and rural life and demonizing urban life. Greg Garrard identifies
three broad branches of ‘pastoral’- Classical pastoral, Romantic pastoral and American pastoral.

Classical pastoral ecocriticism primarily centers on works like "Idylls" by Theocritus, Virgil's "Eclogues" (Bucolics), and the works of
later pastoral poets such as Ovid and Spenser. These poets often depicted shepherds and shepherdesses in natural landscapes.
Classical pastoral poetry typically idealizes nature and rural life. The natural world is portrayed as a tranquil and harmonious place,
in contrast to the complexities of urban society. The word “idyll” was originally “small picture” but came to be represented as a
rural landscape. “bucolic” derives its meaning from “boukolos” meaning cowherd and “pastoral” comes from the Latin term
“pastor” meaning shepherd. In Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’, pastoral Eden is influenced by Graeco-Roman models.

Romantic pastoral ecocriticism focuses on the analysis of pastoral literature from the Romantic period. It is characterized by
portraying rural independence as desirable. The Romantic movement emerged as a response to the Industrial Revolution and
romantics celebrated nature, imagination, and emotional expression, and this is reflected in their pastoral literature. This
sentiment is evident in the works of William Wordsworth like "Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey,” “The Prelude”
and “Michael.” Compared to Wordsworth, John Clare is often considered to be a true poet of nature.

The American pastoral trope refers to the representation of nature and rural landscapes in American literature. American
ecocriticism identified Henry David Thoreau as a key figure. The most influential work in American ecocriticism is Laurence Buell’s
‘The Environmental Imagination’, which provides a thorough critique of pastoral depiction in American fiction. The American
pastoral trope is deeply connected to the idea of the expansion of the United States westward. American pastoral trope has been
employed by writers from various backgrounds, such as indigenous, African-American, and Hispanic.

Ecocriticism deepens our understanding of the environment through literature and culture. In today's world, where we face
serious environmental problems, ecocriticism serves as an important way to help us connect more deeply with nature. It inspires
us to care about the environment and make positive changes in how we treat the natural world.