AMITY INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, SECTOR-46, GURUGRAM

Knowledge Reseource
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Respiration is the oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to release energy for biological

Breathing Respiration

a. It is simply an intake of fresh air and a. It is the oxidation of food to form carbon dioxide,
removal of foul air. water and energy.
b. It is a physical process. b. It is a biochemical process.
c. No energy is released. c. Energy is released in form of ATP.
d. It is an extracellular process. d. It is an intracellular process.
work.Breathing is the exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS
 General body surface: E.g. lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms etc).
 Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous respiration): E.g. earthworms, leech, amphibians etc.
 Tracheal tubes: E.g. insects, centipede, millipede, spider.
 Gills (Branchial respiration): E.g. fishes, tadpoles, prawn.
 Lungs (Pulmonary respiration): E.g. most vertebrates.

The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cell is
called breathing. It occurs in two stages of inspiration and expiration. During inspiration
air enters the lungs from atmosphere and during expiration air leaves the lungs.
Respiratory Organs – Mechanism of breathing varies in different organism according to

Respiratory Organs Organisms

Entire Body surface Sponges, coelenterate, flatworms.

Skin Earthworm.

Tracheal system Insects

Gills Pisces, aquatic arthropods.

Lungs Amphibians, mammals.

their body structure and habitat.
Human Respiratory System
 Human respiratory system consists of a pair of nostrils, pharynx, larynx, bronchi
and bronchioles that finally terminates into alveoli.
 Nasal chamber open into pharynx that leads to larynx. Larynx contains voice
box (sound box) that help in sound production.
 The trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial bronchioles are
supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings to prevent collapsing in absence
of air.
 Each bronchiole terminates into an irregular walled, vascularized bag like
structure called alveoli.

 The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli collectively form the
lungs.
 Two lungs are covered with double layered pleura having pleural fluid between
them to reduce the friction on lung surface.

 Conducting parts include nostrils, pharynx, larynx and trachea. Main functions
include-
1. Transport of atmospheric air to alveoli.
2. Removing foreign particles from air, humidifying it and bringing it to body
temperature.
  The exchange parts are alveoli. It is the site of actual diffusion of and C
between blood and atmospheric air.
Steps of Respiration
1. Breathing in which Oxygen rich atmospheric air is diffused in and C rich
alveolar air is diffused out.
2. Diffusion of gases across alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gases by blood.
4. Diffusion of and C between blood and tissues.
5. Utilization of by cells to obtain energy and release of C (cellular
respiration).
Mechanism of Breathing
 Breathing involves inspiration and expiration. During inspiration atmospheric air
is drawn in and during expiration, alveolar air is released out.
 Movement of air in and out takes place due to difference in pressure gradient.
 Inspiration occurs when pressure inside the lung is less and expiration occurs
when pressure is more in lungs than outside.
 The diaphragm and external and internal intercostal muscles between the ribs
help in developing pressure gradient due to change in volume.

 The contraction of intercostal muscles lifts the ribs and sternum causing an
increase in volume of thoracic cavity that results in decrease in pressure than the
atmospheric pressure. This causes inspiration.
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles reduce the thoracic volume
and increase the pressure causing expiration.
 The volume of air involved in breathing movements is estimated by
using spirometer for clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
Respiratory Volume and Capacities
Tidal volume (TV) – volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It is
about 500mL in healthy man.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – additional volume of air a person can inspire by
forceful inspiration. It is about 2500 mL to 3000mL.
Expiatory Reserve Volume (ERV) – additional volume of air a person can expire by
forceful expiration. It is about 1000 mL to 1100mL.
Residual Volume (RV) – volume of air remaining in lungs even after a forcible
expiration. It is about 1100mL to 1200mL.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – TV + IRV
Expiratory Capacity (EC) – TV + ERV
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – ERV + RV
Vital Capacity (VC) – maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forceful
expiration. ERV+ TV+ IRV
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) – total volume of air accommodated in lung at the end of
forced inspiration. RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV or Vital capacity + Residual Volume.
Exchange of Gases
 Exchange of gases takes place at two sites
1. Alveoli to blood
2. Between blood and tissues.
 Exchanges of gases occur by simple diffusion due to pressure/ concentration
gradient, solubility of the gases and thickness of membrane.
 Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas is called partial
pressure represented by pC and p .
 Partial pressure of Oxygen and carbon dioxide at different part involved in
diffusion varies from one part to another and moves from higher partial pressure
to lower partial pressure.
 Solubility of C is 20-25 times more than solubility of , so C diffuse much
faster through membrane.
 Diffusion membrane is three layered thick, that is alveolar squamous epithelium,
endothelium of alveolar capillaries and basement substance between them.
Transport of Gases
 Blood is the medium of transport for C and . Most of oxygen (97%) is
transported through RBC and remaining 3% by blood plasma.
 20-25% of C is transported by RBC, 70% as bicarbonate and rest 7% in
dissolved state by blood plasma.
Transport of Oxygen
 Haemoglobin in RBC combines with to form Oxyhaemoglobin. Each
haemoglobin combine with four oxygen molecules.
 Binding of is related with partial pressure of and , hydrogen ion
concentration and temperature.
 Percentage saturation of haemoglobin and partial pressure of oxygen forms
sigmoid curve (oxygen dissociation curve).
 In the alveoli, p is more and pC is less, less H+ ions concentration and
lower temperature favour the binding of with hemoglobin. Where opposite
condition in tissues favour the dissociation of Oxyhaemoglobin.
Transport of Carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is transported by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin. In
tissues pC is high and p is less that favour the binding of carbon dioxide
with haemoglobin. Opposite condition help in dissociation of carbamino-
haemoglobin in alveoli.
 Enzyme carbonic anhydrase help in formation of carbonate ions to transport
carbon dioxide.
Regulation of Respiration
 Human beings have ability to maintain and moderate the rate of respiration to
fulfill the demand of body tissues by neural system.
 Respiratory rhythm centre is located in medulla region of hind
brain. Pneumotaxic centre in pons moderate the function of respiratory rhythm
centre.
  Chemo-sensitive area near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to C and H+ ions
that ultimately control the respiratory rate. Oxygen do not play major role in
controlling rate of respiration.
Functions of Respiration–
1. Energy production
2. Maintenance of acid-base balance.
3. Maintenance of temperature
4. Return of blood and lymph.
Mountain Sickness is the condition characterised by the ill effect of hypoxia (shortage
of oxygen) in the tissues at high altitude commonly to person going to high altitude for
the first time.
Symptoms-
 Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting occurs due to expansion of gases in
digestive system.
 Breathlessness occurs because of pulmonary oedema.
 Headache, depression, disorientation, lack of sleep, weakness and fatigue.
Disorder of Respiratory System
1. Asthma– it is due to allergic reaction to foreign particles that affect the
respiratory tract. The symptoms include coughing, wheezing and difficulty in
breathing. This is due to excess of mucus in wall of respiratory tract.
2. Emphysema– is the inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchioles or
alveolar sacs of lungs. This occurs due to destroying of septa between alveoli
because of smoking and inhalation of other smokes. The exhalation becomes
difficult and lung remains inflated.
3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders– occurs due to occupation of individual.
This is caused by inhalation of gas, fumes or dust present in surrounding of work
place. This includes Silicosis, Asbestoses due to exposer of silica and asbestos.
The symptom includes proliferation of fibrous connective tissue of upper part of
lung causing inflammation.
4. Pneumonia– it is acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lungs due
to bacterium streptococcus pneumoniae. Alveoli become acutely inflamed and
most of air space of the alveoli is filled with fluid and dead white blood
corpuscles limiting gaseous exchange
 Body Fluids And Circulation
Body fluids are the medium of transport of nutrients, oxygen and other important
substances in the body.

Blood is the most commonly used body fluid in most of the higher organisms.
Lymph also transports certain substances like protein and fats.

Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of a fluid matrix, plasma and the blood
corpuscles. It forms about 30-35% of the extracellular fluid. It is slightly alkaline
fluid having pH7.4.
 Plasma is straw coloured viscous fluid that constitutes 55% of blood
volume. It consists of 90-92% water, 6-8% protein (fibrinogens, albumins
and globulins), glucose, amino acids and small amount of minerals like Na+,
Ca++, Cl– etc.
 Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed
elements.
 Erythrocytes are most abundant cells in human body. Total blood count of
RBCs is 5-5.5 million, which is slightly less in females due to menstruation.
It is formed in bone marrow. Nucleus is absent in mammalian RBCs having
biconcave shape.
 Every 100 ml of blood contain 12-16 gm. of haemoglobin. They have life
span of 120 days. They are destroyed in spleen( graveyard of RBCs)
 Leucocytes or WBCs are colourless due to absence of haemoglobin. 6000-
8000 of WBCs are present in each ml. of blood.

 Neutrophils are most abundant and basophils are least abundant WBCs.
Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign
organisms.
  Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin and heparin that are involved in
inflammatory reactions.
 Eosinophils resist infection and allergic reactions. B and T lymphocytes are
responsible for immune response of the body.
Thrombocytes or platelets are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes in
bone marrow. 150000-350000 platelets are present in each ml of blood. Platelets
are involved in clotting or coagulation of blood in case of injuries.
Blood Groups – blood of human beings differ in certain aspects although it appear
same in all individuals. Two main types of grouping are ABO and Rh.
ABO grouping is based on presence or absence of two surface antigens RBC,
antigen A and antigen B. The plasma of an individual also contains two antibodies
produced in response of antigens.

 During blood transfusion, blood of donor has to be matched with blood of

recipients to avoid clumping of RBCs.
 Group ‘O’ blood can be donated to any individual with any blood group, so
it is called universal donor.
 Person with ‘AB’ blood group can receive blood from any person of any
group, so it is called universal recipient.
Rh grouping – Rh antigen (similar to Rhesus monkey) are observed on surface of
RBCs of majority of individuals (about 80%). Such people are called Rh positive (
) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative ( ).
 Erythroblastosis foetalis– if father blood is Rh+ and mother blood is ,
the foetus blood is Rh+. During the delivery of first child there is a
possibility of exposure of mother blood with foetus blood to develop
antibodies in mother blood. In subsequent pregnancy the mother’s blood can
leak into foetus blood and destroy the foetus RBC. This case is called
erythroblastosis foetalis.
Coagulation of blood (Blood Clotting)
When an injury is caused to a blood vessel bleeding starts which is stopped by a
process called blood clotting. An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in the
blood to release certain factors that activate the mechanism of coagulation.
Calcium play important role in blood clotting.

Lymph
During flow of blood through capillaries, some water soluble substances move out
in the space between cells of tissues. This fluid released out is called interstitial
fluid or tissue fluid. It is similar to the blood but has fewer blood proteins, less
calcium and phosphorus and high glucose concentration.

 It is a colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes that provide

immune response to body.
 Main function of lymph is to provide immunity, carry proteins and fats
molecules and transport oxygen, food materials, hormones etc.
Circulatory Pathways
  All vertebrates have a muscular chambered heart.
Fish – 2 chambered heart

Amphibian and Reptiles (except crocodile) – 3 chambered heart.

Crocodile, Birds and Mammals – 4 chambered heart.

Human Circulatory System – consists of 4 chambered muscular heart, closed

branching blood vessels and circulatory fluid blood.
Heart is the mesodermally derived muscular organ, present in thoracic cavity
between the two lungs protected by double membrane of pericardium.

 The upper two chamber is called atria and lower two chambers are
called ventricles. Interatrial septum separate the right and left atrium and
thick walled inter ventricle septum separate the ventricles.
 The opening between right atrium and right ventricle is guarded by a three
muscular flaps called tricuspid valve. Bicuspid or mitral valve guards the
left atrium and ventricle.
 The opening of right and left ventricle to pulmonary artery and aorta
respectively is controlled by semilunar valve.
 The nodal tissue present on upper right corner of right atrium is called SAN
(sino-atrial node) and those on lower left corner of right atrium is
called AVN ( atrio-ventricular node).
 The purkinje fibres along with right and left bundles form the bundle of
HIS. The nodal musculature has ability to generate action potential.
 SAN generate maximum number of action potential and is responsible for
rhythmic contraction of heart. Therefore it is called pace maker.
Cardiac Cycle
 To begin with, all four chambers are in relaxed state called joint diastole.
As the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open, blood from pulmonary vein
and vena cava flows to left and right ventricle respectively. Semilunar valves
are closed at this stage.
  SA node generates action potential that contracts both atria (atrial systole).
The action potential passes to AV node and bundle of HIS transmit it to
ventricular musculature to cause ventricular systole. At the same time atria
undergoes relaxation diastole to close the bicuspid and tricuspid valve.
 Semilunar valves open into circulatory system that relax the ventricle and
close the valves to prevent back flow of blood.
 As the pressure inside ventricle decreases the bicuspid and tricuspid valve
open to repeat the process or cardiac cycle.
 During each cardiac cycle two sounds are produced. The first sound (lub) is
due to closure of bicuspid and tricuspid valve and 2nd heart sound (dub) is
due to closure of semilunar valve.
ECG (Electrocardiograph) is a graphical representation of electrical activity of
heart during cardiac cycle. The electrocardiograph machine is used to obtain
electrocardiogram. The patient is connected to three electrical leads to wrists and
left ankle.

 The P-wave represents the electrical excitation of atria (depolarisation)

which leads to contraction of atria.
 The QRS-wave represents the depolarisation of ventricles, which initiates
the ventricular contraction.
 The T-wave represents the return of ventricle from exited to normal state
(repolarization). The end of T-wave marks the end of systole. Counting the
number of QRS complex in given period of time determine the heartbeat
rate.
Double Circulation
Flow of same blood twice through the heart once in oxygenated form and other in
deoxygenated form is called double circulation. It includes systematic and
pulmonary circulation.

Systematic circulation includes flow of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle
to all parts of body and deoxygenated blood from various body parts to the right
atrium. All systematic circulation starts form aorta and ends at superior vena cava,
inferior vena cava or coronary sinus to right atrium.
The systematic circulation provides oxygen, nutrients and other substances to the
tissues and take CO2 and other harmful substances away for removal.

Pulmonary Circulation
The flow of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and the return
of oxygenated blood from the lung to the left atrium is called pulmonary
circulation.

Two pulmonary veins from each lung transport the oxygenated blood to the left
atrium.

Double circulation prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Regulation of Cardiac Activity

 Normal activities of heart are regulated by nodal tissue (SA and AV node),
so the heart is myogenic.
 A special neural centre in medulla oblongata moderates the cardiac function
by ANS. Sympathetic nerve can increase the rate of heart beat and
parasympathetic nerve of ANS decrease the rate of heart beat.
 Adrenal medullary hormone also increases the cardiac output.
Disorder of Circulatory System
1. Hypertension (high blood pressure) – Blood pressure higher than (120/80) .
120 mm Hg is the systolic that is pumping pressure and 80 mm Hg is the
diastole, resting pressure. It leads to heart disease and affect vital organs like
brain and kidney.
2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)- commonly called atherosclerosis that
affects the blood vessels that supply blood to heart muscles due to deposition
of fat, calcium, cholesterol that makes the arteries lumen narrower.
3. Angina- also called angina pectoris, acute chest pain due to less supply of
oxygen to heart muscles. It may occur in elderly male and female. It occurs
due to restricted blood flow.
4. Heart failure– heart does not pump enough blood to meet the requirement
of body. It is also known as congestive heart failure because congestion of
lung is one of its causes. Heart failure is different from heart attack ( heart
muscle is damaged by inadequate blood supply) and cardiac arrest ( when
heart stops beating).
5. Coronary Thrombosis- formation of clot in the coronary artery is coronary
thrombosis. It occurs most frequently in the left anterior descending
coronary artery