BASIC HARDWARE MAINTENANCE

COM 223

General Objectives
1. Understand basic laboratory practice and safety.
2. Understand the basic electric theory.
3. Understand the function of circuit components.
4. Understand basic general measuring equipment.
5. Understand integrated circuit and terminologies.
6. Understand preventative maintenance of hardware components.
7. Understand diagnostic techniques involved in corrective maintenance.
8. Understand computer installation procedure.

BALOGUN, O.T.
 General Computer Laboratory Safety
Do’s
1. Know the location of the fire extinguisher and the first aid box and how to use them in case of
an emergency.
2. Read and understand how to carry out an activity thoroughly before coming to the laboratory.
3. Report fires or accidents to your lecturer/laboratory technician immediately.
4. Report any broken plugs or exposed electrical wires to your lecturer/laboratory technician
immediately.
5. Know emergency exit routes.

Don’ts
1. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
2. Avoid stepping on electrical wires or any other computer cables.
3. Do not open the system unit casing or monitor casing particularly when the power is turned on.
Some internal components hold electric voltages of up to 30000 volts, which can be fatal.
4. Do not insert metal objects such as clips, pins and needles into the computer casings. They may
cause fire.
5. Do not remove anything from the computer laboratory without permission.
6. Do not touch, connect or disconnect any plug or cable without your lecturer/laboratory
technician’s permission.
7. Do not misbehave or distract other users in the computer laboratory.

Computer Lab Safety Rules for Protecting Equipment

1. Do not bring any food or drinks near the machine.
2. Turn off the machine once you are done using it.
3. Do not plug in external devices without scanning them for computer viruses.
4. Ensure that the room temperature stays cool, since there are a lot of machines inside a lab to
avoid overheating these machines. This is one of the many ways of ensuring computer safety.
5. Try not to touch any of the circuit boards and power sockets when a device is connected to
them and switched on.
6. Always maintain a backup of all your important data files and the extra copy is not in the same
location as the primary copy.
7. Computers and instrumentation should be labelled to indicate whether gloves should be worn
or not. Inconsistent glove use around keyboards/keypads is a source of potential
contamination.
8. Designated and well-marked waste storage locations are necessary.
9. Use equipment only for its designated purpose.
10. Determine the potential hazards and appropriate safety precautions before beginning any
work.
11. All equipment should be regularly inspected for wear or deterioration.
12. Equipment should be maintained according to the manufacturer’s requirements and records of
certification, maintenance, or repairs should be maintained for the life of the equipment.

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General safety guidelines to be followed at all times
1. All users of the laboratory are to follow the directions of academic/laboratory technical staff
member.
2. Food or drink is not permitted at any time in the laboratory.
3. Students should not attempt to repair, open, tamper or interfere with any of the computer,
printing, cabling, air conditioning or other equipment in the laboratory.
4. Students should be aware of office ergonomic guidelines for correct posture when using
computer equipment.
5. Please treat fellow users of the laboratory, and all equipment within the laboratory, with the
appropriate level of care and respect.

In case of an emergency or incident in the laboratory:

 Keep calm.
 Tell someone about it: the nearest staff member, a fellow student, and fellow workers, others
in the area.
 Leave the building if the type of emergency warrants it, or if directed by the staff. Do so by the
nearest safe exit. Do not use lifts in case of fire. Follow the directions.

Some emergency situations such as criminal activity may not require you to leave the building. In all
emergency situations keep calm and think about the appropriate response.

Electrical Safety in the Laboratory

There is always a potential danger of electric shock or fire wherever there are outlets, plugs, wiring or
connections, as there are in all labs. In addition to the usual electrical hazards, some labs have high
voltage electrical equipment which poses an even greater potential problem. Students should be extra
careful with this equipment, and should learn how to disable the power source in an emergency.
 Turn off the power to any equipment before you inspect it. When turning off safety switches
wear insulating gloves and turn your face away from the box before pulling the handle down.
 Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working with electrical
devices.
 All current-transmitting parts of electrical devices must be enclosed.
 When checking an operating circuit, keep one hand either in a pocket or behind your back to
avoid making a closed circuit through the body.
 Never change any wiring when a circuit is plugged into a power source.
 Never plug leads into a power source unless they’re connected to an established circuit.
 Avoid contacting circuits with wet hands or materials.
 Check circuits for grounding.
 Do not insert another fuse of larger capacity if an instrument keeps blowing fuses. When a fuse
blows, find the cause of the problem before fitting another one.
 Do not use or store highly flammable solvents near electrical equipment.
 Multi-strip outlets should not be used in place of permanently installed sockets. If additional
outlets are required, have them installed by an electrician.
 Ensure access to electrical panels and disconnect switches are clear and unobstructed.

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 Hardware Components Unsafe Conditions
Hardware components can encounter unsafe conditions that may lead to malfunctions, damage, or
safety hazards. Here are some common examples of unsafe conditions for hardware components:
1. Overheating: When a hardware component, such as the CPU or GPU, becomes excessively hot
due to inadequate cooling or prolonged heavy usage, it can lead to thermal throttling, reduced
performance, or even permanent damage. Overheating can be caused by dust buildup,
insufficient airflow, or improper application of thermal paste.
2. Power Surges and Electrical Issues: Power surges, voltage spikes, or electrical fluctuations can
damage sensitive components like motherboards, RAM, and storage devices. These issues can
be caused by lightning strikes, faulty power supplies, or unstable electrical grids.
3. Physical Damage: Accidental impacts, drops, or mishandling of hardware components can
result in physical damage, such as cracked screens, bent connectors, or broken circuit boards.
Physical damage can lead to non-functionality or reduced performance.
4. ESD (Electrostatic Discharge): Static electricity can discharge when handling sensitive
components, causing damage to delicate microelectronics. ESD can occur when components
are not handled properly or when working in environments with low humidity.
5. Inadequate Power Supply: Using an underpowered or unstable power supply for a computer
system can lead to system instability, crashes, and potential damage to the power supply unit
(PSU) or other components.
6. Water or Liquid Exposure: Spilling water or any liquid on hardware components can cause
immediate damage or create long-term issues like corrosion and short circuits.
7. Incompatible Components: Using incompatible hardware components, such as mismatched
RAM or incompatible processors, can lead to system instability or prevent the computer from
booting properly.
8. Overclocking: Overclocking involves running hardware components at higher frequencies than
their stock settings. While it can increase performance, it can also lead to overheating, reduced
component lifespan and potential instability if not done correctly.
9. Dust and Debris Accumulation: Dust and debris accumulation inside a computer case can
impede airflow and lead to increased temperatures, reducing the overall lifespan of
components.
10. Firmware and Software Issues: Outdated or faulty firmware (BIOS/UEFI) and device drivers can
cause hardware components to malfunction or not work optimally.

To prevent unsafe conditions for hardware components, it is essential to follow proper maintenance
practices, use quality components, ensure proper cooling, handle components carefully, and avoid
overclocking without adequate cooling solutions. Regularly updating firmware and drivers can also
help maintain the stability and safety of the hardware.

Precautions to be taken when working and maintaining the computer system:

When installing/removing computer hardware and other peripherals:
 Wear proper apparel. Avoid acrylic or wool sweaters when working with electronic parts. Do
not wear loose fitting clothing, rings, bracelets etc.
 Power off the computer and unplug all peripherals before opening any covering cases.
 Keep your work area clean and well lit.

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 Check for damaged parts.
 Do not force components into computer ports.
 Use an anti-static wrist strap or discharge yourself by touching a grounded metal object such as
a computer casing.
 Power supplies produce several levels of voltage. Read the information on the power supply
carefully and make sure that the power supply you are using is appropriate for the application.
 Replace all cases or coverings after inspections or installations.
 Check all circuits and installations with the instructor before power is applied.
 Retain all screws during disassembly in containers such as film canisters for proper reassembly.
 Electronic components should never become hot. Hot components means that there is a
problem with the circuit. Disconnect any power immediately.
 Follow manufacturer's instructions in user manual.
 Never work on carpeted surfaces.
 Never spray cleaning fluid directly onto computer components. Always spray onto a cloth, then
wipe.
 Do not allow any cleaner to run or drip near circuit boards. Never allow circuits or electronics to
become damp or wet.

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 Basic Electrical Theory
No single discovery has affected our lives more than electricity. Electricity is everywhere; it lights our
way, cooks our food and can even brush your teeth. For example, imagine where the medical field
would be without electricity and in that sense how many lives have been saved due to electrical
devices like defibrillators, pacemakers, etc.

What is Electricity?
In its simplest term, electricity is the movement of charge, which is considered by convention to be,
from positive to negative. No matter how the charge is created, chemically (like in batteries) or
physically (friction from socks and carpet), the movement of the discharge is electricity.

Key Concepts in Electrical Theory

 Electrons are subatomic particles that have a negative charge. Electricity is produced when
electrons pass through a conductor.
 Charge: An atom can carry either a positive or negative charge. In this condition, it is referred to
as either a charged particle or ion. The atom’s charge is what determines its interaction with
other atoms; like charge repel, unlike charges attract. Positive charges occur when an atom has
more protons than electrons, whereas a negative charge is the result of more electrons than
protons.
 Voltage is an electromotive force or the potential difference between two charges, expressed
in volts (V). In other words, it is a measurement of the work required to move a unit charge
between two points. When we see a value such as 10 Volts, it is a measurement of the
potential difference between two reference points. Normally the two points will be +10V and
0V (also known as ground), but it can also be the difference between +5V and -5V, +20V and
+10V, etc. In the field, you might hear the term “common grounds” which refers to each device
in a system using the same zero-point reference (or ground) to ensure the same potential
difference (or voltage) is applied throughout the system.
 Current is the flow of electrical charge in a circuit and measured in Amperes (A). There are two
types of current, direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). DC is current that flows in one
direction with a constant voltage polarity while AC is current that changes direction periodically
along with its voltage polarity. Thomas Edison and Alessandro Volta were pioneers in DC
current and wrote much of electricity’s history. But as societies grew the use of DC over long
transmission distances became too inefficient. Nikola Tesla changed all that with the invention
of alternating current electrical systems. With AC it is possible to produce the high voltages
needed for long transmissions. Therefore today, most portable devices use DC power while
power plants produce AC.
 Resistance is the measure of the amount of current repulsion in a circuit, expressed in Ohms
(Ω). Simply, resistance resists current flow. When electrons flow against the opposition offered
by resistance in the circuit, friction occurs and heat is produced. The most common application
for resistance in a circuit is the light bulb. The light bulb introduces enough resistance in a
circuit to heat up the filament inside, causing light to be emitted. Resistance in a circuit can also
be helpful when needing to alter voltage levels, current paths, etc. Resistors are self-contained
packages of resistance that can be added to a circuit and are commonly used to divide voltage
levels.
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 The Fundamental Laws in Electricity
Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff current law, Kirchhoff voltage law and Thevenin theorem are some fundamental
laws in electricity. Focus here is on Ohm’s law which is the most fundamental law in electricity.

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. I = V/R or V=IR or R=V/I

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically,
Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.

Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation refers to the process of maintaining a steady output voltage level in an electrical
circuit, despite fluctuations in input voltage, load current, or other external factors. Voltage regulation
is important because many electrical devices and systems are designed to operate within a specific
voltage range, and if the voltage goes outside of that range, it can cause damage to the equipment or
prevent it from operating properly.
Voltage regulation can be achieved using various types of equipment, depending on the application
and the specific requirements. Some of the most common types of voltage regulation equipment
include:
1. Voltage regulators: These are electronic devices that use feedback circuits to maintain a
constant output voltage, regardless of changes in input voltage or load current. Voltage
regulators can be designed for specific voltage ranges and can be used in various applications,
including power supplies, voltage stabilizers, and battery chargers.
2. Transformers: Transformers are electrical devices that can increase or decrease the voltage of
an AC power supply. By adjusting the turns ratio of the transformer, it is possible to maintain a
constant output voltage, even if the input voltage fluctuates.
3. Surge protectors: These are devices that protect electrical equipment from voltage spikes and
surges, which can cause damage to sensitive electronics. Surge protectors are designed to limit
the voltage that is delivered to the equipment, preventing it from exceeding a safe operating
range.
4. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS): UPS units are backup power systems that provide
emergency power to electrical equipment in the event of a power outage or voltage drop. UPS
units typically use batteries or other types of energy storage devices to maintain a constant
output voltage, even when the input voltage is interrupted or fluctuates.

More examples of voltage regulation equipment: Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs), Voltage
stabilizers, Line conditioners, Power inverters, Voltage regulators, Power factor correction equipment,
AC voltage regulators, etc.

In summary, voltage regulation is an essential aspect of electrical engineering, and there are various
types of equipment available to achieve it, depending on the application and specific requirements.

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 Electronic Circuit
An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric current to perform various
functions including signal amplification, computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different
components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes. Conductive wires or traces
are used to connect the components to each other. However, a circuit is complete only if it starts and
ends at the same point, forming a loop.

Elements of an Electronic Circuit

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending on its
application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a conducting path, a
voltage source, and a load.

Element 1: Conducting Path

The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper wires are used in simple
circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces. Conductive traces are nothing but copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. They are often used in small and complex circuits
such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

Element 2: Voltage Source

The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through it safely. So, the first key
element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a battery, generators or power
systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two points in the circuit so that current
can flow through it.

Element 3: Load
A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular function. A light bulb is
the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such as resistors, capacitors,
transistors, and transistors.

Electronic Components
An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to
affect electrons or their associated fields. There are 2 types of electronic components:
1. Active Electronic Components: These are those (components) that can control the flow of
electricity. Examples are Transistors, Vacuum tubes, Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs),
Integrated Circuits (IC), Logic Gates, Diodes (All like LED, Rectifier Diode, Unipolar/Bipolar Diode,
etc.)
2. Passive Electronic Components: These are those that do not have the ability to control current
by means of an electrical signal. They do not have gain or directionality. Examples are Resistors,
Capacitors, some Diodes, Inductors, and Transformers.

Resistor
A resistor is an electrical device that resists the flow of electrical current. It is a passive device used to
control, or impede the flow of, electric current in an electric circuit by providing resistance, thereby
developing a drop in voltage across the device.

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Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in the electric field between a pair
of conductors called “plates”. The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as “charging“.
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is measured by its capacitance.
Capacitors are used in electronic circuits as energy storage devices. They are also used to differentiate
between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. A wide variety of capacitors are available,
including electrolytic capacitors, basic parallel-plate capacitors, and mechanical variable capacitors.

Diode
A diode is a one-way valve for electricity. Diodes allow flow of electricity in one direction. Most diodes
have a painted line on one end showing the direction or flow. The negative side is normally white.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

Integrated Circuits (ICs) are package of several complex circuits. ICs are available in a wide variety of
packages and sizes. Their applications are as varied as their packages.

Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device. It is the fundamental building block of the circuitry in mobile
phones, computers, and several other electronic devices. A transistor has very fast response and is
used in a number of functions including voltage regulation, amplification, switching, signal modulation,
and oscillators.
Transistors may be packaged individually or they can be a part of an integrated circuit. Some of the ICs
have billions of transistors in a very small area.

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Inductor
An inductor, also known as a reactor, is a passive component of a circuit having two terminals. This
device stores energy in its magnetic field, returning it to the circuit whenever required. It was
discovered that when two inductors are placed side by side without touching, the magnetic field
created by the first inductor affects the second inductor. It was a crucial breakthrough that led to the
invention of the first transformers.

Relay
A relay is an electromagnetic switch that can open and close circuits electromechanically or
electronically. You need a relatively small current to operate a relay. Usually, they are used to regulate
low currents in a control circuit. However, you can also use relays to control high electric currents. A
relay is the electrical equivalent of a lever. You can switch it on with a small current to turn on (or
leverage) another circuit using large current. Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state
relays.

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 Basic General Electronic and Electrical Measuring Equipment
Equipment Function
Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component
Ammeter Measures current
Cos Phi Meter Measures the power factor
Distortion meter Measures the distortion added to a circuit
Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated
ESR (Equivalent Series
Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors
Resistance) meter
Frequency counter Measures the frequency of the current
Leakage tester Measures leakage across the plates of a capacitor
LCR (Inductance Capacitance Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a
Resistance) meter component
General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and
Multimeter
resistance (and sometimes other quantities as well)
Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component
Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement of frequency,
Oscilloscope
timing, peak excursion, offset, etc.
Psophometer Measures AF signal level and noise
Signal analyser Measures both the amplitude and the modulation of a RF signal
Wattmeter Measures the power
Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colours in colour TV
Video signal generator Generates video signal for testing purposes
Measures the potential difference between two points in a
Voltmeter
circuit.
For the course, focus is on Multimeter and Oscilloscope.

Working with a Digital Multimeter

A multimeter is used to measures voltage, current and resistance (and sometimes other quantities as
well) hence the name ‘multi-meter’ (multiple measurements).
A multimeter has three parts:
1. Display: Usually have four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters
have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
2. Selection Knob: This allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
- When measuring voltage, the ranges the selection knob can be set to are: DC mode:
200mV, 2V, 20V, 200V and 600V. AC mode: 200V and 600V.
- When measuring resistance, the ranges the selection knob can be set to are: 200Ω,
2kΩ, 20kΩ, 200kΩ and 20MΩ.
- When measuring current, the ranges the selection knob can be set to are: 20µA, 200µA,
2mA, 20mA, 200mA and 10A.
3. Ports: Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for
common and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM port is the port

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 where the COM probe is plugged into. The COM probe is conventionally black but there is no
difference between the red probe and black probe other than colour. 10A port is the special
port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩ port is the port that the
red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to
200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω).

Measuring Voltage
Let’s measure voltage on an AA battery (1.5V):
 Power on the digital multimeter (DMM).
 Plug the black probe into COM port and the red probe into mAVΩ.port.
 Set the multimeter’s selection knob to "2V" in the DC (direct current) range.
 Connect the black probe to the battery's ground or '-' and the red probe to power or '+'.
 Squeeze the probes with a little pressure against the positive and negative terminals of the
AA battery.
 The DMM’s display should display the result.

*** Note: If you've got a fresh battery, you should see around 1.5V on the display (this battery is
brand new, so its voltage is slightly higher than 1.5V).

Overload is an occurrence that occurs when you select a voltage setting that is too low for the voltage
you're trying to measure. The meter will simply display a 1. This is the meter trying to tell you that it is
overloaded or out-of-range. Whatever you're trying to read is too much for that particular setting. Try
changing the multimeter knob to the next highest setting.

Measuring Resistance
Normal resistors have colour codes on them. If you don't know what they mean, that's ok! There are
plenty of online calculators that are easy to use. However, if you ever find yourself without internet
access, a multimeter is very handy at measuring resistance.
 Pick out a random resistor

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  Power on the multimeter
 Plug the black probe into the COM port and the red port into the mAVΩ port.
 Set the selection knob to the 20kΩ setting.
 Then hold the probes against the resistor legs with some amount of pressure.
 The meter will read one of three things, 0.00, 1, or the actual resistor value.
- In this case, the meter reads 0.97, meaning this resistor has a value of 970Ω, or about
1kΩ (remember you are in the 20kΩ or 20,000 Ohm mode so you need to move the
decimal three places to the right or 970 Ohms).
- If the multimeter reads 1 or displays OL, it's overloaded. You will need to try a higher
mode such as 200kΩ mode or 2MΩ (megaohm) mode. There is no harm if this happen, it
simply means the range knob needs to be adjusted.
- If the multimeter reads 0.00 or nearly zero, then you need to lower the mode to 2kΩ or
200Ω.

Remember that many resistors have a 5% tolerance. This means that the colour codes may indicate
10,000 Ohms (10kΩ), but because of discrepancies in the manufacturing process a 10kΩ resistor could
be as low as 9.5kΩ or as high as 10.5kΩ. Don't worry, it'll work just fine as a pull-up or general resistor.

Measuring Current
Reading current is one of the trickiest and most insightful readings in the world of embedded
electronics. It's tricky because you have to measure current in series. Where voltage is measure by
poking at VCC (Voltage Common Collector) and GND (Ground) (in parallel), to measure current you
have to physically interrupt the flow of current and put the meter in-line.
Here are the steps to measure current with a digital multimeter:
1. Turn off Power to the Circuit: Ensure the circuit or device you are measuring is powered off to
avoid any risk of electric shock or damage.
2. Select the Correct Measurement Mode: Turn the dial on your DMM to the appropriate current
measurement setting (A or mAVΩ) based on the expected range of current. Determine if you
need to measure AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current). If measuring AC, set the dial to
the "A~" setting. If measuring DC, set the dial to the "A-" setting.
3. Plug the Probes into the Correct Ports: Black Probe should be inserted into the COM (common)
port and Red Probe insert into the port marked with an 'A' for high current, or 'mAVΩ' for lower
currents. Note that some multimeters have separate ports for high current and low current
measurements.
4. Connect the Probes in Series with the Circuit: Series Connection: Current must flow through the
multimeter. Disconnect one side of the power supply to the circuit and connect the red probe

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 to the power source side. Connect the black probe to the other side of the circuit where you
disconnected the power.
5. Turn on Power to the Circuit: After the probes are securely connected, turn the power back on
to the circuit. The current will now flow through the multimeter, allowing it to measure the
current.
6. Read the Measurement: Observe the display on the DMM to get the current reading. Ensure
the reading is stable before recording the value.
7. Turn off Power and Disconnect Probes: Once you have the measurement, turn off the power to
the circuit. Carefully disconnect the probes from the circuit.

Working with an Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument used to observe and analyse electrical signals. It
displays signals as voltage versus time on a graphical screen, allowing engineers, technicians, and
researchers to visualize and analyse waveforms. Oscilloscopes are widely used in various fields,
including electronics, telecommunications, engineering, and physics, to observe signals, pulses, and
waveforms.

The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies over time. Most scopes
produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.

Controls surrounding the scope's screen allow you to adjust the scale of the graph, both vertically and
horizontally -- allowing you to zoom in and out on a signal. There are also controls to set the trigger on
the scope, which helps focus and stabilize the display.
In addition to those fundamental features, many scopes have measurement tools, which help to
quickly quantify frequency, amplitude, and other waveform characteristics. In general, a scope can
measure both time-based and voltage-based characteristics:

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Timing characteristics:
i. Frequency and period: Frequency is defined as the number of times per second a waveform
repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of seconds each repeating waveform
takes). The maximum frequency a scope can measure varies, but it's often in the 100's of MHz
(1E6 Hz) range.
ii. Duty cycle: The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or negative (there are both
positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a ratio that tells you how long a signal is
"on" versus how long it's "off" each period.
iii. Rise and fall time: Signals can't instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have to smoothly rise.
The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point is called the rise time, and fall
time measures the opposite. These characteristics are important when considering how fast a
circuit can respond to signals.

Voltage characteristics:
i. Amplitude: This is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a variety of amplitude
measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which measures the absolute difference
between a high and low voltage point of a signal. Peak amplitude, on the other hand, only
measures how high or low a signal is past 0V.
ii. Maximum and minimum voltages: The scope can tell you exactly how high and low the voltage
of your signal gets.
iii. Mean and average voltages: Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean of your signal,
and it can also tell you the average of your signal's minimum and maximum voltage.

How an Oscilloscope is used to Observe Signals, Pulse, and Waveforms

1. Connecting the Oscilloscope: To observe a signal, the oscilloscope must be connected to the
circuit or device generating the signal. This is typically done using a probe, which connects to
the input of the oscilloscope. The probe is connected to the point in the circuit where the signal
is to be measured.
2. Adjusting Timebase and Voltage Scale: Before observing the signal, the timebase and voltage
scale on the oscilloscope need to be adjusted. The timebase determines the horizontal time
scale on the display, while the voltage scale determines the vertical voltage range. These
settings allow the user to adjust the display to properly visualize the signal.
3. Triggering: Triggering is a crucial feature of an oscilloscope that helps stabilize and synchronize
the displayed waveform. The trigger level and trigger mode are set based on specific criteria to
capture a stable and repeatable waveform.
4. Observing Signals: Once the oscilloscope is correctly set up, the signal can be observed on the
display. The oscilloscope shows the voltage of the signal on the vertical axis and time on the
horizontal axis. Various types of signals, such as continuous waveforms, periodic signals, pulses,
and transient events, can be observed.
5. Measurement and Analysis: Oscilloscopes offer various measurement tools for analysing the
observed waveforms. Users can make measurements such as voltage amplitude, frequency, rise
time, fall time, pulse width, and other parameters. Some oscilloscopes also have built-in
mathematical functions to perform advanced analysis, such as FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) for
frequency domain analysis.

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 6. Capturing and Storing Data: Modern digital oscilloscopes can capture and store waveforms,
allowing users to review and analyse the data later. This feature is beneficial for
troubleshooting intermittent issues or saving important signal patterns for documentation.
7. Persistence and Averaging: Some oscilloscopes offer persistence and averaging options, which
help in visualizing and reducing noise in repetitive signals. Persistence maintains multiple
waveform sweeps on the display, while averaging smooths out noise by combining multiple
acquisitions.
8. Advanced Triggering: Advanced triggering features, like edge triggering, pulse-width triggering,
and video triggering, can be used to capture specific events or anomalies in the signal.
9. Save and Export: Once the desired waveform is observed and analysed, some oscilloscopes
allow users to save or export the data in various formats, facilitating further analysis and
sharing with colleagues.

In conclusion, oscilloscopes are powerful tools for observing and understanding electronic signals,
pulses, and waveforms, making them invaluable for troubleshooting, design verification, and research
in a wide range of applications.

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