Unit 1 Scientific Investigation

Introduction
In book 1, we discussed in details how the scientific how the scientific method is
used to study the natural science such as physics. In this unit, we will discuss how
basic scientific investigations are carried out in the study of physics.
1. Making an observation
This involves critically looking at a natural phenomena as they take place.
2. Proposing a hypothesis
A hypothesis is an idea that is suggested as a possible explanation of the
observation made.
3. Designing an experiment to test the hypothesis
This involves:
 Identifying variables and quantities to be measured:-
Controlled variables: these are variables that you keep constant so that
they do not interfere with your test.
Independent variables: these are all variables you control as you wish
within suitable ranges of the investigation.
Dependent variables: these are variables you measure every time you
change your independent variables.
 Outlining the apparatus and procedure or method to be followed.

4. Methods of results presentation

This may include drawing tables to show the quantities being measured and their
units of measurement, drawing graphs, drawing bar graphs etc.
5. Drawing conclusions from the investigation
This involves comparing the hypothesis with the investigation with a view to
accept or reject.
6. Evaluating the strength of the evidence
When the hypothesis has been accepted, the limitations of the hypothesis must
be indicated.
1.1 Strategies of planning an investigation
When you plan an investigation, you need to take into account:-
 Safety measures required in order to conduct an investigation successfully.
In case of apparatus or chemicals which have a hazard factor to consider,
you should take the measures outlined in book 1.
 The apparatus and chemicals to be used. The apparatus chosen should be
appropriate for the measurement of the quantities involved. The sensitivity
of the scales and their ranges should be appropriate for the investigation to
be carried out. For example, it is not appropriate to measure the length and
breadth of your classroom using a centimeter scale. A metre scale is good
enough. It is not appropriate to measure mass of a drawing pin using a
gram scale. You need a centigram scale or a more sensitive one.
The chemicals to be used must be handled as required, taking the necessary
safety precautions as discussed in book 1. You must be conversant how each and
every apparatus you use is handled in order to produce the desired results at
maximum safety. For example, one may choose to use plastic measuring
cylinders as opposed to glass cylinders to avoid breakages and being cut by
broken glass in case of an accident.
 The procedure or method to be followed should show clearly what
quantities will be varied at will and quantities that vary as a result and how
each will be measured. Quantities to be held constant and their values
should be known in advance.
 Repeated readings. In order to improve the reliability of results obtained,
very often, it is necessary to make repeated readings and find the average.
For example, if you wish to determine your heart beat rate in number of
beats per second, it is better to measure the number of beats in 1 minute
then divide the time obtained by 60.
For example, if your heart makes 72 beats in 1 minute, then your heart beat rate
72
is = 1.2 beats per second.
60
72 beats in one minute are easier to measure than 1.2 beats in one second.
1.2 The structure of a scientific investigation
The following is the general structure of a standard scientific investigation or
experimentation.
 Aim of the experiment:
This is a brief and concise statement of the objective of the experiment. It is
derived from the hypothesis initially stated.
For example, “An experiment to show that the rate of cooling of a hot body is
higher at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures”.
 Apparatus /Equipment
In this section, all the apparatus to be used are identified and listed.
 Procedure/Method
In this section, a step-by-step account of what is to be done, how it will be done
and what quantities will be measured is outlined.
A well-labelled diagram showing the setup of all apparatus to be used is drawn in
this section.
The quantities to be varied, those to be measured and those that will be kept
constant should be indicated together with their constant values clearly indicated
in the procedure.
Statements on how the results will be analyzed, for example, by drawing a graph
or performing calculations are included.
 Results:
Results of measurements (including tables, graphs and calculations) are shown in
this section
The results of an investigation should, where convenient, be presented in table
form showing all the quantities measured and the units used to measure them. If
a graph is to be drawn, the columns of the independent and dependent quantities
should be shown. If only calculations are required, the columns of the calculated
should be indicated.
 Analysis:
The results of the experiment are discussed here. If a graph has been drawn, it
should be discussed with the aim (objective) of the investigation in mind. The
usual points of discussion of a graph are:-
i. The trend of the graph: For example decreasing or increasing curve or
decreasing or increasing straight line graph.
ii. The gradient of the graph. Sometimes the quantity you are investigating
may be related to the gradient of the graph in same way.
iii. Area under the graph. The area under the graph may sometimes be related
to the quantity of investigation in some way.
1.3 Sample scientific investigation 1
In order to clearly show and explain how each of the above skills is acquired, we
will consider an observation made by a F1 student and show how it can be
investigated following the steps above.
 Observation: A senior 1 student observed that when he put two firmly
closed glass bottles full of water in the fridge: one in the freezer
compartment and the other in the cooling compartment, the bottle in the
freezer compartment was broken and the water has frozen to ice while the
bottle in the other compartment was intact though the water had cooled
down below room temperature.
The student decided to apply what he had learnt about expansions and
contraction of solids and liquids when they are heated and cooled,
respectively, and realized that there was a contraction between his
observation and the expectation. He expected the volume of water in each
bottle to decrease as the water cooled. His observation seemed to suggest
that the water in the bottle has expanded as it turned to ice.
 Hypothesis: Water expands as it turns to ice and occupies a greater volume
than when it was in liquid state.
The student designed and concluded an experiment and filled the following
report:
Experiment 1.1: To show that water expands when it freezes and becomes ice.
Apparatus:
 Two identical plastic measuring cylinders with 20 cm3 of water each.
 A refrigerator
Method/Procedure
 Fill two 25cm3plastic measuring cylinders with water to the 20cm3 level at
room temperature and put one in the freezer compartment of the fridge
and the other in the lower cooling compartment of the fridge.
 Close the fridge and allow the water in the freezer compartment turns to
ice.
 Remove both cylinders at the same time and note the volume of the water
in each of them.
Results
1. The water level in the cylinder from the lower compartment decreased
slightly to below the 20cm3 mark.
2. The volume of the ice in the other cylinder from freezer compartment was
more than 20 cm3, as the level of the ice level had increased above the 20
cm3
Analysis
Since no water was added or removed from either cylinder while they were in the
fridge, the fact that the level of ice had risen showed that the volume of the
original water had increased on freezing. This means that the water expanded on
freezing.
Conclusion
The results obtained in this experiment supports the hypothesis
This leads to the conclusion that water expands on freezing to ice.
Strength of the evidence
This experiment was conducted only for water. There is no evidence to suggest
that all other liquids behave the same way.
1.4 Sample scientific investigations 2
Senior 2 students were given an exercise to practice the use of a mass balance to
measure mass and measuring cylinder to measure the volume of each of 4
different liquids. Their teacher recommended that they measure the mass and
the volume of each liquid at least 4 times using different volumes of each liquid.
The liquids were water, a salt solution, cow milk and a fruit juice.
While carrying out the exercise, two students noticed that for each liquid ratio
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
was nearly the same for all portions of the liquids they used, and alerted
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
their teacher. The teacher suggested that they investigate this hypothesis with
the help.
The formulated the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
The ratio of a liquid is a constant for that liquid at a constant temperature.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
They designed and conducted an experiment to investigate the hypothesis for
water and filled the following report:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Experiment 1.2 To show that the ratio of water is a constant at room
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
temperature.
Apparatus:
 A beaker
 A measuring cylinder
 A weighing balance
 Water
Procedure:
1. Determine the mass (me) of the empty measuring cylinder using the mass
balance (Fig. 1.1)
 Fig. 1.1 measuring the mass
2. Add about 40 cm3 of water to the measuring cylinder and determine the
total mass (m1) of the cylinder together with water.
3. Determine the mass of water (mw) put in the measuring cylinder using mw =
m1- me
4. Repeat steps 1 – 3 for seven readings of volume by increasing the volume
with about 40 cm3each time.
5. Record the results in a table as shown in Table 1.1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
6. Calculate the ration of mass of volume i.e. for each set of values and
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
enter in the table.
7. Draw a graph of mass volume.
8. Determine the slope (gradient) of the graph.
Table of results
Average room temperature was 24˚C.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Volume (cm3) Mass (g) (g/cm3)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
41 41.9 1.02
80 81.3 1.02
122 123.9 1.02
161 162.8 1.02
201 203.2 1.01
244 249.9 1.02
 281 283.2 1.01
Table 1.1
They obtain the straight line graph shown in fig 1.2.

Figure 1.2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (250−100)𝑔
The gradient = = (250−100) = 1.00 g/cm3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 cm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
This show that of the liquid is a constant at 24˚C.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Analysis
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
The results show that indeed the ratio for water is a constant at a given
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
temperature.
Its average value = 1.0 g/cm3at 24˚C
Conclusion
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
The ratio for water at 24˚C is 1.02 g/cm3.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
This shows that, allowing for experimental error the hypothesis has been proved
to be correct at 24˚C.
Comment
The students gave the following comment:
We have only proved the hypothesis to be correct for water. We cannot
generalize to include the other three liquids without conducting investigations.
However, after researching from books and journals, we found out that many
experiments done by other physicists have generally shown the hypothesis to be
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
true; for other liquids within certain temperature ranges. The value is
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
unique to the liquid chosen and is called the density of the liquid.
Note: it is always better to draw a graph than to find the average of a few pairs of
values obtained in an experiment. This gives a more accurate value of the
quantity being determined.
The line of best fit is an average of all possible pairs of results within a range. It is
the preferred method of analyzing graphical data.
The possible sources of errors in the student experiment
Parallax errors – This occurs when the eye is not well positioned when reading the
volume of water in a measuring cylinder.
To minimize this, one should place the eye in the same horizontal level to the
lowest point on the meniscus of water in the cylinder, and read the volume mark
corresponding to this level on the cylinder scale. One should place the eyes as
close as possible to the cylinder scale while reading the volume. See Fig. 1.3
 Fig. 1.3: Taking a reading on a measuring cylinder
Unit Test 1
1. List the six stages of a scientific investigation.

2. Explain the meaning of the following words

a) Hypothesis
b) Prediction
c) Analysis

3. List the six essential steps of a scientific experiment.

4. You are asked to determine the density of iron. Design (plan) the
investigation that you will conduct. In your plan include all the stages of a
class experiment discussed in this unit.

5. A student observed that when the room temperature is about 18˚C, she felt
cold and when she went outside where the temperature was 15˚C, she felt
even colder. She formed the hypothesis: “The rate of heat loss of a body is
higher at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures”. Carefully plan
an experiment to investigate this hypothesis. You should be careful to note
the quantities you will keep constant throughout in the experiment. It is
 expected that you will do some heating in your experiment. Indicate how
you will plan for safety related to heat and heating in your experiment.
6. Discuss three ways through which the equality of results from an
experiment can be improved.

7. Discuss why drawing a straight line graph whenever possible is a better way
of analyzing results than calculating an average value

8. Give four precautions on fire during a scientific experiment.

Unit 2 Thermal Expansion

2.1 Thermal expansion and contraction

In general, nearly all substances increase in size when heated. The increase in size
on heating of a substance is called expansion. On cooling substances decrease in
size. The decrease in size on cooling of a substance is called contraction. Why is
this so?
Expansion and contraction in solids
Experiment 2.1: To demonstrate expansion and contraction using a thin metal
rod
Apparatus
 Thin metal rod
 Rollers connected to a pointer
 Source of heat
 G-clamp
Procedure
 Clamp one end of a long thin metal rod tightly to a firm support, with end
of the rod resting on a roller fitted with a thin pointer (see Fig. 2.1)
 Fig. 2.1 Expansion and contraction of thin metal rods.

 Heat the metal rod for some time and observe what happens.
 Remove the burner and allow the rod to cool. Observe what happens.
 Repeat the experiment with thin metal rods of different materials and
observe what happens.
Observation
 The pointer deflects in the clockwise direction on heating and in
anticlockwise direction on cooling.
 The pointer deflects to different extents depending on the material.
Discussion
On heating, there is an increase in length (expansion) in the rods. The expanding
rod moves the roller to the right making the pointer attached to the roller to
deflect in the clockwise direction. On cooling, the rod contracts and decreases in
length. The contracting rod moves the roller to the left hence the pointer deflects
in the opposite direction (anticlockwise direction)
Conclusion
 Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling.
 Different metals expand and contract to different extents when heated by
the same quality to heat.
Experiment 2.2: To demonstrate expansion and contraction using the bar and
gauge apparatus.
Apparatus
 A bar and gauge apparatus
 Bunsen burner
Introduction
A bar and gauge apparatus consists of a metal bar with a suitable wooden handle
and gauge. When both the metal bar and the gauge are at room temperature, the
bar just fits into the gauge. (See Fig. 2.2)

Fig. 2.2 Bar and gauge apparatus

Procedure
 Move the metal bar into and out of the gauge at room temperature (Fig.
2.2). Observe what happens.
 Keep the metal bar away from the gauge and heat the bar for some time.
 Try to fit the bar into the gauge and observe what happens.
 Allow the bar to cool and try to fit into the gauge. What happens?
Observation
 At room temperature, the bar fits exactly into the gauge.
 On heating, the metal bar does not fit into the gauge; it is larger.
 The metal bar again easily fits into the gauge on cooling.
Discussion
  On heating, the metal bar expands. There is an increase in length and
therefore, the bar cannot fit into the gauge.
 On cooling, the bar easily fits into the gauge due to contraction.
Conclusion
Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Experiment 2.3: To demonstrate expansion and contraction using the ball and
ring
Apparatus
 A ball and a ring
 Bunsen burner
 A bowl of cold water
Introduction
A ball and ring apparatus consists of a ball and ring, both made of the same metal.
The metal ball can just pass through the ring at room temperature (Fig. 2.3)

Fig. 2.3: Ball and ring apparatus

Procedure
 Move the ball in and out of the metal ring at room temperature (see Fig.
2.3).
  Keep the metal ball away from the ring and heat it for some time.
 Try to pass the ball through the ring. What do you observe?
 Cool the metal ball in a bowl of cold water and try to pass the ball through
the ring again. What do you observe now?
Observation
 At room temperature, the ball passes through the ring.
 On heating, the ball does not go through the ring.
 On cooling, the ball goes through the ring again easily.
Discussion
 On heating, the metal ball expands. There is an increase in volume and the
ball cannot pass through the rings.
 On cooling, contraction occurs and the original volume is regained. The ball
can now pass through the ring again.
Conclusion
Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Why solids expand on heating
In Form 1, we learnt that molecules of a solid are closely packed and are
continuously vibrating about their fixed positions. When a solid is heated, the
molecules vibrate with larger amplitude about the fixed position. This makes
them to collide with each other with larger forces which pushes them far apart.
The distance between the molecules increases and so the solid expands.
Expansion of liquids
Experiment 2.4: To demonstrate expansion of a liquid
Apparatus
 A glass flask
 Coloured water
 Tripod stand
 A rubber stopper
 Bunsen burner
  Wire gauze
Procedure
 Fill a glass flask with coloured water
 Fit the flask with a rubber stopper carrying a long narrow glass tubing.
 Note the initial level of water in the glass tube before heating (Fig. 2.4)

Fig. 2.4: Expansion of liquid

 Heat the water in the flask. Observe what happens to the level of water at
A immediately the heating starts and after a few minutes.

Observation
At first the level of the coloured water in the tube drops to level B and then rises
to level C.
Discussion
On heating, the glass flask and its volume increases. The level of water drops from
A and B. water starts to expand when the heat reaches it. Its level rises up the
tube from B to C.
If the set-up is allowed to cool to below room temperature, the water level drops
to a point lower than A and B.
Conclusion
Liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Why liquids expand on heating
Molecules are closely loosely packed in liquids. The force of attraction between
the molecules is weaker than in solids. The molecules move freely in the liquid.
On heating speed of the molecules increases. The collisions between the
molecules increases the distance between them causing the liquid to expand.
Expansion of gases
Experiment 2.5: To demonstrate expansion of air
Apparatus
 A thin glass flask
 A rubber stopper
 A long narrow glass tube
Procedure
 Take a thin glass flask with an open top
 Close the flask with a rubber stopper carrying a long narrow glass tube.
 Invert the flask so that the glass tube dips into water in a container. What
do you observe? (Fig. 2.5)
Fig. 2.5: Expansion of air
 Place your hands over the flask to warm it for some time and observe what
happens.
 Remove your hands on the flask on the flask and wait for some time.
Observe what happens.
Observation
 The water level rises from the container into the glass tube on inverting the
flask to dip the glass tube in water.
  When the flask is warmed, the level of water in the tube drops and some
bubbles are seen escaping from the flask through the tube.
 On removing the hands from the flask, water level rises the glass tube
again.
Discussion
The water level in the glass tube drops due to expansion of the air in the flask
when the flask is warmed. The water level rises in the tube due to contraction of
air on cooling.
Conclusion
Gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Why a gas expands on heating
The force of attraction between the molecules of a gas is very small (almost
negligible0 and the distance between the molecules is large compared to solids
and liquids. The molecules move freely in all directions. When a gas is warmed,
the molecules gain more energy and move far apart hence volume increases.
Different gases expand the same amount when heated equally.
Experiment 2.6: To demonstrate expansion of gases
Apparatus
 A glass bulb B with air
 A metre rule in vertical position
 Steam
 Glass Jacket
 A reservoir R with mercury
Introduction
The apparatus consists of a glass bulb B containing mercury. Bulb B is surrounded
by the outer glass jacket through which steam can be passed.
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 2.6.
 Fig. 2.6: Expansion of gases
 Circulate water at 0˚C through the jacket and adjust reservoir R so that the
level of mercury in B and R is the same.
 Measure the volume of air (gas) in bulb B.
 Pass the steam through the jacket until the temperature is constant.
 Adjust the level of mercury in B and R until they are the same. Measure the
volume of air in B.
 Repeat the experiment with different gases and observe what happens.
Observation
 The volume of air reduces on passing cold water at 0˚C through the glass
jacket due to contraction of air.
 The volume increases on passing the steam through the glass jacket due to
expansion of air.
Conclusion
Gases contract on cooling and expand on heating.
2.2 Effects of thermal expansion
Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling. During such expansion or
contraction, the distance between the molecules changes. This is due to the
change in vibration of the molecules. If the free movement of these molecules is
restricted, a large force is developed.
Experiment 2.7: To demonstrate the force due to expansion using bar breaking
instrument
Apparatus
 A bar breaking instrument
 A Bunsen burner
 A strong steel bar
 A cast iron pin
Procedure
 Pass a cast iron pin (about 6 mm in diameter) through hole H1 across the
steel bar.
 Clamp the steel bar onto bar breaking instrument tightly with the screw
from the inside until there is no room for expansion as shown in Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.6: Bar breaking instrument – expansion

 Heat the rod strongly, and observe what happens to the cast iron pin.
Observation
The cast iron pin breaks abruptly
Discussion
The cast iron pin breaks abruptly due to a very strong force developed when the
steel bar expands.
Conclusion
Expansion produces a very strong force.
Experiment 2.8: To demonstrate the force due to contraction using a bar
breaking instrument
Apparatus
 A bar breaking instrument
 A Bunsen burner
 A strong steel bar
 A cast iron pin
Procedure
 Pass a cast iron through hole H2 across the steel bar.
 Heat the bar then clamp onto the bar the cast iron pin tightly while it is still
hot with the screw from the outside as shown in fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7: Bar breaking instrument – contraction

 Remove the flame and allow the steel bar to cool down. Observe what
happens to the cast iron pin as the bar cools down.
Observations
The cast iron pin breaks abruptly.
Discussion
The cast iron pin breaks abruptly due to a very strong force developed when the
steel bar contracts.
Conclusion
Contraction developed a very strong force.
Bimetallic strip
Experiment 2.9: To demonstrate the bending of expansion and contracting
Apparatus
  A bimetallic strip
 Bunsen burner
Note: When equal lengths of two different metal strips are riveted together, the
resulting compound bar is called a bimetallic strip.
Procedure
 Observe a bimetallic strip at a room temperature (Fig. 2.8)

Fig. 2.8: A bimetallic strip

 Take the bimetallic strip with the brass strip at the top and heat it with a
Bunsen burner flame for some time.
 Remove the flame and allow the bar to cool. Observe what happens.
Observations
 As the temperature increases, the bimetallic strip bends downwards with
the brass strip outside. (Fig. 2.9 (a)) Why does this happen?
 As the temperature decreases, the bar bends upwards with the iron strip
underneath. (Fig. 2.9 (b)) What has happened?

Fig. 2.9: Bending effect of expansion and contraction

Discussion
As the bimetallic strip is heated, brass expands more than iron. The large force
developed between the molecules of brass forces the iron strip to bend
downwards. On cooling, the brass contracts more than iron and the iron strip is
forced to bend upwards.
Conclusion
The force developed during expansion or contraction causes a bending effect.
The force due to expansion in glass
You may have observed that when boiling water is poured into a thick-walled
glass tumbler it may break suddenly. Why does this happen? This is because the
inside of glass get heated and expands even before the outside layer becomes
warm. There is an unequal expansion between the inside and the outside
surfaces. The force produced by the expanding molecules on the inside produces
a large strain in the glass and the tumbler breaks.
2.3 Applications of thermal expansion
The effect of expansion and contraction, though on one hand is a nuisance, is
quite useful on the other hand. The following are some of the applications.
Electric thermostats
A thermostat is a device made of a bimetallic strip that can be used to maintain a
steady temperature in electrical appliance such as electric iron box, refrigerator,
electric geyser, an incubator, a fire alarm and an automatic flashing unit for
indicator lamps of motor cars. Fig. 2.10 and 2.11 show two such devices.

Fig.
2.10: Fire alarm Fig. 2.11 electric iron box
 Caution! Conserve energy by switching off the socket after using electrical
appliances
Rivets
In industries, steel plates are joined together by means of rivets. Hot rivets are
placed in the rivets holes and the ends hammered flat. On cooling the force of
contraction pulls the plates firmly together (Fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.12
Expansion joint
Metal pipes carrying steam and hot water are fitted with expansion joint or loops.
These allow the pipes to expand or contract easily when steam or hot water
passes through them or when the pipes cool down. The shape of the loop changes
slightly allowing necessary movements of the pipes to take place (Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.13: Expansion joint

Loosely fitted cables
Telephones and electricity cables are loosely fitted between the poles to allow
room for contraction in cold weather.
Use of alloys
The measuring tape used by surveyors for measuring land is made of an alloy of
iron and nickel called invar. Invar has a very small change in length when
temperature changes.
Expansion channels
When concrete are laid, expansion channels are provided between the sections
along the length of the road.
Gaps in railway tracks
Gaps are left between the rails when the railway tracks are laid. The rails are
joined together by fish-plates bolted to rails. The oval shaped bolt holes allow the
expansion and contraction of the rails when the temperature changes (Fig. 2.14).

Fig. 2.14: Gaps left between rails

In very hot weather, the gaps may not be enough if the expansion is large. The
rails may buckle out. Modern methods use long welded lines rigidly fixed to the
bed overlapping the plane ends (Fig. 2.15).
 Figure. 2.15: Overlapping joints
Rollers on bridges
The ends of steel and concrete bridges are supported on rollers. During hot or
cold weather, the change in length may take place freely without damaging the
structure (see Fig. 2.16).

Fig. 2.16: Steel and concrete bridges are supported on rollers

Effects of sudden expansion and contraction

Activity 2.1
a) Place an egg in a water bath. Heat the bath till the water boil.
b) Transfer the egg to a beaker of cold water and observe. What happens
to the egg?

In activity 2.1, you must have noticed that, the egg cracks when transferred
instantly from hot water to cold water.
Sudden expansion and cooling of an egg causes the shell to crack.
If the same is repeated with a stone, the stone cracks or breaks due to shock and
strain resulting from cooling and expanding.
When hot liquid is emptied from an ordinary drinking glass and the glass is
immersed in very cold water, it cracks and breaks because of shock and strain on
glass molecules due to sudden contraction.
A Pyrex glass is made up of materials that can withstand sudden expansion and
contraction. When hot water is poured in the glass, the glass material expands
uniformly. When cold water is poured into the glass, the glass material contracts
uniformly both on the inside and outside. This safeguards the glass from cracking
and breaking.

Unit Test 2
1. Gaps are left between the rails to allow
A. Contraction of the rails in winter
B. Expansion of the rails in summer.
C. Expansion of the rails in winter
D. Contraction of rails in summer.
2. Electric cables are loosely fitted between the poles to allow
A. Expansion and contraction of cables easily.
B. Conduction of electricity
C. Contraction of electric cables in winter
D. Expansion of cables at night.
3. Steel bridges are fitted with the rollers at one end to allow
A. Expansion of bridges in summer
B. The bridge to be stable.
C. Contraction of the bridge in winter
D. Expansion and contraction to avoid strain.
Study the diagram in Fig. 2.17 and answer the questions 4 and 5.
 Fig. 2.17
4. What will happen immediately after warm water starts to flow on the flask?
A. Water level in the tube rises.
B. Water level in the tube falls.
C. Water level in the tube remain the same.
D. Coloured water starts to boil.

5. What will happen when warm water flows for some time on the flask?
A. The water level on the trough reduces.
B. Coloured water evaporates.
C. Water level in the tube remain the same
D. Water level in the tube decrease or drops.

6. Explain, in terms of particles behavior, why solids expand on heating.

7. What is an electric thermostat?

8. Give three devices in daily life where a thermostat is used.
9. Explain the action of one of the devices you chosen.

10.Fig. 2.18 shows a bimetallic strip made of brass and invar.

 Describe briefly how it can be used as a thermometer (Fig. 2.18).

Fig. 2.18
11.Suggest, a single experiment, to demonstrate that alcohol expands more
than an equal volume of water for the same rise in temperature.

12.Name four electric devices that need a bimetallic strip to function

effectively.
13.Give scientific reasons for the following:
a) If a mercury thermometer with a thick glass bulb is dipped into hot
water, the mercury level first drops slightly and then rises quickly in the
bore.
b) If boiling water is poured into a thick walled glass vessel, the vessel may
crack.
c) The mouth of a glass bottles is gently heated when the glass stopper is
rigidly stuck to the mouth.
d) Water pipes burst in cold weather when water freezes.
Unity 3 Density

3.1 Density
In form 1, we learnt that matter has mass and occupies space. What is the
relationship between its mass and volume?
Experiment 3.1: To investigate the relationship between mass and volume of
water
Apparatus
 A measuring cylinder
 A beam balance
 Water
Procedure
a) Measure the mass (m0) of an empty measuring cylinder on a beam balance.
b) Pour 20 cm3of water into the measuring cylinder. Measure the new mass
(mn) of measuring cylinder and its content.
c) Determine (mn – m0), to get the mass of the water.
d) Repeat procedure (c) and (d) for 40 cm3, 60 cm3, 80 cm3 and 100 cm3 of
water.
Record your observations in table 3.1.
Note: The temperature of the set-up must be kept constant.
Volume of water (cm3) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Mass of water (mn –
m0)(g)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
(g/cm3)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Table 3.1
Observation
The ratio of mass to volume for each quantity of water is constant.
Conclusion
The ratio of mass to the volume of a quantity is known as the density of the
substance, is a constant.
The density (symbol) of a substance is defined as mass per unit volume of
substance. Density is therefore, a derived quantity of mass and volume. The SI
unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3). It is also expressed as
g/cm3.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
= =
𝑣

Experiment 3.2: To determine the density of an irregular solid

Apparatus
 An irregular stone
 A beam balance
 Measuring cylinder with water
Procedure
 Measure the mass (m) of the stone using a beam balance
 Determine the volume (V) of the stone using displacement method.

Fig. 3.1: Measuring volume of a stone

V = V1 – V2 where V1 is the initial volume
V2 is the final volume
V = V1 – V2
 Determine the density () of the iron stone.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)

𝑚
=
𝑣

Conclusion
Using this method, the density of a solid is given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
=
𝑣

Experiment 3.3: To determine the density of a regularly shaped solid

Apparatus
 An iron block (a 3 cm by 4 cm by 2 cm cuboid)
 A beam balance
 A metre rule
Procedure
 Measure the mass (m) of the cuboid iron block using a beam balance.
 Measure the length (I), width (w) and thickness (h) of an iron using the
metre rule.
 Calculate the volume of the cuboid.
V=I×w×h
Conclusion
The density of a regularly shaped solid is given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑚
=
𝑣
Experiment 3.4: To determine the density of a liquid
Apparatus
 A measuring cylinder
 A liquid (water)
 A beam balance/electronic balance
Procedure
 Measure the mass (m1) of a clean empty and dry measuring cylinder.
 Carefully pour the liquid (water) into a measuring cylinder and find the total
mass (m2) of the measuring cylinder and the liquid.
 Find the mass of water using, (m1 – m2).
 Determine the volume, (V) of the liquid using the measuring cylinder.
 Determine the density of the water as
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = = (m2 – m1)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

V
 Compare the value of density with the known density of water (1g/cm3)
Conclusion
Using this method, the density of the liquid id given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = = (m2 – m1)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

V
Experiment 3.5: To determine the density of gases (air)
Apparatus
 A beam balance
 A measuring cylinder
 A bicycle pump
 A plastic container
Procedure
 Measure the mass (m1) of a large plastic container (of capacity
approximately 20 I) using the beam balance as shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Measuring mass of air

 Pump air into the plastic container, say about 130 strokes of a foot pump or
a bicycle pump, in order to get an appreciable mass of air.
 Measure the mass of the container and the extra air pumped in, m2.
Calculate the mass of air pumped (m2- m1).
 Using a 1 000 cm3measruing cylinder, collect 800 cm3of the air from the
container as shown in Fig. 3.3

Fig. 3.3: Measuring volume of air

 Once you have collected 800 cm3of air, close the tap and repeat the
experiment until no more air is released.
 Calculate the total volume (v) of the air by adding the volume of the air
collected each time.
 Determine the density of the water as
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = = (m2 – m1)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
V
  Compare this with the standard density of air at the same temperature (e.g.
0.997 g/cm3at 25˚C).
Conclusion
Using this method, the density of air is given by:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

= m2 – m1)
Total volume of air collected

Density of alloys
An alloy is a metallic substance made by melting two or more pure metals
together in a given proportion. If there is no change in volume when the metals
combine, the density of the alloy can be found from the densities of the metals
used to make it. The density of the alloy lies somewhere between the densities of
the metals used to make it.
Example 3.1
A stone of mass 0.04 kg was completely immersed in a liquid. The levels of liquid
are as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4
Calculate;
a) The volume of the stone in cubic centimetres
b) The density of the stone in kilograms per cubic metre.
Solution
Volume of liquid displaced = 60 – 40 20 ml = 20 cm3
a) Volume of the stone = volume of the liquid displaced
= 20 cm3

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.04 ×1 000

b) Density = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 20
40
= = 2 g/cm3
20
1 1
1g= kg, 1 cm3 = m3
1 000 1 000 000

2 1
2 g/cm3 = kg ÷ m3
1 000 1 000 000

2 1 000 000
× kg/m3
1 000 1

= 2 000 kg/m3
Density of the stone is 2000 kg/m3

Note

To change the density from g/cm3to kg/m3we simply multiply by 1 000

Densities of some common substances

Table 3.2 shows that different substance have different densities. What other
observations can you make from the table among states of matter and within a
state of matter.

State of matter Substance Density

Kg/m3 g/cm3
Gas Hydrogen 0.089 9 0.000 089 9
Air 1.293 0.001 293
Liquid Paraffin 800 0.8
 Paraffin wax 890 0.89
Ice 900 0.9
Water 1 000 1.0
Mercury 13 600 13.6
Solid Cork 180 0.18
Brick 1 300 1.3
Glass 2 500 2.5
Aluminium 2 700 2.7
Zinc 7 100 7.1
Iron 7 500 7.5
Invar 8 000 8.0
Brass 8 500 8.5
Copper 8 930 8.93
Silver 10 500 10.5
lead 11 300 11.3
Table 3.2: Densities of states of matter
Examples 3.2
A cube of iron of sides 4 cm has a mass of 512 g. Find:
a. The volume of the cube in m3
b. The density of iron in (i) g/cm3 (ii) kg/m3
Solution
a. Volume = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64 cm3
1
1 cm3 = m3
1 000 000
64
64 cm3 = = 0.000 064 m3
1 000 000

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 512 𝑔
b. Density = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 64 𝑐𝑚3
= 8.0 g/cm3
c. Density = 8 1000 kg/m3
= 8 000 kg/m3
Exercise
1. A cube iron of sides 4 cm has a mass of 1 024 g. the density of iron in g/cm3
is.
A. 4.0
B. 8.0
C. 12.8
D. 16.0
2. The dimensions of a room are 16 m by 4 m by 4 m. the volume of the air
contained in this room in m3 is.
A. 64
B. 256
C. 128
D. 16
3. Define density and state its SI unit.
4. Density of copper is 8 900 kg/m3, express the density in g/cm3
5. Describe how you can determine the density of a glass stopper
6. A block of iron has dimensions 4.2 cm 3.4 cm 5.0 cm. it has a mass of 535.5
g. Calculate
i. the volume of the block in cm3
ii. the density of block in g/cm3

7. The density of aluminium is 2.7 g/cm3. What is the mass of aluminium of

volume
a). 1 cm3 b). 6 cm3
c). 20.5 cm3 d). 0.35 cm3?
8. The density of a substance is 1.3 g/cm3. What is the volume of a piece of the
substance which has a mass of
a). 53 g b). 4.09 g
c). 0.93 g d). 3.1 kg?
 9. Ice has a density of 0.9 g/cm3and water has a density of 1 g/cm3. Which has
a larger volume; a 15.3 mass of water or 15.3 g mass of ice?

10.Which has the greater mass, 23 cm3of glass or 7 cm3of brass? (Take the
density of glass as 2.5 g/cm3and that of brass as 8.5 g/cm3).

11. The length of a room is 16.4 m, its width is 4.5 m and its height is 3.3 m.
what volume of air does the room contain?

12.Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3. A cube of gold measures 4.3 cm on each
edge. Calculate the (a) volume of gold. (b) mass of gold.

13. The density of a brick is 1.3 g/cm3. Find (a) the mass of a cube of solid brick
of side 4.7 cm (b) volume in m3of 45 kg solid brick.

3.2 Comparison of densities of solids, liquids and gases

In solids, the molecules are closely packed and hence their densities are very high.
In liquids, the molecules are loosely packed to solids hence their densities are
lower than those solids. In gases, the molecules are far apart hence their densities
are the least.
For example,
Density of iron = 7 800 kgm-3
Density of water = 1 000 kgm-3
Density of air = 1.3 kgm-3
3.3 Effects of temperature on density
When solids is heated, its mass remains constant, while the volume increases.
Since the density is the ratio of mass to volume of the substance, the density
decrease.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Since, density = i.e. as the volume increases, the density decreases.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3.4 Unusual expansion of water between 0˚C and 4˚C
We have learnt that solids and liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling.
Unlike other substances, water has an unusual behavior. This behavior can be
demonstrated in the following experiment.
Experiment 3.6: To demonstrate the unusual expansion of water
Apparatus
 A thermometer
 Ice cubes
 Water in the flask
 A source of heat
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 3.5.
 At the beginning of the experiment, control the temperature of water in
the flask to be 0˚C

Fig. 3.5: Unusual expansion of water

 Carefully, note the original level of water in the tube at 0˚C. (Since water is
transparent, place a sheet of white paper behind the tube to mark the
level).
 Heat the glass container gently and note the temperature reading on the
thermometer.
  When all the ice in the container has melted the temperature of water in
the flask increases very slowly to reach the room temperature.
 Continue heating while noting the temperature and the corresponding level
of water in the tube. Record the height, h, of water in a table (see Table
3.3).
Temperature 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(˚C)
Height of water
in the tube,
h(mm)
Table 3.3
Observation
On heating
 From 0˚C to 4˚C the water level in the tube drops.
 From 4˚C and above, the water level in the tube rises.
Discussion
As the temperature of water increases from 0˚C to 4˚C, the level of water in the
tube falls showing that water contracts on heating from 0˚C to 4˚C. After 4˚C, the
level of water in the tube rises showing that the volume of water increases on
heating. At 4˚C water has the minimum volume.
When a graph of the height of water in the tube against the temperature of water
is drawn, it looks like the one shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig. 3.6: Anomalous behavior of water

This shows that: water does not expand in the same way as other substances the
volume does not increase uniformly with temperature.
Between 0˚C to 4˚C, water contracts instead of expanding.
Conclusion
This usual behavior of a water is also referred to as anomalous expansion. The
molecules of water exist in groups and these groups arrange themselves so as to
acquire the least volume at 4˚C.
The effect of unusual expansion of water
Freezing of lakes and ponds
In cold weather, when the temperature of the atmosphere falls below 0˚C, water
in a lake or pond freezes and ice is formed. How do fish then survive in frozen
water? The question can be answered by looking at the graph of density of water
against temperature in the range 0˚C to 10˚C (Fig. 3.7).

Fig. 3.7: Density of water against temperature

The volume of a fixed mass of water is minimum at 4˚C. The density of water is
then maximum at this temperature. As the temperature of air above the lake falls
from 10˚C to 4˚C, the density of water increases. This dense water at the top sinks
to the bottom. Warm water rises to the surface. After 4˚C, the density of water
becomes less and hence remains on the surface.
Finally, the temperature of the water at the surface falls to 0˚C and freezes.
Density of the ice formed is less than the density of water and therefore stays at
the top and water on the bottom of the lake remains at 4˚C. This unusual
expansion of water enables the aquatic animals and plants to survive in cold
weather see Fig. 3.8.

Fig. 3.8: Freezing of lakes and ponds

Bursting of water pipes
Water pipes can burst when the water flowing through the pipes freezes. This is
because on freezing, the volume of water increases.
Weathering of rocks
When water freezes in the cracks of a rock, its volume increases. This causes the
rock to break into small pieces resulting into weathering of rocks.
3.5 Floating and sinking
Activity 3.1
i. Pour water into a drinking glass and place a stone on the surface of water.
Observe what happens to the stone.
ii. Repeat step (a) with a piece of wood, small piece of copper metal and a
cork. Observe what happens in each case.
iii. Compare the known densities of the objects you have used with that of
water.
From activity 3.1, we observe that:
i. The stone sinks to the bottom of the glass.
ii. A piece of wood floats on the surface of water.
iii. A piece of copper metal sinks to the bottom water.
iv. A cork floats on the surface of water, it sinks in water.
If the density of an object is greater than the density of water, the object sinks in
the water. For example, a stone is denser than water.
If density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, the objects floats in the
liquid. A piece of cork is less dense than water; the cork floats on water.

Activity 3.2
i. Pour water in a glass and place a fresh egg on the surface of the water. (See
Fig. 3.9 (a) Observe what happens to the egg.
Fig. 3.9
ii. Repeat procedure (a) using a rotten egg. Observe what happens to the egg.
(See fig. 3.9 (b)).

Fig. 3.9
From Activity 3.2, we note that:
A fresh egg sinks in water, therefore, it is denser than water.
A rotten egg on water, thus it is less dense than water.

3.6 Average density

Average density is the ratio of total mass of all the materials used to compose a
body to the total volume occupied by the same body.
Experiment 3.7: To determine the average density of iron
Apparatus
 An iron pin
 Water
 An iron sheet
Introduction
The average density of a boat is less than density of water.
Procedure
 Place an iron pin on water and observe what happens.
 Now, place the iron plate on the surface of the water and observe what
happens.
Observations
 The iron pin in water
 The iron plate floats on water
Discussion
Density of the iron pin is greater than density of water, hence the pins sinks in
water.
The hollow part of the plate contains air. Thus, the total mass of the plate (mass
of air in the hollow part the mass of the iron making plate) is quite low in relation
to the volume occupied by the plate.
In other words, the average density of the plate is lower than that of water hence
it floats. The same phenomena enables ships to float on water yet they are made
of heavy metals.
Unit Test 3
1. The SI unit in symbols of density is
A. g/cm3 B. kg/cm3
C. m3/kg D. kg/m3

2. if the temperature of a substance increases, its density

A. Decreases C. Increases
B. Remain the same D. Increases then decreases

3. A substance has mass, volume and density as its properties. Which

properties may change if a lump of sugar is crushed?
A. Volume C. They remain constant
B. Mass D. Density
4. Explain why a floating object may sink if the temperature of a liquid is
raised.
5. The following is a graph obtained in an experiment of heating water from
0˚C to 10˚C. See Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10: A graph of density against temperature.

(a) Complete the graph by sketching the curve.
(b) At which temperature will the volume be maximum?

6. State four effects of unusual expansion of water.

7. Explain why hydrogen gas is used in parachutes.

8. Describe how you can determine if an egg is fresh.
Unit 4 Specific Heat Capacity

Introduction
Heat is a form of energy that flow from a region of high temperature to a region
of lower temperature. Cold substances absorb heat energy while hot ones lose
heat energy. This unit deals with a measures of the capacities of substances to
gain or lose heat energy.
4.1 Heat Capacity
Experiment 4.1: To show that the heat energy required to produce a certain
change in temperature depends on the mass of the substance
Apparatus
 A beaker
 An immersion heater
 Water
 A thermometer
 A measuring cylinder
 Stop watch
Procedure
a) Take 200 g of water in a beaker and note its initial temperature θ1. Heat the
water with an immersion heater for the 10 minutes (Fig. 4.1 (a). note the
final temperature θ2 and calculate the change in temperature, ∆θ= θ2 – θ1.
b) Repeat (a) above by taking 400 g of water in the same beaker and same
initial temperature θ1 (Fig. 4.1 (b)). Note the time taken to produce the
same change in temperature as before.
c) Compare the times taken to produce the same changes in temperature in
parts (a) and (b). What is your conclusion?
 Fig. 4.1: Relationship between heat energy and mass of the substance

Observation
You will observe that with 400 g of water, takes approximately double the time it
takes to produce the same change in temperature in 200 g of water.
Conclusion
The larger the mass, the longer the time needed to change in temperature i.e. by
the larger the mass, the more heat is supplied to change the temperature by one
degree. Hence the quantity of heat energy, Ǫ, gained by a substance through a
certain temperature changes is directly proportional to its mass, m. therefore,
Heat energy is proportional to mass i.e. Ǫ α m, when temperature change is
constant.
Experiment 4.2: To show that the heat energy required by a substance of a given
mass depends on the change in temperature
Procedure
Repeat Experiment 4.1 part (a) with 200 g of water, heat to produce twice the
change in temperature. Note the time taken for this to happen.
Observation
You will observe that it takes double the time to produce twice the change in
temperature of 200 g of water.
Conclusion
The longer the time, the greater the temperature change. In other words, the
longer the time of heating the mass of the substance, the more heat energy is
supplied and the greater the temperature change. The quantity of heat energy Ǫ
gained by the substance is therefore directly proportional to the change in
temperature ∆θ. Therefore,
Heat energy, Ǫ is proportional to change of temperature, ∆θ, when mass of a
substance is constant.

From Experiment 4.1 and 4.2, we see that

Quantity of heat, Ǫ α mass, m
Ǫ α change in temperature, ∆θ
Example 4.1 Ǫ α m∆θ or
200 J of heat energy is needed to change the temperature of a given mass of
water from 20˚C to 34˚C. How much heat energy is needed to change the
temperature of this mass of water from 20˚C to 48˚C.
Solution
Initial temperature change = (34 – 20) = 14˚C
Final temperature change = (48 – 20) ˚C = 28˚C
(Heat energy needed, Ǫ) = ?
200 J raised 20˚ to 34˚C, ∆θ = 14˚C
? will raise 20˚ to 48˚C, ∆θ = 28˚C
200 ×28
Heat energy needed, Ǫ =
14

= 400 J
Heat capacity
Heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy required to raise the temperature
of a substance by 1 K.
Mathematically,
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (Ǫ)
Heat capacity (C) =
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (∆𝜃)

The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (j/k)

Example 4.2
Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a metal block
of capacity of 520 J/K from 9˚C to 39˚C.
Solution
Quantity of heat Ǫ = Heat capacity × temperature change
Ǫ = C × ∆θ
= 520J × (39 – 9) K
= 15 600 J
Example 4.3
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of water from 10˚C to 65˚C
is 6 200 J. Calculate the heat capacity of water.
Solution
Ǫ
Ǫ = C∆ θ C=
∆𝜃
6 200 𝐽
= (65−10)𝐾

= 112. 73 J/K
The heat capacity of water is 112.73 J/K

Exercise 4.1
1. The heat capacity of water depends on the mass of the water being heated.
TRUE or FALSE? Justify your answer.
2. Calculate the heat capacity of tea when 400 J of heat are supplied to
change its temperature from 25 K to 40 K.
 3. Calculate the amount of heat given out to lower the temperature of a metal
block of heat capacity 520 J/K from 60˚C to 20˚C.
Specific heat capacity
In the equation, Ǫ= mc∆θ, specific heat capacity Ǫ = c, if m = 1 kg and ∆θ = 1 K.
When the mass of the substance is 1 kg (i.e. m = 1 kg) and the change in
temperature is 1 kg (i.e. ∆θ = 1 K), then Ǫ = c and c is referred to as the specific
heat capacity of the substance.
The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is defined as the heat energy required
to change the temperature of a substance of mass 1 kg by 1 kelvin.
Ǫ
C=
𝑚∆𝜃

Therefore,
Quantity of heat = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change
Ǫ = mc∆θ
Where, ∆θ = final temperature – initial temperature
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per kelvin (J/kgK).

Example 4.4
Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 2.5 kg of
aluminium from 20˚C to 40˚C, if the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900
J/kgK.
Solution
Heat energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change
Ǫ = mc∆θ
= 2.3 × 900 × (40 – 20)
= 45 000 J
Example 4.5
18 000 J of heat energy is supplied to raise the temperature of a solid of mass 5 kg
from 10˚C to 50˚C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the solid.
Solution
Ǫ
C=
𝑚∆𝜃
180 000 𝐽
= (50−10)𝐾
× 5 𝑘𝑔

= 900 J/kgk
Example 4.6
Find the final temperature of water if 12 000 J of heat is supplied by the heater to
heat 100 g of water at 10˚C.
(Take specific heat capacity of water and 4 200 J/kgk)
Solution
Ǫ
Ǫ = mc∆θ = ∆θ =
𝑚×𝑐
12 000 𝐽
= (0.1
× 4 200)𝐽/𝐾
12 000 𝐽
=
420

= 28.57˚C
∆θ = θf – θi, where θf – final temperature, θi – initial temperature
θf = ∆θ + θ1= 28.57˚ + 10˚C
θf = 38.57˚C
The final temperature is 38.57˚C
Exercise 4.2
1. 45 000 J of heat are supplied to 5 Kg of aluminium initially at 25˚C. What is
its final temperature? (Take the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900
J/kgk).
2. What is the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity?
 3. 24 000 J of heat energy is supplied to raise the temperature of a substance
of mass 6 kg from 12˚C to 48˚C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
substance.
4.2 Comparison of specific heat capacities of the three states of matter
Substances have different specific heat capacities. Solids require a lot of energy to
melt than liquids and gases. This means that solids have higher specific heat
capacity than liquids and gases. Gases have the lowest specific heat capacity.
Experiment 4.3: To show different substances have different specific heat
capacity
Apparatus
 Two thermometers
 A lid with two holes
 Two boiling tubes (one containing cooking oil and the other water)
 A hot water bath
Procedure
 Pour equal volume of liquids (cooking oil and water) into two identical test
tubes. Place identical thermometers in each test tube (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2
 Heat the test tubes in a hot water bath for the same time and observe the
temperature change.
Observation
The rise in temperature of liquid (cooking oil) is higher than that of water.
Discussion
The specific heat capacity of water is higher than that of cooking oil.
Conclusion
Different material or substances have different specific heat capacities.
Two different substances of the same mass when subjected to the same quantity
of heat, they acquired different changes in temperature. Table 4.1 shows that
different substances have different specific heat capacities.
Substance Specific heat capacity (c) J/kgK
aluminium 900
Brass 370
Copper 390
Cork 2 000
Glass 670
Ice 2 100
Iron 460
Lead 130
Silver and tin 230
Table 4.1 Specific heat capacities of some solids
Table 4.2 shows the specific heat capacity of some liquids

Substance Specific heat capacity (c) J/kgK

Castor oil 2130
Coconut 2 400
oil
Glycerol 2 400
Mercury 140
Olive oil 2 130
Paraffin
oil
Sulphuric 1 380
acid
Water 4 200
Sea water 3 900
Table 4.2: Specific heat capacities of some liquids
4.3 Application of specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity has many application in our daily life. The following are a
few examples:
a) A material with high specific heat capacity absorbs a lot of heat with only a
small rise in temperature. This accounts for the efficiency of water as a
coolant in a car radiator and of hydrogen gas in enclosed electric
generators.
b) Substances with low specific heat capacities are quickly heated up; they
experience a big change in temperature after a small amount of heat
energy. For this reason, they are used to make cooking utensils such as
frying pans, pots and kettles.
c) Sensitive thermometers are made from materials with low specific heat
capacity in order to detect and accurately show rapid change in
temperature, even for small amounts of heat energy.
d) Materials with high specific heat capacity are suitable as for making handles
of heating devices like kettles, pans and oven covers. This is because they
do not get very hot and easily when they absorb high amounts of heat
energy.
e) Water consumed by human beings regulates the temperature of the body
since water has a high specific heat capacity.
f) Sea water is cold during day time when the temperature are high because
water has a high specific heat capacity. At night, the temperature of water
is high and hot air of low density rises from the sea allowing cold air of high
density blow from land to the sea called land breeze.

Unit Test 4
Where necessary, take specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 J/kgk, acceleration
due to gravity g = 10 m/s2
1. The SI unit in the symbol specific heat capacity is
A. Kg/k C. J/kgk
B. N/kg/k D. W/kg/k
2. Calculate heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of gold of
specific heat capacity of 130 J/kgk by 20˚C is?
A. 130 J C. 2 600 J
B. 260 J D. 65 J
3. What is the specific heat capacity of water?
A. 420 J/kgk C. 4.2 J/kgk
B. 4 200 J/kgk D. 42 000 J/kgk
4. The formula of determining the quantity of heat in symbols is.
𝑤
A. Ǫ = m × c × ∆θ C. Ǫ =
𝑡
B. Ǫ = c ∆θ D. Ǫ = m × F
5. Define the terms:
a) Heat capacity
b) Specific heat capacity of a substance
6. Calculate the heat capacity if 8 000 J of heat is used to cool a solid from
80˚C to 20˚C.
7. Calculate;
a) The heat energy required to raise the temperature of 200 g of gold of
specific heat capacity 130 J/kgK by 1 000˚C
b) The heat energy given out when a piece of hot iron of mass 2 kg cools
down from 450˚C to 25˚C, if the specific heat capacity of iron is 460
J/kgK.
8. In experiment requiring storage of heat energy, water is preferred to other
liquids. Give two reasons for this.
9. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 4 by of
water from25˚C to 45˚C. Specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 J/kg˚C.
10. Find the initial temperature of aluminium if 2 400 J of heat is used to raise
the temperature of 50 g of aluminium to 62˚C. Specific heat capacity of
aluminium is 900 J/kgk.
11.620 000 J of heat energy is supplied to raise the temperature of a solid of
mass 10 kg from 40˚C to 75˚C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
solid.
12.Explain why water is used as a coolant in many factories and car engines.
13.Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 2 000 kg sea water
through 60˚C.
 14.Calculate the heat required to heat 0.5 kg of ice at -8˚C to steam at 100˚C.
(Specific heat capacity of ice = 2 100 J Kg/k. Specific heat of fusion of ice is
3.34 × 105 J/kg and specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 ×
106J/kgk.

Unit 5 Heat Transfer

5.1 Heat and temperature

In form 1, we learnt that temperature is the measure of the kinetic energy of the
molecules in a body. We know that molecules in boiling water (at 100˚C) move
faster than molecules in ice (to 0˚C). This means that boiling water posses more
energy than ice.
If hot water is poured into a bowl containing ice at 0˚C, the temperature of ice
and the bowl increases. The fact that the temperature has increased suggests that
ice and the bowl have gained heat energy. Heat is a form of energy which passes
from a body of high temperature to a body of low temperature. The SI unit of
heat energy is joule (J).
The following experiment will enable us to understand the difference between
heat and temperature.
Experiment 5.1: To investigate the difference between heat and temperature
Apparatus
 A measuring cylinder
 A beaker
 Cooking oil (about 200 g)
 Two test tubes
 A stirrer
 Water
Procedure
  Take equivalent masses of water and cooking oil in two identical test tubes
fitted with two identical thermometers. Place these tubes in large beaker
containing water (Fig. 5.1)

Fig. 5.1: Heat and temperature

 Note the initial temperature of both water and oil in the tubes
 Heat the water in the beaker and make sure that the heat is distributed
uniformly by stirring the water. After sometime, note the temperature of
water and oil in the tubes. Are the two temperatures the same?
Observation
The temperature of water is lower than that of oil.
Discussion
You have heated the tubes for the same time i.e. the same heat energy has been
passed from the burner to the tubes. Both oil and water have gained equal
amount of heat energy but are at different temperatures. Therefore, two
substances can have equal heat energy supplied but be at different temperatures.
Conclusion
Heat is the form of energy while temperature is the degree of hotness and
coldness of a substance.
5.2 Modes of heat transfer

Activity 5.1
In form 1, we learnt that there are three mechanisms of heat transfer. Identify them.
What are the main differences among them?

There are three modes of heat transfer namely: conduction, convection and
radiation.
When water in a beaker is heated using a flame (Experiment 5.1), heat energy is
transferred from the flame through the base of the beaker to water i.e. a solid is
transferring heat energy from the flame to the cold water. This mode of heat
transfer is called conduction. Mostly condition results from transfer of energy
from one particle colliding with the adjacent particle.
In unit 4, we learnt that in the lake, the warm water containing more energy
moves up and pushes cold water to the bottom of the lake. Till the temperature
falls to 4˚C. This mode of heat transfer is called convection. In convection, heat
energy is transported by the heated particles.
On a hot day, if you stand in the open air for some time, you feel warm. Heat
energy is being transferred from the sun to your body. The heat from the sun can
reach us although there is a vacuum between the sun and earth. This mode of
heat transfer is called radiation. Heat energy is transferred through
electromagnetic waves.
5.3 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat from one substance to another that is in direct
contact with it. The following experiment will illustrate conduction of heat in
solids.
Experiment 5.2: To investigate heat transfer in solids
Apparatus
  A metal spoon
 Bunsen burner
 A beaker full of boiling water
 Wax
Procedure
 Take a metal spoon at room temperature. Dip the spoon (with the other
end waxed) into a beaker full of boiling water. After a few minutes touch
the free end of the metal spoon outside water (Fig. 5.2). What has
happened?

Fig. 5.2: A spoon inside boiling water

Observation
 The wax on the spoon outside the beaker melts.
Discussion
 The free end of the spoon outside the beaker has become hot. Heat energy
has been transferred from the inside to the outside through the metal
spoon i.e. from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature.
Conclusion
Solids transfer heat from one point to another.
This process of transfer of heat energy in solids is called conduction. In conduction
there is no visible movement of the heated particles.
Mechanism of conduction of heat
In form 1, we saw that when temperature increases, the molecules have larger
vibrations. This knowledge can help us understand the mechanism of conduction
of heat. The molecules of the metal spoon inside hot water receive heat energy
from the hot water and begin to vibrate vigorously. These molecules collide
against the neighboring molecules and agitate them. The agitated molecules, in
turn agitate the molecules in the next layer and so on till the molecules at the
other end of the spoon are agitated. Thus the heat is passed from one place to
another till the other end becomes hot. Hence, in conduction, energy transfer
takes place by vibration of the molecules. There is no actual movement of the
heated particles.
Factors affecting heat transfer by conduction
Experiment 5.3: To demonstrate that heat energy flows due to a temperature
difference
Apparatus
 An iron bar about a metre long with holes drilled at equal intervals
 Oil
 Wooden screen
 A Bunsen burner
 Water bath
 A thermometer
Procedure
 Take an iron bar about a metre long and drill small holes at equal intervals
all along the length.
 Fill the holes partially with oil and insert the bulb of the thermometers into
them. Note the readings of the thermometers.
 Pass one end of the bar through a wooden screen and insert it in water
bath containing water. Heat the water slowly and gradually (Fig. 5.3). After
some time note, the temperature readings of the thermometers. What do
you observe?
Fig. 5.3: The higher the temperature difference the higher the energy transferred
Observation
The thermometer nearest to the hot water bath registers the highest rise in
temperature and the one farthest away registers the temperature rise.
Discussion
Initially, the readings of all the thermometers were the same. When one end of
the rod was inserted into boiling water, a larger temperature difference was set
up between the two ends and heat energy flowed from the region of higher
temperature to that of lower temperature. Hence heat energy flows due to
temperature difference.
If the experiment is repeated by replacing the hot water bath with Bunsen burner
flame (temperature of the bluish part of the flame is about 500˚C), the rise in
temperature registered by each thermometer is higher. Hence the higher the
temperature difference, the higher the energy transfer.
Conclusion
Heat energy in the solids flow due to the temperature difference. The higher the
temperature difference, the higher the energy flow.
5.4 Comparing rate of conduction in metals
Experiment 5.4: To show that heat transfer depends on the materials
Apparatus
 Take three rods, say copper, aluminium and iron, of the same length and
thickness. Fix a matchstick (or a light metal pin) to one end of each rod
using a little melted wax.
 Place the rods on tripod stand and heat the free ends with a burner as
shown in Fig. 5.4 Observe what happens.

Fig. 5.4: Comparing heat transfer through different conductors

Observation
The matchstick falls from the copper rod first then aluminium and finally from the
iron rod.
Discussion
When the temperature of the other ends of the rods reach the melting point of
wax, the matchstick will fall off at the same time, because the energy transferred
is not equal for all the rods. The matchsticks from the copper rod is the first one
to fall off showing that of the three metals, copper is the best conductor of heat
followed by the aluminium and then iron.
Conclusion
Different materials conduct heat at different rates.
Experiment 5.5: To show that heat transfer depends on the area of cross section
of the rod
Procedure
Repeat Experiment 5.4 with two rods of the same length and material but of
different diameters. Observe what happens.
Observation
The matchsticks from the thick rod falls off first
Discussion
More heat energy is transferred through the thick rod than a thin rod in the same
time
Conclusion
Conduction of heat depends on the cross-section are of a material I.e. the thicker
the material the faster the heat is transferred.
Experiment 5.6: To show that heat transfer depends on the length of the rod
Procedure
Repeat Experiment 5.4, with two rods of the same material and same thickness
but different lengths. Observe what happens.
Observation
Heat energy is transferred faster through a rod of smaller length than in a longer
rod in the same time.
Conclusion
Conduction of heat depends on the length of the material.
Experiment 5.7: To show that heat transfer depends on the duration of heating
Apparatus
 A metal rod
 A Bunsen burner
 A stop watch
Procedure
  Take a metal rod and heat one end of the rod with the Bunsen burner
flame. Note the temperature of the other end of the rod after five minutes.
 Continue heating and note the temperature after ten minutes. Is there any
difference in the temperature recorded?
Observation
The rise in temperature after ten minutes is higher than compared to five
minutes.
Discussion
More heat energy is transferred in a longer time than in shorter time.
Conclusion
Conduction of heat energy depends on the time taken to heat.
From the above experiment we, can conclude that the quantity of heat
transferred in a metal depends on:
1. The temperature difference between the ends.
2. The nature of the materials (usually called the thermal conductivity of the
material).
3. The cross-section area.
4. The length of the conductor
5. The time taken to transfer heat.
Good conductors and poor conductors
A substance which has the ability to transfer heat through itself easily is called a
good conductor of heat. Most metals are good conductors of heat. Substances
like water, air, wood, plastic paper, etc. which have a poor ability to transfer heat
are called poor conductors of heat.
Experiment 5.8: To demonstrate that wood is a poor conductor of heat
Apparatus
 A wooden rod
 A copper rod
 A white paper
  A Bunsen burner
Procedure
 Wrap a white paper round the junction of a copper and wooden rod which
are joined together.
 Heat the paper at the junction of the rods with a Bunsen burner flame.
Observe what happens to the paper (Fig. 5.5).

Fig. 5.5; Wood is a poor conductor of heat

Observation
The white paper on the wooden part of the rod is charred but the paper on the
copper part of the rod is not charred. What can you say about the conductivities
of these two materials?
Discussion
Copper conducts heat energy from the paper so fast that the paper cannot reach
the temperature at which it burns. Wood conducts heat so slowly hence, the heat
is able to burn the paper.
Conclusion
Wood is a poor conductor of heat.
Experiment 5.9: to show conductivities of paper and water
Apparatus
 A thick paper bag
 A Bunsen burner
  A tripod stand
 Water
Procedure
 Get a thick paper bag that does not leak. Place the bag on a tripod stand
(do not use a gauze).
 Fill the bag halfway with water. Take care not to puncture the base.
 Heat the water gently with a Bunsen burner flame (make sure that the
flame does not go to the sides of the bag). Observe what happens to the
temperature of water (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6: Boiling water in a paper bag

Observation
 Bubbles are seen in the water
 The temperature of water increases and after sometime water starts to boil
i.e. there is steam.
Discussion
When heat reaches the paper bag, a lot of energy is transferred from the flame to
water rapidly. The paper cannot, therefore, reach the temperature at which it can
burn. Although water is a poor conductor of heat, this experiment shows that it is
a better conductor of heat compared to paper.
Conclusion
Paper bag is a poor conductor of heat than water. This is why you can boil water
in a paper bag?
Experiment 5.10: to demonstrate that paper is a poor conductor of heat
Apparatus
 A white paper
 A candle (source of heat)
 A metal tin
Procedure
a) Bring a white sheet of paper near to and above the candle flame (Fig. 5.7
(a)). See what happens.
b) Place a metal coin on another white sheet of paper and repeat Experiment
5.7 (b). Observe what happens to the paper.

Fig. 5.7: Paper is a poor conductor of heat

Observation
When the metal coin is not on the paper, the paper gets charred. When the metal
coin is on the paper, the paper does not get charred.
Discussion
The metal coin conducts heat away so quickly from the paper that the paper is
not able to reach a temperature that will char the paper.
Conclusion
The paper is a poor conductor of heat compared to the metal coin.
Experiment 5.11: to demonstrate that water is a poor conductor of heat
Apparatus
 A piece of ice
 A boiling tube
 A Bunsen burner
 A wire gauze
 A stand
Procedure
 Wrap a piece of ice in a wire gauze and drop it into a boiling tube
containing water. The wire gauze helps the ice to stay at the bottom.
 Heat the water with a Bunsen burner flame as shown in Fig. 5.8. Observe
what happens.

Fig. 5.8: Water is a poor conductor of heat

Observation
 The water at the top of the tube boils.
 The ice at the bottom does not melt easily even after heating for a long
time.
Caution: Handle boiling water with care. Do not let the open end of the test tube
face you. Bubbles of the boiling water can splash and burn your skin.
Discussion
Though there is a large temperature difference the top and the bottom, heat is
not being conducted easily by water. It takes a long time for heat to be conducted
to the bottom through water and glass. This is why the ice at the bottom does not
melt.
Conclusion
Water is a poor conductor of heat.
Conduction in liquids
Though liquids are generally poor conductors of heat, different liquids conduct
heat at different rates.
Experiment 5.12: To investigate conduction of heat in different liquids
Apparatus
 Two boiling tubes
 Two matchsticks
 A thick copper rod
 Water
 2 clamp stand
 A wooden block
 A Bunsen burner
 Oil
Procedure
 Set the experiment as shown in Fig. 5.9.
 Fig. 5.9: Oil is a better conductor of heat than water.
 Heat the copper rod with the Bunsen burner flame. The block of wood
(insulator) should be long enough to prevent direct transfer of heat from
the flame to the wax. Observe what happens.
Observation
The matchstick stuck to the tube containing oil falls off and the other matchstick
stays undisturbed for a longer time.
Discussion
Same heat energy is passed to both water and oil through the copper rod but oil
conducts heat faster than water. Hence, the wax underneath the tube b melts
first and the matchstick falls off. This shows that oil is a better conductor of heat
than water.
Conclusion
Different liquids conducts heat at different rates.

Conduction in gases
Compared to solids and liquids, gases are the poorest conductors of heat. A
vacuum is the worst conductor of heat.
Air is a poor conductor of heat
It is a common experience that we wear woolen garments in cold weather to keep
our bodies warm. The air molecules trapped in the knitted wool do not conduct
heat from our bodies to the outside. Blankets, fur coats and feathers are good
insulators because of the trapped air. Even the birds make use of this property in
building their nests, by closely but loosely packing the twigs, straws and leaves in
their nests.
In cold countries, houses are built with double walls of brick with a layer of air in
between them. Also these houses have double glazed window panes with trapped
air in between the glass panes. The trapped air reduces the heat conducted from
the inside to outside. In cold weather, straw is used in preventing plants from
frost.
Relative conductivities
Table 5.1 shows the relative conductivities of different substances at room
temperature taking the conductivity of air as 1. For example, iron conducts 3000
times more as compared to air.
Item Conductivity Item Conductivity
Air 1 Iron 3 000
Wood 6 Brass 4 500
Cardboard 8 Aluminium 8 000
Brick 23 Copper 16 000
Water 25 silver 18 000
Glass (windows) 35
mercury 270
Table 5.1; Relative conductivities of substances
5.5 convection
Convection
Convection is a mode of heat transfer in a fluid by the actual physical movement
of the molecules of the fluid due to temperature difference within fluid.
Experiments to investigate heat transfer fluids
Experiment 5.13: to observe convection current in water
Apparatus
  a long straw
 a beaker containing water
 a crystal of potassium permanganate
Procedure
 With the help of a long straw, drop a small crystal of potassium
permanganate to the centre of the bottom of a flask or a beaker containing
water.
 Heat the flask gently at the centre of the flask. Observe what happens (Fig.
5.10)

Fig. 5.10: Convection currents in water

Observation
Coloured streaks are observed to rise from the bottom to the top
Discussion
The crystal dissolves and the hot water of less density starts rising, displacing the
cold dense water down. The streams of physically moving warm liquid are called
convection currents.
Conclusion
Heat energy is transferred by the convention currents in the liquid. The transfer of
heat by this current is called convection.
Experiment 5.14: To observe convection in air
Apparatus
 A box with a glass window, and two chimneys
 A candle
 Smouldering pieces of wick
Procedure
Take a box with a glass window and two chimneys fixed at the top.
Place a lighted candle under one chimney and hold a smouldering piece of wick
above the other chimney as shown in Fig. 5.11. What do you observe?

Fig. 5.11: Convection currents in air

Observation
Smoke from the smouldering wick is seen to move down through chimney B then
to the candle flame and finally comes out through chimney A.
Discussion
Air above the candle flame becomes warm and its density decreases. Warm air
rises up through chimney A and the cold dense air above chimney B is drawn
down this chimney and passes through the box and up the chimney A. the smoke
particles from the wick enables us to see path of convection current (Fig. 5.11).
Conclusion
Heat is transferred in air through convectional currents.
Experiment 5.15: To illustrate that convection currents are always moving up
In Experiment 5.11 to prove that water is a poor conductor of heat (Fig. 5.8), we
heat the water in the tube at the top and not at the bottom of the tube. This
arrangement of heating is to ensure that convection current is not set up in the
tube.
Conclusion
The convection current can only move upward and not downward.
Experiment 5.16: To illustrate that convection current possess energy
Apparatus
 A thin circular disk
 A card board
 A candle flame
Procedure
 Take a thin circular disk of tin or cardboard and cut out six blades all round
(Fig. 5.12 (a)). Pivot the disk on a bent needle (Fig. 5.12 (b)).
 Hold the disk above the candle flame for some time. Watch what happens.
 Fig. 5.12: A rotating disk
Observation
The disk starts to rotate.
Discussion
The rotation is due to the convection current set up. If a powerful electric bulb is
available you can make a rotating lamp shade.

Fig. 5.13: A rotating lamp shade

Conclusion
Convection current possesses energy. It is for this reason that steam is used to
rotate the turbine in geothermal electric plants.
Application of convection
The principle of convection namely hot fluid rises and cold fluid sinks applies in
different situations in daily life which include:
Windows and ventilators in buildings
As shown in Fig 5.14, warm exhaled air of less density goes out through the
ventilator and fresh air high density enters through the windows at a lower level.

Fig. 5.14: Ventilation in building

Natural convection currents over the earth’s surface
Sea breeze
During the day, the temperature of the land rises faster than the temperature of
sea water and the air over the land becomes warmer than air over the sea water.
The warm air of less density rises from the land allowing the cold dense air over
the sea to blow to the land. This creates a sea breeze in the daytime (Fig. 5.15).
 Fig. 5.15 Sea breeze
Land breeze
During the night, the land cools faster than the sea water. Warm air from the sea
rises and the dense air from the land moves to the sea. This sets up a land breeze
in the sea (Fig. 5.16).

Fig. 5.16: Land breeze

Electrical devices
Electric kettles have their heating coil at the bottom. The refrigerators have the
freezing unit at the top.
5.6 Radiation
If you stand in front of a fireplace, you feel that your body becomes warm. Heat
energy cannot reach you by conduction as air is a poor conductor of heat. How
about convection? The hot air molecules in and around the fireplace can only rise
and cannot reach you by the movement of the air molecules. How does the
energy from the fireplace then reach you? Heat energy must be transferred by a
different mode other than conduction and convection.
Experiment 5.17: To show the transfer of heat energy by a different mode other
than conduction and convection
Apparatus
 A thin tin lid painted black
 Wax
 A thumb tack
 A Bunsen burner
Procedure
 Take a thin tin lid painted black on one side. Stick a thumb tack with melted
wax on the other side.
 Keep the Bunsen burner flame close to the painted side (Fig. 5.17). What
happens?

Fig. 5.17: Radiation

Observation
The wax melts and the thumb tack falls off.
Discussion
As discussed in the case of the fireplace, the energy from the flame reaches the
tin lid and the wax by a different mode other than conduction and convection.
This third mode of heat transfer from the sun travels through empty space
(vacuum) and reaches the Earth. This energy is transferred by radiation. The
surfaces of all luminous bodies emit radiation. Human face also emits some mild
radiations. While conduction and convection need a medium to be present for
their transfer, radiation can take place without a medium.
The amount of heat energy radiated depends upon the temperature of the body.
In Experiment 5.17, if the Bunsen burner is replaced by a candle flame, it will take
a longer time for the wax to melt. The temperature of the candle flame is low
than that of a Bunsen burner.
Conclusion
Heat transfer can take place without contract or in a vacuum. This method of heat
transfer is called radiation.
Experiments to investigate the factors affecting the amount of energy absorbed
or emitted
Experiment 5.18: To illustrate good and bad absorbers
Apparatus
 Two thin tin lid
 Molten wax
 A metal thumb tacks (match stick)
 A Bunsen burner
Procedure
 Take two thin tin lids, one with the inner side shiny and the other with the
inner side painted dull black
 Stick metal thumb tacks (or match sticks) on the outside of each lid using a
little molten wax.
 Keep a Bunsen burner flame midway between the lids as shown in Fig. 5.18.
Watch closely to see what happens.
 Fig. 5.18: Good and bad absorbers
Observation
The thumb tack stuck to the lid of black surface falls whereas the one on the
shiny surface is undisturbed.
Conclusion
Though both lids receive the same amount of heat energy by radiation, the
black surface absorbs more heat than the shiny surface.
A dull black surface is a better absorber of heat radiation than a shiny surface.
Experiment 5.19: To illustrate good and bad emitters
Apparatus
 Three thermometers
 Three cardboards
 Three identical empty cans
Procedure
 Take three identical empty cans of the same volume with their tops
removed. When clean and dry, paint one white and the other black (both
inside and out) and leave the third can shiny.
 Prepare three suitable cardboards covers with holes at the centre. Fill the
cans to the brim with hot water at 60˚C.
  Cover the cans with cardboards and place a thermometer in each can
through the hole at the centre of the cardboard (Fig. 5.19)

Fig. 5.19: Good and bad emitters

 Record the temperature of water in the cans after a certain time interval.
Which can cools the water fastest? Which can takes the longest time to
cool the water?
Observation
The water in the can painted black cools the fastest. The water in the shiny can
takes the longest time to cool.
Conclusion
Dull black surfaces are good emitter of heat while shiny surfaces are bad emitter
of heat.
5.7 Application of heat transfer
Vacuum flask
The vacuum flask popularly known as thermos flask, was originally designed by Sir
James Dewar. It is designed such that the heat transfer by conduction, convection
and radiation between the contents of the flask and its surroundings is reduced to
a minimum.
A vacuum flask, Fig. 5.20 is a double-walled glass container with a vacuum in the
space between the walls. The vacuum is to minimize the transfer of heat by
conduction and convection. The inside of the glass walls, in the vacuum side, is
silvered so as to reduce heat losses by radiation. The felt pads on the sides and at
the bottom support the vessel vertically. The cork lid is a poor conductor of heat.

Fig. 5.20: Vacuum flask

When the hot liquid is stored, the shiny surface does not radiate much heat. The
little that is radiated across the vacuum will be reflected back again, to the hot
liquid, by the silvering on the outer surface. There is however, some heat lost by
conduction up the walls and through the cork.

Caution!: Broken vacuum flasks should be well disposed. The broken

pieces can be a health hazard in our environment.

Uses of aluminium foil

 Used in keeping food ward. Hot food is wrapped with an aluminium foil.
Heat from the food is reflected back in the food by the shinny surface of the
aluminium foil. This makes the food to be warm for some time.
 Use in designing simple solar heater. Aluminium foil is wrapped on the
inner curved surface of a larger dish the dish placed with this shinny surface
face upwards towards the sun. During the daytime, the aluminium surface
reflects sunlight to the focal point of the curved surface that causes raise
temperature at this point of focus. The heat at this point can be used to
heat water for a shower or even cook. The container with water or food is
perfectly placed at the focal point.
Domestic hot water system
A domestic hot water supply system works on the principle off convection
current. A schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 5.21.

Fig. 5.21: Hot water system

Water is heated using fire wood, oil or electricity in the boiler. Hot water from the
boiler goes up to the hot water storage tank through pipe A. cold water flows
down from the cold water storage tank into the boiler through pipe B (called
return pipe). When the hot water is being drawn from the top of the hot water
storage tank, it is replaced by water from the main cold water tank built at the top
of the house. The expansion pipe C not only allows the steam to escape, but also
allows dissolved air, to escape. This ensures that the tanks does not explode due
to the pressure that might be created by the steam produced.
Solar energy
Sun is the main source of energy for us. About 50% of the energy emitted by the
sun is absorbed by the earth and sea. Scientists have embarked on projects to
harness some of this energy for other uses.
Solar heating
Flat plate collectors, called solar panels, are used to heat water. They can heat
water up to 70˚C. A solar panel consists of thin copper pipes, painted black, which
carry the water to be heated. These tubes are fitted in a copper collector plate
which in turn is fitted on to a good thermal insulator in a metal frame. A glass
plate covers the panel (Fig. 5.22). These panels can be fitted on the roof of
houses.

Fig. 5.22: Solar heating

Heat radiation from the sun falls on the tubes and on the collector plate through
the glass plate. The heat radiations trapped inside the panel by the glass plate
heat the water. The hot water is then pumped to a heat exchange coil in a hot
water tank which connected to the domestic hot water system.
Solar concentrations
Large curved mirrors (concave or parabolic) are used to concentrate heat
radiations from the sun to small area at their focal point. If the boiler is placed at
the point of focus, very high temperatures can be reached.
Grass thatched house
Grass thatched roofs of houses have air molecules trapped between the fibres of
grass. Since air is a bad conductor of heat, heat loses by conduction is minimized
from the house hence maintaining the temperature constant inside the house.
 Unit Test 5
1. Bread can be cooked by placing it below but not touching the heating
element. Which process transfer thermal energy from the heating element
to the bread?
A. Conduction C. Convection
B. Radiation D. Insulation
2. Heat from the sun reaches us through?
A. Radiation C. Conduction
B. Convection D. None of the above
3. Heat from the ground at night reach the atmosphere by?
A. Conduction C. Absorption
B. Convection D. Radiation
4. Distinguish between heat and temperature.
5. What are the different modes of heat transfer? Explain clearly their
difference with suitable examples.
6. State three factors which affect heat transfer in metals. Explain how one of
the factors you have chosen affects heat transfer.
7. Describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.
8. Explain who will be comfortable between a person in a dark suit and the
one in a white suit on a hot sunny day.
9. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate that the heat radiated from a
hot body depends upon the temperature of the body.
10.With a suitable diagram, explain the working of a vacuum flask.
11.Explain the following statements:
a) A metallic seat seems to be hotter during the day and colder during the
night than a wooden seat under the same conditions.
b) The bottom of cooking vessels are usually blackened.
c) It is safer to hold the other end of a burning match stick.
12. Suggest an experiment to prove that oil is better conductor of heat than
water.
13.A cross-section of a solar panel fitted to the roof of a house is shown below
(Fig. 5.23).
i. Surface P is dull black whereas surface Q is covered in shiny
aluminium foil. Give a suitable reason for each choice.
ii. What is the purpose of the front glass sheet?
Unit 6 Power and Machines

6.1 Power
Consider an object of mass m being pulled along an inclined plane of length l to a
platform at a height h by two students one at a time. One student takes t seconds
while the other takes 0.5 t seconds (see Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1: Mass m pulled along an inclined plane

Both students do the same amount of work. However, the second student does
the work faster than the first student. Power is about how quickly work can be
done.
The rate of doing work is called power.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

The SI unit of power is J/s or watt (W). 1 watt is equal to 1 J/s.

Watt is the rate of transfer energy of 1 joule per second.
Relationship between power and velocity
Consider a body being moved at a steady rate by a force, F,
Work done = force × distance moved in the direction of force
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
But, = velocity
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Power = force × velocity at which the point of application of force is moving.

P = Fv. The velocity v may be uniform or average.
Example 6.1
A force of 100 N drags a box at a constant velocity of 5 m/s. What is the power of
the source of the force?
Solution
P = Fv
= 100 N × 5 m/s
= 500 W
Experiment 6.1: To measure one’s own power output
Apparatus
 A weighing machine
 Stair case
 A stop watch
Procedure
 Working in groups of twos, time each other, in turns, as you run a flight of
stairs as fast as you can (Fig. 6.2). Record the time t taken.
 Then measure your weight, w, using a weighing machine.

Fig. 6.2: Measuring one’s own power output

 Measure the height of step of the staircase. Count the number of steps.
Discussion
Height moved up h = Number of steps n × height of one step x
h=n×x
Time taken to move height, h = t
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑤×ℎ
P= = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑡
𝑤×ℎ
=
𝑡
𝑤×ℎ
P=
𝑡

If x is a metres, w in newtons and t in seconds the power is in watts.

Example 6.2
A student of mass 45 kg runs up a flight of 40 steps in a stair case each 15 cm in
12 seconds. Find the power of the student.
Solution
Work done = force × distance
= weight × distance
= 450 × 40 × 0.15
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
450 × 40 × 0.15
=
12

= 225 W
Example 6.3
A car engine developed 24 KW while travelling along a level road. If there was a
resistance of 800 N due to friction calculate the maximum speed attained.
Solution
Power = force × velocity
 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Velocity =
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
24 000
=
800

= 30 m/s
Exercise 6.1
1. Power may be calculated using the quantities:
A. Work, force and area C. Work and time
B. Force and Area D. Velocity and time
2. 1 J/S is equal to?
A. 1 watt C. 10 watts
B. 1 energy D. 1 power
3. A car engine produces a forward force of 200 N. this makes the car to move
at steady speed of 20 m/s. What will be the car engine’s power?
A. 4 000 N C. 4 000 W
B. 400 J/S D. 4 000 J
4. Define the term power and give its SI unit.
5. A motor raised a block of mass 72 kg through a vertical height of 2.5 m in
28 s. calculate the:
a) Work done on the block.
b) Useful power supplied by the motor.
6. A person of mass 40 kg runs up a flight of 50 stairs each of height 20 cm in 5
s. Calculate
a) The work done.
b) The average power of the person
c) Explain why the energy the person uses to climb up is greater than
the calculated work done.
7. A car travels at a steady speed of 17 m/s for 20 s. the total resistive force
on the car is 600 N.
a) What is the distance travelled by the car?
b) What is the work done by the car to overcome the resistive force?
c) Calculate the power developed.
 8. A runner of mass 65 kg runs up a steep slope rising through a vertical height
of 40 m in 65 s. Find the power that his muscles must develop in order to
do so.
9. A fork-lift truck raises a 400 kg box through a height of 2.3 m. The case is
then transported horizontally by the truck at 3.0 m/s onto the loading
platform of a lorry.
a) What minimum upward force should the truck exert on the box?
b) How much P.E. is gained by the box?
c) Calculate the K.E of the box while being transported
10.A stone falls vertically through a distance of 20 m. if the mass of the stone
is 3.0 kg,
a) Draw a graph of work done by the gravity against distance.
b) Find the power of the gravitational pull.
6.2 Machines
Machines are devices that make work easier. For example in loading an oil drum
onto a truck, it is easier to roll it up an inclined plane than lifting it up onto the
truck (see Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.3: Machines make our work easier

A machine may be defined as any device that facilitates a force applied at one
point to overcome another force at different point in the system. In mechanical
machines the force that is applied is called the effort (E) and the force the
machine must overcome is called the load (L). A machine is therefore a device
which makes work easier.
Terms used in machines
Mechanical advantage of machines, M.A
Machines helps to overcome a large load by applying a small effort i.e. the
machines magnify the force applied. The number of times a machine magnifies
the effort is called the mechanical advantages (MA) of a machine. In other words
the mechanical advantage of any machine is the number of times the load is
greater than the effort. The mechanical advantage is therefore defined as the
ratio of load to the effort. Since mechanical advantage is a ratio, it has no units.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mechanical advantage (M.A) =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

Velocity ratio of a machine, V.R

Velocity ratio (V.R) of a machine is the ratio of the velocity of the effort to the
velocity of the load
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Velocity ratio (V.R) =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Since the effort and the load move for the same time,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Velocity ratio (V.R) = or
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Hence velocity ratio may be defined as the number of times the effort moves
further than the load. Velocity ratio has no units.
Efficiency of machines
For a perfect machine, the work done on the machine by the effort is equal to the
work done by the machine on the load. However, there is no such a machine
because some energy is wasted in overcoming friction and in moving the movable
parts of the machine. Hence more energy is put into the machine than what is
obtained out of it. Thus,
Work input = useful work done + useless work done
To describe the actual performance of a machine we use the term efficiency.
Efficiency tells us what percentage of the work put into a machine is returned as
useful work. Machine is defined as the ratio of its energy output to its energy
input.
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = × 100%
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Or
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Efficiency = × 100% = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

= ×
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
1
= M.A × × 100%
𝑉.𝑅
𝑀.𝐴
Efficiency = ×100%
𝑉.𝑅

The effect of friction on mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency

The mechanical advantage of a machine is affected by the frictional forces
between the parts of the machine present, since a part of the effort has to be
used to overcome friction. However, the velocity ratio does not depend on
friction but rather on the geometry of the moving parts of the machine. Since the
greater friction present the lower the mechanical advantage, the efficiency of a
machine is reduced by friction.
Example 6.4
A machine whose velocity ratio is 8 is used to lift a load of 300 N. The effort
required is 60 N.
a) What is the mechanical advantage of the machine
b) Calculate the efficiency of the machine
Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 300 𝑁
a) Mechanical advantage = = =5
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 60 𝑁

𝑀.𝐴
b) Efficiency = × 100%
𝑉.𝑅

5
= × 100%
8
 = 62.5%
Example 6.5
An effort of 250 N raises a load of 900 N through 5 m in a machine. If the effort
moves through 25 m, find
a) The useful work done in raising the load
b) The work done by the effort
c) The efficiency of the machine
Solution
a) Useful work done in raising the load
= load × distance moved by load
= (900 × 5) = 4 500 J
b) Work done by the effort
= effort × distance moved by effort
= 250 × 25 = 6 250 J

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡

c) Efficiency = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

4 500 𝐽
= × 100%
6 250 𝐽
= 72%
Example 6.6
Calculate the efficiency of a machine if 8 000 J of work is needed to lift a mass of
120 kg through a vertical height of 5 m.
Solution
Work done in lifting the load
= 1 200 × 5 = 6 000 J
Work input = 8 000 J
 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
6 000 𝐽
= × 100%
8 000 𝐽

= 75%
Exercise 6.2
1. A machine requires 6 000 J of energy to lift a mass of 55 kg through a
vertical distance of 8 m. Calculate its efficiency.
2. A machine of efficiency 75% lifts a mass of 90 kg through a vertical distance
of 3 m. Find the work required to operate the machine.
3. A machine used to lift a load to the top of a building under construction has
a velocity ratio of 6. Calculate its efficiency if an effort of 1 200 N is required
to raise a load of 6 000 N. Find the energy wasted when a load of 700 N is
lifted through a distance of 3 m.
4. A crane just lifts 9 940 N when an effort of 116 N is applied. The efficiency
of the crane is 75%. Find its.
a. Mechanical advantage
b. Velocity ratio
Types of simple machines
Simple machines may be classified into two groups i.e. force multipliers and
distance or speed multipliers. Force multipliers are those that allow a small effort
to move a large load e.g. levers. Distance or speed multipliers are those that allow
a small movement of the effort to produce a large movement of the load e.g.
fishing rod, bicycle gear etc. Let us consider some simple machines and show how
they operate.
Inclined plane
An inclined plane is a ramp or slope that enables a load to be more gradually by
using a smaller effort than when it is raised vertically upwards. It usually consists
of a long plank inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal (Fig. 6.4). It is thus easier to
take a heavy load from A and C by dragging along the plank than lifting it upwards
from B to C
 Fig. 6.4: Inclined plane
Velocity ratio of an inclined plane
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝑑)
Velocity ratio (V.R) =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (ℎ)

𝑑
V.R =
ℎ

Mechanical advantage (M.A) of an inclined plane

If the inclined is perfectly smooth (no friction) then the work done by load is equal
to the work done by effort
Load × h = effort × d
Dividing on RHS by h and on LHS by effort, we get;
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑
=
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 ℎ

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
But M.A is given by: M.A =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝑑)

Mechanical advantage =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (ℎ)

𝑑
M.A =
ℎ
𝑑
Mechanical advantage is greater than one since is more than one. In practice, if
ℎ
the effort needed is more than expected value of energy needed to overcome
friction. The mechanical advantage is usually less than calculated values due to
frictional force.
Note: Lifting a load through the vertical height, h, requires more energy. Since the
work is being done against the gravity, the effort applied is used overcome the
gravitational pull of the load.
Experiment 6.2: To show how the length of the inclined plane affects the
mechanical advantage
Apparatus
 An inclined plane
 A trolley load
 Slotted masses
 1 metre long wire
Procedure
 Measure the mass of a trolley. Place it on an inclined plane of length l, (see
Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5: How the length of inclined plane affects the mechanical advantage.
 Add slotted masses until the trolley just begins to move up the plane.
Record the values of the load, effort and the length l of the inclined plane.
 Repeat the experiment with inclined planes of different lengths, l. Make
sure the height, h, and the load are kept constant. Record the results in
Table 6.1. What happens to the applied effort when the length of the
incline plane is increased?
𝐿
Effort (E) (N) Length (l) (m) Mechanical advantage =
𝐸
 Table 6.1
Observation
When the length l is increased the effort applied is decreased.
Discussion
Work done on the load = load × distance moved by the load
=L×h
Work done on the effort = effort × distance moved by the effort
=E×l
But the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the effort I.e.
El = L h.
𝐿ℎ 𝑚𝑔ℎ
E= = since L = mg
𝑙 𝑙

But, mgh is a constant

1
Eα
𝑙

Conclusion
A small effort applied over a long distance overcomes a great load. The longer the
length of the inclined plane the lower the mechanical advantage.
Exercise 6.3
1. A student wanted to put 10 boxes of salt at the top of the platform using an
inclined plane (Fig. 6.6). If the resistance due to friction is 10 N, calculate
Fig. 6.6
 a) The work done in moving the 10 boxes.
b) The efficiency of this arrangement.
c) The effort required to raise one box to the platform.
2. A car of mass 2 000 kg is moving up an inclined plane through a vertical
height of 20 m. Calculate the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane if
the car covers a distance of 30 m.
3. A body of mass 200 kg is pulled along an inclined plane by a force of 1 500
N as shown in Fig. 6.7 below

Fig. 6.7
Calculate
a) Mechanical advantage
b) Velocity ratio
c) Efficiency of the inclined plane
Pulleys
A pulley is usually a grooved wheel or rim. Pulleys are used to change the
direction of a force. Let us consider three types of pulleys i.e. single fixed, single
moving and block and tackle.
Single fixed pulley
Fig. 6.8 shows a single fixed pulley being used to lift a
load. This type of pulley has a fixed support which does
not move with either the load or the effort. The tension
in the rope is the same throughout. Therefore, the load
is equal to the effort if there is no loss of energy. The
mechanical advantage is therefore 1. The only
advantage we get using such a machine is convenience
and ease of raising the load.
Since some energy is wasted in the bearing of the
pulley and in lifting the weight of the rope, the mechanical advantage is slightly
less than 1. The load moves the same distance as the effort and therefore the
velocity ratio of a single fixed pulley is 1. Examples of a single fixed pulley are as
shown in Fig. 6.9

Fig. 6.9: Examples of a single fixed pulley

The single moving pulley
Fig. 610 shows a single movable pulley. The total force supporting the load is
given by the tension, T, plus effort, E, but since the pulley is moving up, the
tension is equal to the effort. Therefore, the upwards force is equal to twice the
effort (2E). Hence the load is equal to twice the effort (2E).
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2𝐸
Mechanical advantage = = =2
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸
However, since you have also to lift the pulley, the mechanical advantage will be
slightly less than 2. Experiments shows that the effort moves twice the distance
moved by the load. Therefore
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Velocity ratio = =2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Fig. 6.10: A single movable pulley

A block and tackle
A block and tackle consists of two pulley sets. One set is fixed and other is allowed
to move. The pulleys are usually assembled side by side in a block or frame on the
same axle as shown in Fig. 6.11 (a). The pulleys and the ropes are called the
tackle. To be able to see clearly how the ropes are wound, the pulleys are usually
drawn below each other as shown in Fig. 6.11 (b).

Fig. 6.11: Block and tackle systems.

Experiment 6.3: To determine the velocity ratio of a block and tackle
Apparatus
 Block and tackle pulley
 A metre rule
 A load
Procedure
 Set up a block and tackle system with two pulleys in the lower block and
two pulleys in the upper block as shown in Fig. 6.11 (b) above.
 Count the number of sections of string supporting the lower block.
 Raise the load by any length, l, by pulling the effort downwards. Measure
the distance, e, moved by the effort. Record the result in a table. (Table 6.2)
Distance Distance
moved by moved by
effort (e) cm load l cm
10
20
30
Table 6.2
 Repeat the experiment by increasing the distance moved by the effort
 Plot a graph of e, against, l (Fig. 6.12). Determine the gradient of the graph.
Observation
The number of strings supporting the load is 4.
Discussion
When we draw a graph of e (cm) against L (cm), we get, the graph as similar to
the one in Fig 6.12.
 Fig. 6.12: Graphs of the effort against the load
∆𝑒
The gradient , which is the velocity ratio. Comparing the value of the gradient
∆𝑙
with the number of sections of string supporting the lower block. – They are the
same (4).
Conclusion
Velocity ratio of a block and tackle pulley is equal to the number of strings
supporting the lower block.
Precaution: the weight of the block in the lower section of the system has to be
considered as this increases the load to be lifted.
Experiment 6.4: To determine the mechanical advantage of a block and tackle
procedure
 Assemble the apparatus as in Experiment 6.3. For a given load, increases
the effort until the load just begins to rise steadily. Record the value of this
effort in a table.
 Repeat the experiment with other values of load and record the values of
this effort in Table 6.3.
𝐿
Effort Load MA =
𝐸
 Table 6.3
 Calculate for each set of load and effort the mechanical advantage. Plot a
graph of mechanical advantage against the load (Fig. 6.13). Comment on
the shape of the graph.
Observation
Increase in the load leads to an increase of the effort.
When we draw a graph of mechanical advantage against the load, we get a graph
similar to the one in Fig. 6.13 below.

Fig. 6.13: Graph of mechanical advantage against the load

Discussion
As the load increases, the mechanical advantage also increases. When the load is
less than the weight of the lower pulley block, most of the effort is used to
overcome the frictional forces at the axle and the weight of the lower pulley
block. That is, the effort does useless work. However, when the load is larger than
the weight of the lower block, the effort is used to lift the load. This shows that
the machine is more efficient when lifting a load that is greater than the weight of
the lower block. Using the value of the velocity ratio obtained in Experiment 6.3,
calculate the efficiency of the pulley system. Plot a graph of efficiency against
load.
 Fig. 6.14: The graph of efficiency against load
Conclusion
The efficiency of the system improves with larger loads.
Example 6.7
For each of the pulley system shown in
Fig. 6.15. Calculate the
i. Velocity ratio
ii. Mechanical advantage

Fig. 6.15
iii. Efficiency
Solution
a) I). velocity ratio = 2 (number of sections of string supporting the lower
pulley)
200 𝑁
ii). Mechanical advantage =
150 𝑁

4
= = 1.33
3

4 1
iii). Efficiency = ( × ) × 100
3 2
= 66.6%

b) In Fig 6.15 (b)

i. Velocity ratio = 5
ii. Mechanical advantage
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
210 𝑁
= = 3.5
60 𝑁
iii. Efficiency
3.5
= × 100%
5
= 70%

Example 6.8
Draw a diagram of a single string block and tackle system with a velocity ratio of
6. Calculate its efficiency if an effort of 1 500 N is required to raise a load of 5 000
N.
Solution
See Fig. 6.16
 Fig. 6.16
Velocity = 6
1 500 𝑁
Mechanical advantage =
1 500 𝑁
10
=
3
𝑀.𝐴 10 1
Efficiency = × 100% = × × 100%
𝑉.𝑅 3 6

= 55.5%
Example 6.9
A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If its efficiency is 75%.
Find the
a). mechanical advantage
b). load that can be lifted with an effort of 500 n.
c). work done if the load is lifted through a vertical distance of 4.0 m.
d). average rate of working if the work is done in 2 minutes.
Solution
𝑀.𝐴
a). efficiency = × 100%
𝑉.𝑅
𝑀.𝐴
75% = × 100%
4
 75 × 4
Therefore, M.A = =3
100

Mechanical advantage = 3.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
b). mechanical advantage =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
3=
500

Load = 500 × 3
Therefore, Load is 1 500 N.
c). Work = force × distance in the direction of force
= 1 500 × 4
= 6 000 J
d). rate of doing work = power
6 000
Power = = 50 W
120

Exercise
1. Pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. In this system, an effort of 68 N
would just raise a load of 217 n. Find the efficiency of this system.
2. A crane just lift 9 940 N when an effort of 116 n is applied. The efficiency of
the crane is 75%. Find its
a). mechanical advantage b). Velocity ratio
3. Fig. 6.17 shows a pulley system. An effort of 113 N is required to lift a load
of 180 N.

Fig. 6.17
 a). what distance does the effort move when the load moves 1 m?
b). Find the work done by the effort
c). Find the work done by the load.
d). Calculate the efficiency of the system
4. The Fig. 6.18 shows a single fixed pulley.
Calculate it’s

Fig. 6.18
a) V.R b). Efficiency
5. In the system shown in Fig. 6.19, the winding machine exerts a force of
2.0 × 104 N in order to lift a load of 3.2 × 104.
a). What is the velocity ratio?
b). Calculate the M.A
c). Find the efficiency

Fig. 6.19: A winding machine

 6. a) Draw a system of pulleys with two pulleys in the lower and upper block.
b) Describe how you would find experimentally its mechanical advantage.
Levers
Levers are simple machines that apply the principle of moments. A lever is a rigid
bar capable of rotating about a fixed point Called the pivot.
Principle of moments of a force
A moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and perpendicular
distance from the point of the line of action of the force.
Moments of a force about a point = Force (N) × perpendicular distance (m)
=F×d
Principles of levers
The principle of levers states that sum clockwise moment at a point is equal to the
sum of anti-clockwise moment at the same point at equilibrium.
Consider the system in Fig. 6.20

fig. 6.20
Where d1 is load distance (load arm)
D2 is effort distance (effort arm)
Form the system in fig. 6.20.
At balance:
Sum of clockwise moments = sum of the anticlockwise moments
d2 × E = d1 × F
Example 6.10
Fig. 6.21 shows a simple machine in the first class.

Calculate the value of d.

Solution
At equilibrium:
Clockwise moments at a point of action = anticlockwise moments at the same
point
d1 × F1 = d2 × F2
60 N × d1 = 12 cm × 100 N
12 𝑐𝑚 × 100 𝑁
d1 =
60 𝑁

= 20 cm
Example 6.11
A worker uses a crowbar to lift a rock weighing 800 N as shown in Gig. 6.22

Fig. 6.22: Using a crowbar to lift a rock

Calculate the effort, E used to lift the rock.
Solution
At balance
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
2.4 M × E = 0.6 m × 800 N
0.6 𝑚 × 800 𝑁
E =
2.4 𝑚

= 200 N
NOTE: we will deal with principle of moments in senior 3 in details.
There are three types of levers. The difference between these types depends on
the position of the pivot with respect to the load and the effort.
1. The pivot in between the load and the effort. Examples (Fig. 6.23).

Fig. 6.23: Pivot between the load and the effort

2. Load between effort and pivot. Examples (Fig. 6.24).

 Fig. 6.25: Effort between the load and the pivot

Mechanical advantage of levers

Consider a lever with the pivot between the load and the effort (Fig. 6.26).

Fig. 2.26: Mechanical advantage for levers

Taking moment about the pivot
Load × load arm = effort × effort arm
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= , But = mechanical advantage
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑦
Velocity ratio = =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑥
This also applies to the other types of levers
Since effort arm is usually greater than load arm, levers have a mechanical
advantage greater than 1. dL
Velocity ratio for levers
Consider three types of levers in which the load and the effort have moved a
distance d1 and d2 respectively (Fig. 6.27)

𝑦
Triangle = dE =
𝑥
dL
In Fig. 6.27 (a) and (b), y is greater than x. the velocity ratio is therefore greater
than 1. However, in (c), y is less than x, and therefore the velocity ratio is less than
1. Cases (a) and (b) are examples of force multipliers. All force multipliers have
M.A and V.R greater than 1. Case (c) is an example of distance multiplier in which
both the velocity ratio and mechanical advantage are less than 1.
Example 6.12
A lever has a velocity ratio of 4. When an effort of 150 N is applied, a force of 450
N is lifted. Find (a) mechanical advantage (b) efficiency of the lever.
Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 450 𝑁
(a). mechanical advantage = = = 3.0
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 150 𝑁
𝑀.𝐴 3
(b). efficiency = × 100% = × 100%
𝑉.𝑅 4

= 75%
Example 6.13
A worker uses a crow bar 2.0 m long to lift a rock weighing 750 N (Fig. 6.28).

Fig. 6.28
(a). Calculate the position of the pivot in order to apply an effort of 250 N
(b). Find the (i) velocity ratio
(ii) Mechanical advantage
(iii). Efficiency of the lever
(c) Comment on your answer.
(Assuming no energy loss)
Solution
(a) Applying the principle of moments
750x = 250(2-x)
750x = 500 – 250x
1 000 = 500
X = 0.5 m

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
(b) Velocity ratio =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1.5
= =3
0.5
750
Mechanical advantage =
250

=3
𝑀.𝐴 3
Efficiency = × 100% = × 100%
𝑉.𝑅 3

= 100%
 (c) We have assumed that there is no friction and that the crowbar is
weightless
Levers
Levers are simple machines used in a day-to-day life. The following are some of
the types of levers and their uses:
 Bottle openers, lid openers; used to open bottle tops and lids respectively.
 See saw and beam balance; used for playing games and comparing weights
of different objects.
 Hinges are used in closing and opening of the doors, windows etc.
 Spanners are used in tightening and loosening bolts and nuts.
 A pair of scissors or garden shears used in cutting etc.
 Crow bar used in moving heavy loads
Exercise
1. Define the following terms as applied to levers:
(a) Mechanical advantage (b) velocity ratio
2. Find the velocity ratio of the levers shown in Fig. 6.29.

Fig. 6.29
3. Give an example of a lever with a mechanical advantage less than 1. What
is the real advantage of using such a machine?
4. Describe an experiment to determine the velocity ratio of a lever whose
pivot is between the load and the effort.
 Unit Test 6
1. The SI unit of work is
A. Mega watts
B. Kilojoules
C. Joules
D. Watts
2. Which of the following lever is not in the first class lever system?
A. Bottle opener
B. A shear
C. Claw hammer
D. Crow bar
3. What is the formula of efficiency?
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
A. Efficiency = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
B. Efficiency = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
C. Efficiency = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

D. Efficiency = × 100%
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
4. A farmer draws water from a well using the machine shown in Fig. 6.30. The
weight of the bucket and water is 150 N. the force, F exerted by the farmer
is 170 N. The bucket and its content is raised through a height of 15 m.

Fig. 6.30
 (a) What is the name given to such a machine?
(b) Why is the force, F, larger than the weight of the bucket and water?
(c) What distance does the farmer pull the rope?
(d) How much work is done on the bucket and water?
(e) What kind of energy is gained by the bucket?
(f) How much work is done by the farmer?
(g) Where does the energy used by the farmer come from?
(h) Show with a flow diagram the energy conversion in lifting the water
from the well.
5. Fig. 6.31 shows the pulley system. Find
(a) The velocity ratio of the pulley system.
(b) The mechanical advantage, if the system is 80% efficient.
(c) The effort
(d) The work done by the effort in lifting the load through a distance of 0.7
m.
(e) How much energy is wasted?

Fig. 6.31
6. A factory worker lifts a bag of cement of mass 50 kg, carries it horizontally
then up a ramp of length 6.0 m onto a pick-up and finally drops the bag of
cement on the pick-up (Fig. 6.32.)

Fig. 6.32
 (a) Explain the energy changes in the various stages of the movement of the
worker.
(b) During which stages is the worker doing work on the bag of cement.
(c) If the worker has a mass of 60 kg and the ramp is 1.5 m high, find the
(i)Velocity ratio
(ii) Efficiency of the inclined plane if the mechanical advantage is 3.
7. Fig. 6.33 shows the cross-section of a wheel and axle of radius 6.5 cm and
1.5 cm respectively used to lift a load. Calculate the efficiency of the
machine.

Fig. 6.33
8. Define the following terms.
(a). energy
(b). power
(c). work done
(d). Efficiency
(e). mechanical advantage
9. A pulley system has a velocity ratio of 3. Calculate the effort required to lift
load of 600 N, if the system is 75% efficient.
10. Fig. 6.34 shows a pulley system.
(a) What is the velocity ratio of the system?
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the system.
(c) Show the direction of the force on the string.
 Fig. 6.34
11.A block and tackle pulley system has five pulleys. It is used to raise a load
through a height of 20 m with an effort of 100 N. it is 80% efficient.
(a) Is the end of the string attached to the upper or lower block of pulleys if
the upper block has three pulleys? Show it in diagram.
(b) State the velocity ratio of the system
(c) Calculate the load raised
(d) Find the work done by the effort
(e) Find the energy wasted.
12.A man pulls a hand cart with a force of 1 00 N through a distance of 100 m
in 100 s. determine the power developed.
13.An effort of 50 N is applied to a brace of a car’s screw jack whose handle
moves through a circle of a radius 14 cm. The pitch of the screw thread is 3
mm. Calculate the:
(a). velocity ratio of the screw jack.
(b). load raised if the efficiency is 30%.
14. A person of mass 60 kg climbs 16 m up a rope in 20 s. Find the average
power developed by the person.
15. A car is doing work at a rate of 8.0 × 104 W. Calculate the thrust of the
wheels on the ground if the car moves with a constant velocity of 30 m/s.
16. A student of mass 49 kg climbs a staircase to a height of 14.0 m above the
starting point in 55.0 s.
(a) How much force does the student exert in getting to the height level?
 (b) What is the student’s power?
17. A lever system has a velocity ratio of 4. When an effort of 250 N is applied,
a load of 750 N is lifted. Find:
(a) Mechanical advantage of the lever.
(b) Efficiency of the lever.
Unit 7 Electrostatic

7.1 Introduction
You may have observed the following phenomena.
1. Sometimes one can get shock when getting out of a car or touching the
metal knob of the door.
2. Dust particles stick to a window pane when the pane is wiped with a dry
cloth on a dry day.
3. A metal chain is usually attached to the trucks carrying petrol or other
inflammable materials.
These experiences are as a result of electrostatic phenomena. The physics behind
these observations will be clear after going through this unit.
7.2 Electrostatic charging by rubbing
Take a polythene strip and rub it against a material like silk, flannel or fur. Take
the strip near a thin stream of flowing water from a tap. Observe what happens to
the stream of water.
The stream of water is strongly attracted to the polythene strip as shown in Fig.
7.1.

Fig. 7.1: Stream of water attracted to a polythene strip.

When the polythene strip is rubbed against silk, it acquires the attractive
property. We say that the polythene strip has been charged by friction. The
charged polythene strip attracts the thin stream of water.
The charged polythene strip can also attract bit of paper, tiny pieces of cloth, etc.
many substances such as a glass, metals, plastic, ebonite, Perspex when rubbed
with silk, rubber, fur, wool or cat skin acquire the attractive property. This implies
that we can charge bodies by friction. The charges developed on the materials are
at rest and cannot move. We call them static charges. There are two types of
static charges: positive charges and negative charges. The study of static charges
is called electrostatics. Scientists like Benjamin Franklin, and Charles Coulomb
contributed a lot to the development of this branch of physics.
When a material of one kind is rubbed with some other material, both materials
get charged by friction. Where do the charges come from? A simple idea of the
structure of an atom will enable us to understand the mechanism of charging.
We learnt earlier on that matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. For a
long time. Scientists though that the atoms were the smallest building blocks of
matter and that they could not be subdivided further. However, in 1897, a new
particle smaller than an atom was discovered. It was called electron. Later, other
particles called protons and neutrons were discovered. Today we have a better
picture of the atom than in 19th century.
An atom is made up of two parts: A central core called the nucleus, and outer
orbits where electrons go round the nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons closely and tightly packed (Fig. 7.2). The electrons are extremely light
compared to protons and neutrons. They number of protons and electrons are
equal in an atom and hence at atom is always neutral.

Fig. 7.2: Structure of an atom

7.3 Source of electrostatic charging
In some materials, the electrons are not tightly bound to the nucleus. When two
materials are rubbed against each other, the heat energy developed due to
friction, can possibly move some of those loosely held electrons from one
material and transfer them to the other i.e., the electrons may be rubbed off from
one material to the other.
Materials like polythene gain electrons from flannel cloth when rubbed and
become negatively charged. Flannel cloth loses electrons and becomes positively
charged (Fig. 7.3).

Fig. 7.3: Rubbing polythene against flannel cloth

Materials like glass lose electrons to the materials like silk when rubbed and
become positively charged. The material of the silk gains electrons and becomes
negatively charged (Fig. 7.4)

Fig. 7.4: Rubbing glass against silk cloth

A body is said to be negatively charged if it has an excess or surplus of electrons. It
is said to be positively charged if it has a deficiency or shortage of electrons.
It is important to note the following points when materials are charged by
friction:
 1. The excess negative charges on one body is equal to the excess positive
charges on the other. No new charges have been created.
2. During the rubbing process, some materials always acquire the same kinds
of charge whereas some materials may acquire either negative or positive
charges.
3. The quantity of charge produced in some cases may be small and in some
cases the charges ay escape before they are detected. A dry atmosphere
and a clean dry state of the body are essential for holding the electrical
charges.
Observation shows that the nature of charge on a rubbed substances depends
upon the nature of the rubbing material. From experience physicists have
classified the substances in a particular order. The list in Table 7.1 shows such a
classification where the substance higher in the list acquires a negative charge
while the lower one acquires a positive charge. The table only covers some
commonly used substances.
Polythene Ebonite Metals Silk

Flannel or wool Glass Fur

Table 7.1
Example 7.1
Polythene is rubbed with wool. What charge does
(a) Polythene acquire? (b) wool acquire
Solution
(a) Polythene acquires negative charge because polythene is higher in the list
than wool.
(b) Wool acquires a positive charge.
Example 7.2
Glass is rubbed with silk. What charges do the two materials acquire?
Solution
Glass is lower in the list than silk. Therefore, glass acquires positive charge while
silk acquires a negative charge.
7.4 The law of charge
Experiments to investigate the effect of charged bodies
Experiment 7.1: To show the force of repulsion between two charged bodies,
using different materials
Apparatus
 An ebonite rod
 A thread
 Silk
 Polythene rod
Procedure
 Rub an ebonite rod with silk and suspend the rod with a stirrup and thread.
Bring a charged polythene rod near one end of the ebonite rod and observe
what happens (Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5: Charged polythene repels charged ebonite rod

Observation
The charged polythene rod repels the charged ebonite rod.
Discussion
There is a force of repulsion between the two rods.
Conclusion
The two materials repels each other since they acquired the same charges.
Experiment 7.2: To show the force of attraction between two charged bodies
Procedure
 Repeat Experiment 7.1 by taking a charged glass rod near one end of the
suspended charged ebonite rod and observe what happens this time (Fig.
7.6).

Fig. 7.6: A charged glass rod attracts a charged ebonite rod.

Observation
The charged glass rod attracts the charged ebonite rod.
Discussion
In Experiment 7.1, the charged ebonite rod is repelled by the charged polythene
rod whereas in this Experiment, the same ebonite rod is attracted by the charged
glass rod. These experiments shows that the charges on polythene and glass are
unlike.
Conclusion
Unlike charges attract each other.
Experiment 7.3: To show the force of repulsion between two similar charges,
using rods of the same material
Apparatus
 Two polythene rods
  A silk cloth
 A thread
Procedure
 Rub two polythene rods with a silk cloth vigorously and suspend them with
stirrups and thread
 Bring the two suspended rods close to each and observe what happens (Fig.
7.7).

Fig. 7.7: Like charges repel

Observation
The two rods move away from each other.
Discussion
The polythene rods have similar charges and repel each other.
If the above experiment is repeated with two charged glass rods rubbed with silk,
the same effect is observed. The two glass rods have similar charges. They repel
each other.
Conclusion
Like charges or similar charges repel each other.
From the above experiments we can conclude that:
1. The electric charges are of two types: negative and positive.
2. Unlike charges attract each other.
3. Like charges repel each other.
The law of charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
To confirm that a body is charged
Though observed that a charged polythene strip attracts a thin stream of water,
we should take note that the stream of water is uncharged or neutral. So
attraction is not a good test to confirm whether a body is charged or not. A
charged polythene rod is repelled when another charged polythene is brought
close to it. No uncharged bodies are repelled by charged bodies. Repulsion is, the
best test to confirm that a body is charged.
SI unit of charge
The SI unit of quantity of charge is the coulomb (C), named after a famous
scientist called Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736 – 1806).
Earthing
Earthing means to neutralize a charged body. If the charges are low, we can earth
a charged body by touching it with our hand. If the charges are high, the charged
body is connected to a thick metal rod (example: water pipes or metal grills of a
window). The symbol for earthing is . If a negatively charged plate is
connected to the earth, the excess electrons flow from the plate to the earth and
the plate becomes neutral. If a positively charged plate is connected to the earth,
the electrons from the earth move to the plate and neutralize the deficiency of
electrons. The plate becomes neutral.
Caution!: High concentration of charge on a conductor or a device can cause
electric shock. Be careful not to touch any electrical devices and charge
generators. Obey warning signs like “Do not touch with bear hands.”
Electrostatic induction
When a negatively charged polythene rod, called the inducing charge I, is brought
near a metal plate mounted on a wooden stand, a few electrons are repelled from
the end X nearer to the inducing charge (Fig. 7.8). The end Y has gained electrons
while there is a deficiency of electrons in the end X.
 Fig. 7.8: Electrons are repelled from end X
The net or resultant charge of the body XY is still zero (uncharged) since we have
only a redistribution of charges. This process where there is re-distribution of
charges in a body in the presence of an inducing charge is called electrostatic
induction. If I is moved away, the electrons return to the end X.
7.5 Electric field and electric field patterns
We are familiar with the observation that a charged body attracts small pieces of
paper, dust, hair etc. The basic law of electrostatics states that like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. So a charged body can affect other nearby objects
without touching them. This action at a distance can be explained by what is
called the electric field of a charged body.
Experiment 7.4: To demonstrate the electric fields produced by charged bodies
Apparatus
 A pair of straight wire
 Castor oil
 A glass dish
 Semolina powder
Procedure
 Assemble a pair of straight metal wires, called the electrodes, in a shallow
glass so that their ends are just covered by a layer of an insulating liquid like
castor oil or carbon tetrachloride (Fig. 7.9).
 Fig. 7.9: Arrangement to study the electric field
 Apply a very high potential difference, from a suitable power supply, to the
two electrodes so that they have opposite charges.
 Then sprinkle grass seeds or semolina powder on the surface of the liquid.
Observe what happens to the grass seeds or powder and draw the resulting
pattern
 Repeat the experiment with different charges of electrodes and observe
the pattern formed.
 Draw the various patterns and draw the various alignment of the seeds.
Observation
The seeds acquire induced opposite charges at their ends and align themselves in
a particular pattern (Fig. 7.10) (a). This pattern depends upon the charge of the
electrodes.
The above alignment of seeds depict the electric field produced in different
arrangements.
Discussion
An electric field may be described as the region or space surrounding a charge. In
this region, another charged body may move away from or towards the charged
body producing the electric field. In Fig. 7.11, P is a positively charged body and N
is a negatively charged body producing an electric field.
 Fig. 7.11: Force between charges in an electric field
If another light charged body T is introduced in this field, the body T may
experience a force away from P or towards N.
If a body is positively charged and has a charge of 1 coulomb it is called a test
charge or a unit positive charge. A unit positive charge experiences a force in the
electric field.
Conclusion
An electric field is defined as the region where a charged body experiences a
force.
Direction of an electric field
Fig. 7.12 shows the direction of the force acting on the test charge, indicated by
the arrow head. The force is either away from or towards the charge which
creates the field. The direction of the electric field at a particular point is defined
as the direction in which the unit positive charge is free to move when placed at
the point. It should be noted that the force experienced by a negative charge will
be in an opposite direction to that of the electric field.
 Fig. 7.12: Force acting on a negative charge in an electric field
Electric line of force
In an electric field, the electric force exists at all points. The test charge, i.e., the
unit positive charge will be forced to move in a particular direction when placed
at any point in the field. The path along which a unit positive charge would tend
to move in the electric field is called the electric field line or the electric line of
force.
Properties of electric lines of force
1. Lines of force start at 90˚ from the positive charge and end on the negative
charge at 90˚.
2. No two lines of force can ever cross each other.
3. The field lines are ‘elastic’, i.e., the lines tend to contract or expand so that
they never intersect each other.
A line of force may be traced by placing a unit positive charge at any point and
allowing it to move throughout in the direction of the force acting on it. This is
similar to the magnetic line of force in the magnetic field created by a magnet.
Electric field patterns
The electric field pattern around a charged body depends on whether the body is
completely isolated or is in the presence of other bodies. The following are some
examples of electric field patterns for isolated and non-isolated bodies.
1. Fig. 7.13 shows an isolated positive point charge. The field lines are radically
outwards from the positive charge.
 Fig. 7.13: Isolated positive point charge
2. Fig. 7.14 shows an isolated negative point charge. The field lines are readily
inwards towards the negative charge.

Fig. 7.14: Isolated negative point charge

3. Fig. 7.15 shows two equal positive point charges. The field lines start radically
outwards from each charge. The resultant field is due to the electric field
produced by each charge.

Fig. 7.15: Two equal positive point charges

A point N lies midway between the two charges, on the line joining them. Here
the resultant force acting on the unit positive charge is zero and is called a neutral
point. A neutral point in an electric field is one where the resultant force acting on
the unit positive charge is zero (Fig. 7.15).
Force due to A = force due to B. i.e. FA= FB
No field lines exist at the neutral point.
4. Fig. 7.16 shows two equal unlike point charges. The field lines start from
the positive charge and end on the negative charge. In this case, there is no
neutral points as a unit positive charge placed at any point experiences a
force.

Fig. 7.16: Two equal unlike point charges

5. Fig. 7.17 shows two unequal positive point charges. The neutral point N is
closer to the weaker charge.

Fig. 7.17: Two unequal positive point charges

Factors affecting the magnitude of the force between two charged objects
Experiment 7.5: To determine the effect of the quality of charge on the
magnitude of the force between two charged particles.
Apparatus
 Two identical polythene rods A and B
  One Perspex rod C
 Two clamps and stands.
Procedure
 Charge polythene rod A lightly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth and
suspend it on a stand Fig. 7.2 (a).
 Charge polythene rod B strongly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth and
suspend it on a stand Fig. 7.2 (b).
 Charge Perspex rod C strongly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth. Bring
the charged Perspex rod in turns near the suspended polythene rods A and
B. Compare the magnitudes of the force of attraction in both cases. What
do you observe?

Fig. 7.18 (a) Fig. 7.18 (b)

Observation
There is a strong force of attraction between rods A and C than between rods B
and C
Conclusion
Electrostatic force between two charged objects depends on the quantity of the
charge on the two objects. The greater the quantities of charge on the two
objects the greater the force between them.
Experiment 7.6: To determine dependence of the magnitude of force on the
distance of separation.
Procedure
 Using the setup in Fig. 7.18 (a) above:
  Bring the charged Perspex rod C very close to the suspended charged
polythene rod A. Observe the strength of the force of attraction between
the two rods (Fig. 7.19 (a)).
 Bring the charged Perspex C near the suspended charged polythene rod A,
a distance far than in step one (Fig. 7.19 (b)). Observe the strength of the
force of attraction between the two rods. What do you notice?

Fig. 7.19 (a) Fig. 7.19 (b)

Observation
There is a stronger force of attraction between rods A and C when the separation
distance between them is short and vice versa.
Discussion
Electrostatic force between two charged objects depends on the separation
distance between the two charged objects. The greater the distance, the smaller
the force and vice versa.
Magnitude of the force between two charged objects depends:
 Quantity of charge i.e. the greater the quantity of charge, the greater the
force between the body.
 Distance of separation i.e. the greater the distance, the smaller the force.
Exercise
1. Define the following terms: electric field, electric field strength, electric line
of force, neutral point.
2. Is electric field strength a scalar or a vector quantity? Explain your answer.
3. Explain how a negatively charged pointed edge gets discharged by itself.
Leaf electroscope
A leaf electroscope is a sensitive instrument that can be used for detecting and
testing small electric charges. This instrument was invented by a clergy man called
Abraham Bennet at the end of 18th Century.
The leaf electroscope consists of an earthed metal case with transparent plastic
or glass windows. A brass rod is inserted through an insulated cork stopper. A
brass disc or cap is mounted on the rod at the top and a thin metal leaf
(aluminium or gold) is attached to the bottom of the rod. The enclosed case
protects the leaf from air draughts. Fig. 7.21 shows a simplified version of a leaf
electroscope. The inside of the electroscope is warmed with a burner or electric
heater to achieve dry conditions.

Fig. 7.21: Leaf electroscope

Charging a leaf electroscope
Charging by induction
Experiment 7.7: To charge an electroscope by induction
Apparatus
 An electroscope
 A charged polythene rod
Precaution
To ensure that the electroscope is not charged, touch the cap to earth it. To
charge the electroscope, proceed as follows.
Procedure
 1. Bring a negatively charged polythene rod close to the cap. Note what
happens to the leaf of the electroscope (Fig. 7.22 (a)).
2. Without disturbing the rod, touch the cap and note again what happens to
the leaf. (Fig. 7.22 (b)).
3. Keeping the rod in the same position, withdraw your finger. What happens
to the leaf? (Fig. 7.22 (c)).
4. Remove the polythene rod and observe what happens to the leaf (Fig. 7.22
(d)).

Fig. 7.22: Charging a leaf electroscope

Observation
In step 1 the leaf diverges.
In step 2 the leaf collapses.
In step 3 the leaf stays the same.
In step 4 the leaf diverges.
Discussion
When a negatively charged polythene rod is brought close to the cap, the
electrons from the cap are repelled to the leaf. The bottom end of the rod and the
leaf acquires negative charges. The leaf is repelled hence it divergence.
When the cap is touched (earthed), the excess electrons in the leaf and the rod
escape to the earth. The leaf collapses. The positive charges on the cap remain on
it, due to the force of attraction of the inducing rod.
There is no effect when the earth connection is removed. The leaf remains in the
same position. When the polythene rod is moved away from the cap, some of the
positive charges get distributed by the electrostatic induction to the end of the
rod and the leaf. The leaf diverges again. The leaf electroscope is positively
charged.
Conclusion
The leaf electroscope can be negatively charged by using a positively charged
glass rod, instead of a negatively charged rod as in Experiment 7.5
Charging by contact
Experiment 7.8: To charge an electroscope by contact
Apparatus
 Negatively charged polythene rod
 An electroscope
Precaution
 Take a negatively charged polythene rod and rub it a number of times along
the cap and withdraw the rod.
 Note what happens to the leaf of the electroscope (see Fig. 7.23).
 Fig. 7.23: Charging electroscope by contact
Observation
When the cap is being rubbed with the rod R, there is a divergence on the leaf. On
withdrawing the rod, there is still some divergence.
Discussion
During rubbing, the electrons are transferred from the rod to the cap, metal rod
and the leaf. As the rod and the leaf have acquired the same kind of charge, the
leaf is repelled. Hence there is a divergence. The leaf electroscope has been
negatively charged by contact.
The leaf electroscope can also be charged by contact using a charged metal rod
with a rubber or polythene handle. Touch the metal cap with the charged metal
rod and remove the rod.
Conclusion
The leaf diverges showing that the electroscope has been is charged by contact.
Discharging a charged leaf electroscope
Charge a leaf electroscope. Earth the metal cap by touching with a finger. The leaf
immediately collapses showing that the electroscope has been fully discharged.
Experiment 7.9: To identify the type of charge
Apparatus
 A charged electroscope
  A charged polythene rod
Part 1
Precaution
 Take negatively charged electroscope and note the divergence (Fig. 24 (a)).
 Bring a negatively charged polythene rod close to the metal cap. Observe
what happens to the divergences of the leaf (Fig. 7.24(b)).

Fig. 7.24: Identifying the type of charge

Observation
The divergence of the leaf increases.
Discussion
The negatively charged rod repels the electrons from the cap to the leaf. The
quantity of the charge on the leaf increases. Hence, divergence increases.
Therefore, the divergence of a charged leaf electroscope increases, if the object
near the cap has the same charge as the leaf of the electroscope.
Conclusion
The charge on the rod is the same as that of the electroscope i.e. the rod is
negatively charged.
Part II
Precaution
 Repeat the experiment by bringing a positively charged glass rod close to
the metal cap. Observe what happens to the divergence of the leaf (Fig.
7.25 (a)).
  Place your hand close to the metal cap of the electroscope. Note the
position of the leaf.
Observation
 The divergence of the leaf decreases.
 The divergence once again decreases on placing the hand close to the
metal cap.
Discussion
The positively charged glass rod attracts some of the electrons from the leaf to
the cap. The quantity of charge on the leaf decreases. Hence divergence
decreases.
The hand is uncharged body. The hand near the cap acquires the positive charge
by induction which attracts the electrons from the leaf. The electrons move from
the leaf to the cap. The quantity of the charge on the leaf decreases (Fig. 7.25 (b)).
Hence divergence decreases. The decrease in divergence of the leaf is therefore,
not an evidence for the presence of a charged body.

Fig. 7.25: Decrease in divergence is not an evidence for presence of a charged

body
Experiment 7.10: To identity conductors and insulators
Apparatus
 A negatively charged electroscope
 A metal rod
Precaution
 1. Take a negatively charged electroscope. Hold a metal rod, (say copper) and
touch the cap of the electroscope. Observe what happens to the
divergence of the leaf.
2. Repeat the above experiment by holding a wooden rod, say half metre rule
and observe what happens to the divergence of the leaf.
Observation
 In step 1, the leaf collapses
 In step 2, there is no change in divergence
Discussion
In step 1, the electroscope has been earthed and the electroscope discharges
fully. The charges on the electroscope pass easily through the metal rod and get
into the body.
In step 2, the leaf remains in the same position. The charges on the electroscope
are unable to pass through wood and the electroscope is not discharged.
Conclusion
From the above observations, we can classify matter into two groups namely,
materials which allow charges (electrons) to pass through them called conductors
and materials which do not allow the charges (electrons) to pass through them
easily called insulators.
Most metals are good conductors while most non-metals are insulators. The best
metallic conductor is silver followed by copper, gold and aluminium. On the other
hand substances like porcelain, ebonite, dry silk, plastic glass, polythene, etc. are
insulators or bad conductors. Human body is a good conductor whereas air under
normal conditions is an insulator. Ordinary water is a good conductor while pure
water is an insulator.
Uses of a leaf electroscope
A charged electroscope can be used to identify types of charge and to distinguish
between conductors and insulators.
7.6 Effects and application of electrostatics
When large quantities of charges build up on bodies, they may become a
nuisance. On the other hand electrostatic charging is quite useful to mankind. The
following are some effects of electrostatic:
1. One gets a shock on touching the metal knob of the door of a car while
getting out of the car. Electric charges build up on the surface of a car due
to friction with the road as well as with the air molecules. When the metal
knob is touched, charges flow from the knob to the earth through the
person. The discharging of the charges on the surface of the car through
the person gives a shock. If a metal chain is attached to the car on the
outside, the charges can pass easily to the earth and the charges cannot
build up.
It is for this reason that metal chains are attached to a petrol tanker.
If large charges are allowed to pile up on the tanker, even a small spark
produced can cause a fire and the tanker can explode.

2. When a mirror is cleaned with a dry cloth, both the mirror and the cloth get
charged dye to friction. The charged mirror acquires the attractive
property. Dust, thin hair or fluffs can therefore stick to the mirror.
3. Cars are painted using a spray gun. The car is usually earthed and the paint
droplets coming out of the spray gun are given a positive charge. The car
attracts these charged droplets of paint uniformly.
4. Dust and smoke particles are extracted from the inside of the chimney by
electrostatic attraction. This reduces the air pollution which is a health
hazard.
5. Electrostatic induction is used in the photocopying machines.
6. Though rubber is an insulator, special materials called conducive rubber is
used to make aeroplane tyres. The conducive rubber tyres reduce the risk
of an explosion during refueling the aircraft. When the metal sprout of the
fuel pipe touches the petrol tank sparks can be produced leading to an
explosion.
Lightning arrestor
The discharge action of points is utilized in an important device called lightning
arrestor or conductor used to prevent tall building and towers against the
destructive effect of lightning.
A lightning conductor is a thick metal rod. One end is attached to a metal plate
and buried deep in the ground. The other end, which is pointed, sticks up above
the building. The conductor provides a path for electrons to flow easily through it
(Fig. 7.26).
If a positively charged cloud is above the building, a negatively charge will be
induced on the pointed edges of conductor. Electrons concentrate on these
points and by the discharge action of the pointed edges, negative ions are
sprayed into the air and are attracted by the positive charges on the cloud. Thus
the charge on the base of the cloud is reduced. This prevents a large buildup of
charges which otherwise would result in discharges to the earth in the form of
lightning strikes, the huge electrical charge is conducted through the metal rod, to
the earth. Thus the building is saved from any damage. In the absence of a
lightning arrestor, lightning would strike the highest point of a building and a large
current would pass to the earth through building. The heat generated by the
passage of this large current can set fire to the building.
Warming! Do not shelter under a tree during rains. Trees are good conductor of
charges! Touching a tree that is being struck by lightning creates a channel for
charges to flow through your body hence you are electrocuted.
 Unit Test 7
1. A body is said to be negatively charged if?
A. Have excess protons
B. Have excess electrons
C. Have excess atoms
D. Have a deficiency of electrons
2. The SI unit of a charge is
A. An ampere
B. An atom
C. An ohm
D. A coulomb
3. A plastic rod is rubbed with a dry cloth and became positively charged. Why
has the rod become positively charged?
A. It gained electrons
B. It gained neutrons
C. It lost electrons
D. It lost neutrons
4. A glass rod is rubbed with silk. Explain how the silk and the rod acquire
charges.
5. What does the study of electrostatics deal with?
6. What is an electroscope
7. State the law of charges. Explain the law with a suitable example.
8. Two balloons inflated with air are tied with strings and held 1 metre apart.
Both the balloons are rubbed with fur. Why do the balloons move apart
when brought close together?
9. Metal foil bobs X and Y may be charged either positively or negatively. Fig.
727 shows the bobs X and Y when placed near each other. For each
situation, state whether the force between them is repulsive or attractive.
 Fig. 7.27

10.When a charged rod is held close to a metal sphere placed on an insulated

stand. The charge distribution on the sphere is so shown in Fig. 7.28.

Fig. 7.28

a) What is the sign of charge on the rod?

b) Describe a sample method to charge the rod.
c) Explain why the far side of the metal sphere has a positive charge.
d) What happens to the charges on the metal sphere, if the charged rod
is moved away from the sphere?
11. A container with dry chalk powder is covered with a clean glass plate. The
top surface of the plate is rubbed with a piece of fur (Fig. 7.29)>
 Fig. 7.29
State and explain the effects of:
a) Rubbing the lid with fur.
b) Touching the lid with finger after sometime.
12.A negatively charged polythene rod is placed on the pan of a balance. State
and explain what happens to the balance reading if another charged
polythene rod is brought closer to the first (Fig. 7.30).

Fig. 7.30

13. Copy the following diagrams and show the distribution of charges on the
conductor BC placed on an insulated stand. I is a charged rod close to the
end B (Fig. 7.31).
 Fig. 7.31
14.Copy the following diagrams and show the charge on each metal sphere
placed on insulated stands (Fig. 7.32)

Fig. 7.32
15.Draw a diagram to show the important features of a leaf electroscope.

16.Explain. With aid of a suitable diagram, how to charge a leaf electroscope

negatively, by induction.
17. A leaf electroscope is positively charged. Explain how to use this
electroscope to test charge on two rods, where one is negative and the
other positive.
18.What are conductors and insulators? Give three examples of each.
19.Why are metal chains attached to the trucks carrying petrol or other
inflammable materials?
20.Describe the construction of a lightning arrestor and explain how it helps to
neutralize the positive charges on a cloud during thunderstorm.
Unit 8 Light

8.1 Rectilinear propagation of light

Light is a form of energy. It enables us to see the surrounding objects. Light itself
is not visible but its effect is felt by the eye. For example, the track of light
entering a room cannot be seen; but the track becomes visible, if some dust
particles are present in the room. In a cinema theatre, light from the projector to
the screen is visible due to the dust or smoke moving through the path of light.
Stand at a distance in front of a huge tree. Hold your finger close to and in front of
one of your eyes. Close the other eye and try to look at the tree. The tree cannot
be seen. This property of light will become clear, after you go through the
experiment.
Experiment 8.1: To show that light travels in a straight line.
Apparatus
 Soft board
 A plane mirror
 Plasticine
 White sheet of paper
Procedure
 Take three cardboard P, Q and R of equal sizes mounted on wooden stands.
 Make a small hole at the same height and also at equal distances from the
edges on each cardboard. Place the cardboards on a flat surface (Bench).
When a thread is passed through these holes, it should be straight and taut.
This is to ensure that the three pinholes are along the straight line.
 Remove the string without disturbing the setup of the three cardboards.
 Place a lighted candle in front of the hole in the cardboard P and view from
the side of R as shown in Fig. 8.1. What conclusion can you make about the
alignment of the three holes and the manner in which the light travels?
 Fig. 8.1: Investigating how light travels
 Disorganize the arrangement by moving cardboard Q slightly to one side.
Observe what happens
Observation
 When the holes are aligned, light from the candle is seen through the
straight line through the three holes.
 When the holes are not aligned, the light is not seen.
Discussion
The observation shows that light can pass in turn through the pinholes, only if
they lie along the same straight line, suggests that light travels in a straight line.
Conclusion
Scientists use the word rectilinear instead of the phrase in straight lines and
propagated in place of travel. Instead of stating that light travels in a straight line,
we can say that light has the property of rectilinear propagation.
Some useful terms in the study of light
Luminous bodies: These are bodies which emit light on their own. The sun, a
candle flame, etc., are known as self-luminous bodies.
Non-luminous bodies: These are bodies which have no light of their own, but
become visible in the presence of some luminous bodies e.g. moon, door, tree,
etc.
Optical medium: This refers to a substance through which light can pass. A
medium can be transparent, opaque or translucent. A medium like water, air,
glass through which light can pass freely is said to be transparent. A substance like
wood, rock or metal which does not allow the light to pass through is said to be
opaque. Translucent bodies are not very clearly seen. Examples of translucent
bodies include oiled paper and ground glass.
A ray of light: The path along which light travels in a medium is called a ray. A
collection or groups of rays is called a beam. A beam can be parallel, convergent
or divergent (Fig. 8.2).

Fig. 8.2: Beams of light

8.2 Formation of shadows and eclipses
Shadows
A shadow is a shade cast by an object blocking the direct rays of light.
Formation of shadows with a point source of light
A narrow opening through a cardboard forms a point source of light, when
illuminated with light. An opaque object PQ, placed between opening L and a
white screen, obstructs rays of light (Fig. 8.3).
The area between the lines PR and QS receives no light at all. A shadow of PQ is
cast on the screen. The area between R and S is in complete darkness. The region
of complete darkness is called umbra (Latin term meaning shadow).
 Fig. 8.3: A point source of light
Formation of shadows with an extended source of light
A large opening through cardboard forms an extended source of light when
illuminated with light. An opaque object PQ placed between EL and a white
screen obstructs light rays (Fig. 8.4).
The region RS on the screen is in complete darkness. The region RT and SV are in
partial darkness because light comes from only one part of the extended source.
This region of partial darkness is called penumbra (Latin term meaning almost
shadow).

Fig. 8.4: Extended source of light

Eclipses
An important example of the formation of shadows is the occurrence of eclipses.
The term eclipse means that light is blocked or cut off from region of observation.
Two eclipses will be discussed here namely solar eclipse and lunar eclipse.
Solar eclipse
When the moon, revolving around the earth, comes in between the sun and the
earth, the shadow of the moon is formed on the earth. This is called the solar
eclipse or the eclipse of the sun. Depending on the position of the moon, some
parts of the earth lie in the region of umbra and some in the region of penumbra.
Total eclipse occurs in the regions of umbra and partial eclipse in the regions of
penumbra (Fig. 8.5).

Fig. 8.5: The solar eclipse

Lunar eclipse
The moon is a non-luminous object. It can be seen when light from the sun is
incident on it. When we look at the moon, we see only the shape of the lighted
portion. When the earth comes in between the sun and the moon, lunar eclipse
or the eclipse of the moon occurs. Depending on the position of the moon, a total
eclipse or partial eclipse of the moon will occur. Total eclipse will occur if the
moon is in the region of umbra. Partial eclipse will occur if any part of the moon is
in the region of penumbra. (Fig. 8.6).
 Fig. 8.6: The lunar eclipse
Demonstration to show solar and lunar eclipses
In Fig. 8.7 (a) and (b) imagine the source of light as the sun and rubber ball as the
moon revolving around the earth (globe). Fig. 8.7 (a) demonstrates the solar
eclipse while Fig. 8.7 (b) demonstrates the lunar eclipse.

Fig. 8.7: Eclipses

Exercise
1. What is light?
2. (a) What do the scientists mean by the phrase rectilinear propagation of
light?
(b) Suggest a simple experiment to illustrate this property of light.
3. Explain the meaning of the following terms:
(a) A non- luminous object
(b) An opaque object
 (c) A ray and beam of light.
(d) A shadow
4. With a simple labelled diagram distinguish between the terms umbra and
penumbra.
5. Describe, with a suitable labelled diagram, the formation of (a) the total
solar eclipse and (b) lunar eclipse.
8.3 Pinhole camera
A pinhole camera consists of a box with a pinhole on one side and a translucent
screen on the opposite side. Light rays from an object, pass through the pinhole
and form an image on the screen (Fig. 8.8)
Fig. 8.8: Image formed on a pinhole camera
The image formed is real and inverted. (A real image is an image that can be
formed on a screen. An image that cannot be formed on a screen is called a
virtual image).
A pinhole camera has a large depth of field or a large depth of focus.
This means that objects, both far and near from the camera form focused images
on the screen. A lens camera has a limited depth of focus as seen in the
photograph in Fig. 8.9 whereas the frog is in focus, the other details in the
background are out of focus.
Fig. 8.9: Limited field of focus
If the pinhole is made larger, the image becomes blurred (out of focus), bigger
and brighter due to overlapping of many rays (Fig. 8.10). A larger pinhole of a
pinhole camera is really several pinholes put together. Therefore overlapping
images make a bigger but blurred image. The large hole allows more light hence a
brighter image.
 Fig. 8.10: Formation of blurred image due to a large pinhole.
Magnification produced by a pinhole camera
The term magnification refers to how big or how small the image is as compared
to the object. Magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and
the height of the object.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝐼𝑀)
Magnification (m) =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑂𝐵)
𝐼𝑀
m=
𝑂𝐵

Sometimes it becomes difficult to measure the height of the image or the height
of the object accurately. In such cases, magnification can be calculated in terms of
distances. For example, consider a pinhole camera far from a tree and another
one near tree (Fig. 11).

Fig. 8.11: Image formed on a pinhole camera

The height of the image in Fig. 8.11 (a) is smaller compared to the height of the
image in Fig. 8.11 (b). This is because the distance of the tree from the camera in
(a) is more than the distance from the camera in (b). When the object distance is
decreased, magnification increases.
Using the symbols, u, for the object distance (distance between the object and
the pinhole) and, v, for the image distance (distance between the image and the
pinhole), magnification can be defined as the ratio of the distance of the image
from the pinhole to the distance of the object from the pinhole.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑣)
Magnification (m) =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑢)
𝑣
m=
𝑢

Combining the two equations, we can write the formula for magnification as
𝐼𝑀 𝑣
m= =
𝑂𝐵 𝑢

Example 8.1
A pinhole camera of length 20 cm is used to view the image of a tree of height 12
m which is 40 m away from the pinhole. Calculate the height of the image of the
tree obtained on the screen.
Solution
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Magnification, m = =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑀 0.20
m= =
𝑂𝐵 40
𝐼𝑀 0.20
=
12 40
0.20
IM = 12 × = 0.06 m = 6 cm
40

The height of the image of the tree is 6 cm.

Example 8.2
If the pinhole camera is moved by 10 m towards the tree, what will be the height
of the tree on the screen?
Solution
Now the object distance has decreased by 10 m. therefore the new object
distance, u = 30 m
𝐼𝑀 𝑣
Magnification m = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑢
𝐼𝑀 0.20
=
12 40
0.20
IM = 12 ×
40

IM = 0.08 m = 8 cm
The height of the image is 8 cm.
Exercise 8.2
1. Explain, with a labelled diagram, how a simple pinhole camera works.
Describe the size and the nature of the image formed.
2. The distance of the object from the pinhole is increased. Discuss how this
change affects the brightness, sharpness and the size of the image formed.
3. State and explain the effect on the image formed in a pinhole camera, if (a)
the hole is made larger (b) the length of the box is increased.
4. A pinhole camera is used to take the photograph of a person who is 4 m
away from the pinhole. If the length of the box used is 18 cm and the height
of the image of the person is 9 cm, calculate:
a) The magnification produced by the pinhole camera
b) The height of the person
8.4 Reflection on a plane surface
All objects, excepts self-luminous objects, become visible because they bounce
light back to our eyes. This bouncing off of light is called reflection. There are two
types of reflections namely regular and diffuse reflections.
When light is reflected by a plane of a smooth surface, the reflection is regular;
when reflection occurs at a rough surface, it is called a diffuse reflection. (Fig. 8.12
(a) and (b)).
 Fig. 8.12: Reflection of light on different surfaces.
Plane mirror
A thin glass plate coated with silver on one side and a protective layer on the
other side called a plane mirror (Fig. 8.13).

Fig. 8.14 shows a ray of light AB striking the plane mirror at B and bouncing off to
C. The ray AB is called incident ray and the ray BC is called reflected ray. A line
drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the point where the incident
ray and the reflected ray meet is called the normal (BN). The angle between the
incident ray and the normal (<ABN) is called the angle of incidence (<i). The angle
between the reflected ray and the normal (<CBN) is called the angle of reflection
(<r).
Experiment 8.2: To verify the laws of reflection
Part I: using optical pins
Apparatus
 A soft board
 A plane mirror
 Plasticine
 Protractor
 White sheet of paper
 Drawing pin
 4 optical pins
 A ray box
Procedure
 Draw a line PM on a white sheet of paper. Fix the white sheet on a soft-
board with drawing pins.
 Using some Plasticine, set up a plane mirror vertically with its plane
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and the silvered surface on the line
PM (Fig. 8.15 (a)).
 Stick two optical pins O1 and O2, called the object pins, vertically into the
soft board, about 6 or 7 cm apart.
 Keeping the eye along the plane of the plane of the paper and in a
convenient position, look into the mirror. The images of the two pins are
seen. These images appear to be at the rear of the mirror. (Fig. 8.15 (a))>
 Move your head to and fro slowly until in one particular position, the
images of the pins lie straight line.
 Fix a third pin, I1, called image pin, such that this pin and the images of the
first two pins lie along the same straight line.
 Repeat the procedure with the fourth pin I2, so that the image pins I1and
I2and the images of O1 and O2 lie along the same straight line.
 Using a sharp pencil, mark the positions of the four pins with a small circle
and remove the pins and the mirror.
 Join the points O2 and O1 to meet the line PM. Similarly join the points I2
and I1 to meet the line PM. These lines meet at a point B on the line PM.
 At B draw a line BN perpendicular to PM. Measure the angle of incidence
(<i) and the angle of reflection ® (Fig. 8.15 (b)).

Fig. 8.15: Laws of reflection of light using optical pins

 Repeat the experiment for three different angles of incidence and record
the four readings in a table as shown in Table 8.1. What is the relationship
between these two angles?
Angle od incidence, I (˚) Angle of reflection, r(˚)
Part II: Using a ray box
Procedure
 Direct light from a narrow opening of a ray box on a plane mirror placed
over a white sheet of paper in a semi-dark room. What do you see? The
light is reflected as a thin beam as shown in Fig. 6.16.

 Mark two points, O1 and O2, one near the plane mirror and the other very
close to the opening in the light box. Observe the path of the reflected ray
and mark the points I1 and I2, as shown.
 Remove the ray box and join the points O2 and O1 to the line PM. Similarly
join points I2 and I1, to meet line PM. These lines meet at point B on line
PM> at B draw a line BN perpendicular to line PM.
 Measure the angle of incidence (< i) and the angle of reflection (< r).
 Repeat the experiment for three different angles of incidence and record
your readings in a table similar to Table 8.1. What is the relationship
between these two angles?

Observation
 In parts I and II, you will observe that the angle I is equal to angle r, Q2 Q1
joint to the mirror is the same point (B) with I1, I2 and NB.
Discussion
The above observation also show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal, all lie in the plane of the paper.
Conclusion
These observations form the laws of reflection of light.
a) The angle of incidence, i is equal to angle of reflection, r.
b) The incident, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the plane of the
paper.
Laws of reflection
The laws of reflection of light state that:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Image formation
Image formation for a point object
We need a minimum of two incident rays from a point object to the mirror in
order to locate the position of the image using a plane mirror. The reflected rays
from the plane mirror. When produced backwards appear to meet at a point. This
is the position of the image. The image is virtual as it only appears to be there and
it cannot be projected on a screen (Fig. 8.17).

Measure the perpendicular distance (OM) from the point object O to the mirror
and the perpendicular distance (IM) from the position of the virtual image I to the
mirror. The image distance from the mirror is equal to the object distance from
the mirror, OM = 1M
Image formation for an extended object
Place extended object in front of a vertical plane mirror and observe the image
formed (Fig. 8.18). Is the image upright or inverted? What is the size of the
image? The image is erect and the size of the image is the same as the size of the
object.

Fig.8.19 shows a ray diagram showing the image of an extended object.

Lateral inversion
Fig. 8.20 shows the image of a sign board in a mirror as seen by a person keeping
the eye at E. the eye sees the letter P in the signboard on the left hand side, but
the image of the letter P in the mirror is on the right hand side.
The left hand side of the object becomes the right hand side of the image. We say
the image is laterally inverted.

Look at yourself in a plane mirror. If your shirt or blouse pocket is on the left side,
your image appears to have a pocket on the right hand side. However, the image
is upright and of the same size.
From the above observations, we can summarize the characteristics of images
formed by plane mirrors as follows:
1. The size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
2. The image is erect.
3. The image is virtual
4. The distance of the image behind the mirror is equal to the distance of the
object in front of the mirror.
5. The image is laterally inverted.
8.5 Rotation of a plane mirror
In Fig. 8.21 (a), the angle of incidence is 30˚. The angle of reflection is also 30˚. The
angle between the incident rays AB and the reflected ray BC is 30˚ + 30˚ = 60˚.
Therefore <ABC = 60˚. In Fig. 8.21 (b), the mirror M1 is rotated by an angle of 10˚
to the new position M2. The normal BN1 also moves through an angle 10˚.
Therefore, the angle between the two normal N1BN2 = 10˚. In Fig. 8.21 (c), for the
same incident ray AB, the new reflected ray is BD. The new angle of incidence =
30˚ + 10˚ = 40˚. The new angle of reflection = 40˚.
Hence <ABD = 40˚ + 40˚ = 80˚. In Fig. 8.21 (d), the angle between the two
reflected rays BC and BD = 20˚. Observe that when the mirror is rotated through
an angle of 10, the ray is turned through an angle of 20˚ i.e.
For the same incident ray, the angle of rotation of the reflected ray is twice the
angle of rotation of the mirror.

Example 8.3
What is the angle of reflection in each of the following figure (Fig. 8.22 (a) and
(b))?

Solution
In Fig. 8.22(a), the angle of reflection = 30˚
In Fig. 8.22(b), the incident ray is along the normal. Therefore the angle of
incidence = 0˚. Hence the angle of reflection = 0˚. They ray is bounced back along
the normal.
Example 8.4
A ray of light is incident along the normal in a plane mirror. The mirror is then
rotated through an angle of 20˚. Calculate the angle between the first reflected
ray and the second reflected ray.
Solution
Before the rotation, BA is the reflected ray (Fig. 8.23 (a)). When the mirror is
rotated through an angle of 20˚, the normal also moves through an angle of 20˚.

Therefore < i = 20˚ and < r = 20˚.

Hence < ABC = 40˚
The angle between the reflected rays = 40˚ (Fig. 8.23(b))
Example 8.5
Explain with the aid of a ray diagram, how the image of a point object O is seen by
the eye (Fig. 8.24(a)).
Solution
In order to see the image, the reflected rays must reach the eye. The image
distance behind the mirror is equal to the object distance from the mirror (IM =
OM). Hence fix the position of the image first and then draw the two reflected
rays from I to reach the eye of the observer. Finally draw the two incident rays OX
and OY (Fig. 8.24(b)). Produce the reflected rays back to meet at I.
Example 8.6
Complete Fig. 8.25 with suitable rays to show how a person may see his full image
in the mirror.

Fig. 8.25
Solution
First fix the images of the head and the toe, say M and I, at equal distance from
the mirror. The reflected rays from M and I must reach the eyes of the person.
Therefore first draw the reflected rays from M and I to reach the eyes. Draw the
incident rays HX and TY. The person can see his full image IM in the portion of the
mirror XY.

Fig. 8.26
Note
Measure XY and the length of the person TH in Fig. 8.26.
The height of the mirror needed XY is always half the height of a person.
Example 8.7
The ray OA is incident on mirror M1as shown in Fig. 8.27. Draw a second plane
mirror M2 positioned such that ray OA reflected by mirror M1 is again reflected by
the second mirror M2 so as to reach the eye of the observer.
 Fig. 8.27
Solution
< i = 45˚, hence <r = 45˚. AB is the reflected ray (Fig. 8.28(a)) and it has to be
reflected by the second mirror in order to reach the eye. From the eye draw a line
to meet the deflected ray AB at C (Fig. 8.28(b)). At C draw a line CN such that it
divides <ACE into 2 equal parts (Fig.8.28(c). Draw a line CM2 at C such that it is
perpendicular to the line CN (Fig. 8.28(d). This line M2C represents the position of
the second mirror M2 so that the reflected ray can reach the eye.
 Fig. 8.28
Exercise 8.3
1. (a) Define the terms: angle of incidence, angle of reflection, and the
normal.
(b) What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle
of reflection?
2. Fig. 8.29 shows a plane mirror where the angle of incidence is 30˚.
 (a) What is the angle of reflection?
(b) If the angle of incidence is increased to 40˚, with the aid of a sketch
diagram, show that the angle between the two reflected rays is 10˚.
2. State the laws of reflection. Suggest a simple experiment to prove that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
3. Show the appearance of a print FG as seen in plane mirror (Fig. 8.30)>
Fig. 8.30

4. Draw a diagram to show how the eye of a person sees the image
5. A ray of light AB is incident on a mirror M1 at angle of 30˚ as shown in Fig.
8.31. Copy and complete the diagram to show the path of the ray AB after
reflection from mirror M2 and hence calculate the angle of reflection from
the mirror M2.
 6. The ray OA is incident on mirror M1 as shown in the diagram. Draw a
second mirror M2 positioned such that the ray OA reflected by mirror M1 is
again reflected by the second mirror M2 so as to reach the eye of the
observer (Fig. 8.32).

8.6 Parallel mirrors

A bright point object O (e.g. a small bulb of a torch light) is placed between two
parallel mirrors M1 and M2 (Fig. 8.33). I1 is the image formed by the mirror M1 and
I2 is the image formed by the mirror M2. I1 (a virtual image) acts as an object in
front of the mirror M2 and an image I1.2 is formed behind M2. I1.2 acts as an object
in front of the mirror M1 and an image I1.2.1 is formed behind M1.
The image I1.2.1 acts as an object in front of the mirror M2 and forms another
image and so on. In this way the number of images formed is infinite (countless).
But the images become dimmer as the distance travelled keep increasing with
each reflection. It should be noted that the images of I2 are not considered in the
construction above.
This principle of multiple reflections is used in beauty parlours, tailor and barber
shops, etc.
8.7 Mirrors inclined at an angle
Two plane mirrors at 90˚ to each other
O is a bright point object placed between two plane mirrors M1 and M2 as shown
in Fig. 8.34. I1 is the first image formed by M1. I2 is the second image formed by
M2.

The virtual image of I1 in front of the image mirror M2 forms an image I3 behind
the image of mirror M2. Similarly the virtual image I2 in front of the image of
mirror M1 forms an image behind the image mirror M1, which coincides with the
image I3. Hence three images are formed.
Two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 60˚
O is a bright point placed between the two plane mirrors M1 and M2 inclined at an
angle of 60˚ as shown if Fig. 8.35. Image I1 is formed by M1. Image I2 is the second
image formed by M2.
The virtual image I1 (in front of M2) forms an image I3 behind M2. Similarly I2 (in
front of M1) forms an image I4 behind M1. I3 forms an image I5 due to reflection at
M1 and I4 forms an image due to reflection at M2, which coincides with I5. Hence
five images are formed.

Formula to calculate the number of images formed, n, when two mirrors are
inclined at an angle θ
When angle θ is 90˚, the number of images formed, n, is 3. i.e.
360˚
n= -1=3
90˚

When the angle θ is 60˚, the number of images formed, n, is 5. i.e.

360˚
n= -1=5
60˚

In general if the angle between 2 mirrors is θ, the number of images formed is, n,
is given by.
 360˚
n= –1
𝜃

8.8 Application of reflection at plane surfaces

Periscope
A periscope is a device which enables us to see over the top of an obstruction
(e.g. a wall). As shown in Fig. 8.36, a periscope uses two lane mirrors kept parallel
to each other and the polished surfaces facing each other. Each plane mirror
makes an angle of 45˚ with the horizontal. Light from the object OB is turned
through 90˚ at each mirror and reaches the eye.
The final image produced 1M is virtual, erect and the size as the object. The
lateral inversion produced by the two plane mirrors cancel out each other.

Kaleidoscope
A kaleidoscope (or a mirrorscope) is a device (which was originally developed as a
toy) used to produce a series of beautiful symmetrical images. Two plane mirrors
are placed at an angle of 60˚ inside a long tube. At one end of the tube there is a
ground glass plate or a grease-proof paper (translucent) to allow light to fall on
the coloured glass pieces scattered on the glass plate (or the grease proof paper).
These coloured glass pieces act as objects for the mirrors (fig. 8.37 (a) and (b))>
when viewed through the narrow opening from the other side, six identical views
of the object is seen (the object and five b=virtual images) (Fig. 8.37 (c)). If the
original arrangement of the glass pieces is disturbed by shaking the tube, an
entirely different pattern is formed. Though a kaleidoscope was originally
developed as a toy, fashion designers and artists use it to get different colour
configurations and unimaginative perspectives.

Fig. 8.37
Exercise 8.4
1. (a) What is a (i) periscope? (ii) Kaleidoscope?
(b) How many plane mirror are there in each of the above instruments?
(c) State the size and nature of the image formed by a periscope.
2. Draw a simple ray diagram to show the working of a periscope.
3. (a) Two plane mirrors are kept inclined to each other. Calculate the number
of images formed for the following angles of inclination
(i) 120˚ (ii) 90˚ (iii) 60˚ (iv) 30˚
(b) Which of the above set up is used in the construction of a kaleidoscope?
4. A bright point object O is placed between two parallel plane mirrors M1 and
M2 as shown in Fig. 8.38. (not to scale).
 Fig. 8.38
For the object O, mirror M1 forms a virtual image I1 behind the mirror M. I2 is the
image of O in the mirror M2. Show that the image of I2 due to the mirror M1 is 6
cm behind the image I1.
8.9 Refraction of light
In Book 1, we learnt that light travels in a straight line. We also looked at
reflection of light at plane surfaces and the characteristics of images formed
under this property. Now we shall introduce another property of light called
refraction of light.
You may have observed that:
1. A thin rod dipped obliquely into water appears to be bent at the water
surface.
2. A pool of water appears to be shallower than it actually is.
3. A colourful rainbow is formed in the atmosphere usually after some rainfall.
4. A ‘shimmering’ pool of water seems to be ahead of traveler on tarmac road
or desert sand on a hot day.
These and many other similar effects are caused by refraction of light.
8.10 Simple experiments to illustrate refraction of light
Experiment 8.3: To show the appearance of a plastic ruler dipped obliquely into
water
Apparatus
 A plastic ruler
  Clean water
 A transparent container
Procedure
 Dip a plastic ruler into a transparent container of clean water and view the
ruler from the top and the side of the container (Fig. 8.39)

Fig. 8.39: Appearance of a ruler in water

Observation
The ruler appears to be bent at the point where it enters into water.
Experiment 8.4: To determine the direction of a ray of light incident at the
surface of water
Apparatus
 A ray box
 Water in a transparent container
Procedure
 Pass a narrow beam of light into water contained in a transparent vessel in
a semi-dark room and observe the effect (Fig. 8.40).

Fig. 8.40: A ray passing from air into water

Observation
The direction of light passing from air into water changes at the air-water
boundary. A weak reflected ray is also observed from the surface of water, back
into the air.
Experiment 8.5: To determine the direction of light ray passing through a
rectangular glass block
Apparatus
 A rectangular glass block
 A ray box
Procedure
 Pass a narrow beam of light through a rectangular glass block in a semi-dark
room and observe the path of light (Fig. 8.41).

Fig. 8.41: A ray of light passing through a rectangular glass block

Observation
The direction of the ray of light inside the glass changes. Some of the light is also
reflected from the surface of glass. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray.
Experiment 8.6: To investigate how ray of light passes through a triangular glass
prism
Apparatus
 A triangular glass block.
 A ray box
Procedure
 Pass a ray of light through a triangular prism in a semi-dark room and
observe the effect (Fig. 8.42).

Fig. 8.42: A ray of light through a triangular prism.

Observation
There is a change of direction of the ray of light inside the glass. Some of the light
is also reflected from the surface of glass. The emergent ray is not parallel to the
incident ray. This means that it emerges in a new direction.
Experiment 8.7: To show the appearance of a coin inside water
Apparatus
 Two glass containers
 Two identical coins
 Water
Procedure
 Take two glass containers and place identical coins at the bottom of each
container.
 Fill one container with water and observe from the top of the containers in
turn to see the position of the coins in each container (Fig. 8.43).
Observation
In all above experiments, when light travels from air to another medium like
water or glass and vice versa, there is a change in the direction of the path of
light at the boundary of the two media. This property of light is called refraction.
Conclusion
When light travels from one medium to another of different optical density, it
bends. The bending of light is called refraction.
Refraction is caused by: change in velocity of light and light travelling across a
boundary of two media of different densities.
Refraction is the change of direction or bending of light when it travels from one
medium to another.
Refraction is caused by the change of velocity of light as it travels from one
medium to another. Experiments show that the velocity of light in air (vacuum) is
3 × 108 m/s. the velocity of light is less in all the other media. Hence air is
considered as an optically rarer medium. All the other media, are considered as
optically denser media than air.
Terms associated with refraction

Consider a rectangular glass block ABCD (Fig 8.44). AB is a boundary that

separates the two media i.e. air and glass. Ray PQ travelling in air is incident at the
point Q at the boundary. On entering into glass, they ray travels along a path QR
(Experiment 8.5). NQM is the normal drawn at Q t the line AB.

The ray PQ is the incident ray and the ray QR is the refracted ray the angle PQN,
between the incident ray and the normal, is the angle of incidence, i. The angle
RQM, between the refracted ray and the normal, is the angle of refraction, r. The
ray RS is the emergent ray. As seen in Experiment 8.5 the emergent ray RS is
parallel to the incident ray PQ, shown by the dotted line QT.
A ray passing from a rarer medium to a denser medium bends towards the
normal. On the other hand, a ray passing from a denser medium to a rarer
medium bends away from the normal (Fig. 8.45).
At the boundary or the surface that separates the two media, there is a change in
velocity of light that causes the change of direction. However, if light travels at
right angles to the boundary as shown in Fig. 8.45 (c) there is no change in
direction. Light continues to travel in a straight line but the speed of light is
reduced in the glass. This is, sometimes referred to as the normal refraction.
 Fig. 8.45: Refraction of light in different media

8.11 Real and apparent depth

Activity 8.1
Drop a coin into the bottom of a beaker containing water, observe the depth of
coin and state your observations.
Observation
The coin appears to be to the surface than it actually is. The beaker or basin also
appears to be shallower than its actual depth.

Fig. 8.46: Coin in water

Discussion
The coin appears to be at a shallower position than its actual depth due to
refraction of light rays.
Consider Fig 8.47 ray OA is incident along the normal. The ray goes undefeated as
AC at the surface of the two media. Another ray OB, incident obliquely at B and
close to A bends away from the normal and proceeds along BD. When DB is
produced backwards, it meets OC at I. This is the position of the virtual image of
the object O. OA (x) is the real depth of the object below the surface of
separation. IA (y) is the apparent depth of the image below the surface of
separation.

Fig. 847: Image formation in a glass block

Exercise 8.5
1. In Fig. 8.48, the eye can see point P inside an empty cup, but not the coin
inside. Suggest a sample method by which the observer can see the coin
without moving the position of the eye, the coin or the cup

Fig. 8.48
2. The length of a glass block is 6 cm (Fig. 8.49). Using a ray diagram, show
how the eye can see the virtual image of object O, if the refractive index of
glass is 1.50.
3. Describe an experiment to determine the refractive index of a glass block
using two pins.
4. In a transparent liquid container, an air bubble appears to be q2 cm when
viewed from the side and 18 m hen viewed from the other side (Fig. 8.50).
Where exactly is the air bubble, if the length of the tank is 40 cm?

5. The graph in Fig. 8.51 shows the real depth against the apparent depth of a
swimming pool as water is being filled.
 a) Use the graph to calculate the refractive index of water.
b) Which physical property of light changes as light leaves the pool of
water?
6. Describe an experiment to determine the refractive index of water.
7. Copy and complete a ray diagram to show how the eyes see the image of
the dipped part of the pencil (fig. 8.52). (Refractive index of water is 1.33).

8. A pool of water seems to be shallower than the real depth whereas the
apparent height of a star in the sky is more than the real height. Explain this
observation.

8.12 Refraction of light through a prism

A prism has a refracting medium bound by to plane surfaces inclined to each

other at an angle. The two planes are the refracting faces (ADEC and ADFB in (Fig.
8.53 (a)) and the angle between the faces is called the angle of the prism (< CAB in
Fig. 8.53 (a)). The line along which the two faces meet is the refracting edge of the
prism. The face opposite to the angle of the prism is called the base of the prism
(Fig. 8.53 (a)). The section of the prism cut by a plane perpendicular to the edge of
the prism is the principal section of the prism Fig. 8.53 (b)
 Fig. 8.53: Glass prism
When light passes from air into the triangular glass prism (ray PQ), it undergoes
refraction. The refracted ray QR inside the glass bends towards the normal N1 N2.
The emergent ray RS bends away from the normal N3 N4 (Fig. 8.54). Ray PQ
produced meets ray RS produced backwards at T. Notice that, the incident ray has
deviated from its original direction. Angle VTR is called the angle of deviation.
Hence the action of a prism is to deviate light rays.

Monochromatic light and white light

A monochromatic is one that has a single colour and a single frequency or single
wavelength. White light is not monochromatic because it is made up f seven
different colours. Non- monochromatic light is also called composite light
8.13 Dispersion of white light

Dispersion of light is the spitting of white light into its constituent colours after
passing through a refractive material. The following experiment will illustrate
dispersion of white light.
Experiment 8.9: To illustrate dispersion of white light
Apparatus
 A carbon arc lamb
 A prism
 A cardboard with a hole at the centre

Procedure
 Direct a narrow beam of light (such as sunlight, light from carbon arc lamp
or a mercury vapour lamp) from a narrow lit, in a semi-dark room, to an
equilateral glass prism.
 Adjust the angle of incidence until a distinct band of colours is obtained on
a white screen placed on the other side of the prism as shown in Fig. 8.55.

What colours are obtained on the white screen? How many of the colours can
you identify? Is the angle of deviation the same for each colour?

Fig. 8.55: Dispersion of white light forming a spectrum of colours

Discussion
This experiment was first carried out by Sir Isaac Newton. He noticed that
violet light is the most deviated colour while red light is the least deviated
colour.
Its observed that white light is split up into a series as it enters the glass prism.
Different colours are deviated to different angles. The colours are red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These colours gradually blend into one
another.
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion. The
coloured band produced is called visible spectrum (Fig. 8.56).
For the same angle of incidence, each colour has its own angle of refraction
inside the glass prism and angle of deviation.
Therefore each colour travels with its own speed inside glass. For example,
violet light having the least angle of refraction has the greatest refractive index
for glass. This means that the speed of violet light is the least in glass.
If two identical prisms are placed as shown in the Fig. 8.56, the final spectrum
produced is more spread out. This means that the angle of deviation of each
colour is increased.

Fig. 8.56: More spread out spectrum

Conclusion
A white ray disperse into several colours after passing through a prism
Combination of spectrum colours
The dispersion created by one prism can be reversed by a second prism (fig.
8.57). When reversed, a white light parallel to the incident white light emerges
from the second prism.
 Fig. 8.57: Separation and combination of colours by prisms
Exercise 8.6
1. Copy and complete Fig. 8.58 to show the path of a ray of light through the
glass prism. Mark the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation in your
diagram

2. Distinguish between monochromatic and composite light. Give an example

of each.
3. What do you understand by the terms deviation and dispersion.
4. Write down the colours in a visible spectrum in the decreasing order of
angle of deviation.
5. Fig. 8.59 shows the path of a ray of white incident on a glass prism.

a) What name is given to the spreading out of white light inside the
prism?
 b) What name is given to the band of colours seen on the screen?
c) Name two physical properties which change from all the colours
when they enter the prism.
d) Mark the position of violet, blue and red light as seen on the screen.
6. Describe an experiment to illustrate he dispersion of white light.

8.14 Project work

Construction of pinhole camera

Suggest materials
An old cardboard shoe-box or a carton f size 40 cm × 15 cm × 12 cm, a sewing
needle or paper pin. Grease proof paper, tracing paper or frosted glass, black
paint and brush or black paper (optional), a black cloth big enough to cover the
box and the head of the viewer (optional).
Assembly
 If black paint is available, paint the inside of the box black or stick black
paper inside. Pierce a small hole with the tip of a needle or pin on one side.
Cut a small opening on the opposite side and paste a grease proof paper or
a tracing paper (any translucent material will be sufficient).

How to use the assembled model

 Place the box so that the pin hole faces a bright object, say a building on a
sunny day (or a candle in a semi ark room). View the translucent screen (Fig
8.61).
  Cover the box and the head of the viewer with a black cloth to cut off any
stray light entering the box or falling on the translucent screen.

Fig. 8.61: A pinhole camera

Construction of a periscope
Working model
Materials needed
Retort stands, boss and clamp, small pieces of wood or old erasers to hold the
mirrors firmly without breaking, candle.
Assembly
Set up the two mirrors at an angle of 45°, with the horizontal and the silvered
surfaces facing each other as shown and look for the image (Fig. 8.62)

Fig. 8.62: A model periscope

Project: Construction of periscope
Suggested materials
A narrow long cardboard box (e.g. Tennis ball/ shuttle cock containers) or a carton
of cardboard of size 40 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm, two plane mirrors (5 cm × 5 cm),
adhesive tapes, a razor blade or a pair of scissors.
Assembly
 Insert the two mirrors, one at the top and the other at the bottom at an
angle of 45° to the line joining the mirrors (mirror adjustments can be made
later when the image is viewed). Cut suitable openings near each mirror.
How to use

A candle is held near the opening A and the image is seen through the opening B.
Construction of a kaleidoscope
Working model
Materials needed

2 plane mirrors (10 cm × 3 cm) or thin polished tin plate (10 cm × 3 cm) bent at an
angle of 60, some coloured marbles and wooden protractor.
Assembly
Draw a circle of radius 10 cm (or the length of the mirrors chosen) on the top of a
table and divide the circle into six equal segments. Join the ends of the mirrors
with a sticky paper so that the angle between them is 60°. Place the mirrors (or
the bent tin sheet) vertically with the junction at the circle.
Arrange he marbles in the space between the mirrors. Keeping the eye between
the mirrors, look for the five images (Fig. 8.65).
 Fig. 8.65: A model kaleidoscope
Project: Constructing a kaleidoscope
Suggested materials
A long cardboard box (e.g. tennis ball/ shuttle cock containers) open at one end,
brightly coloured glass pieces, two circular ground glasses or a grease proof
paper, adhesive tapes and two plane mirrors (10 cm × 3 cm) or a tin plate as
suggested in the model above.
Assembly
 Insert the two plane mirrors joined together so that the angle between
them is 60° into the box from the open end.

Keep the box vertical with the open end upwards and cover the open end with a
grease proof paper or stick a ground glass.
Scatter the glass pieces over the grease proof paper and place the ground glass
over these glass pieces and fix the glass gently to the box, taking care for the free
movement of the glass pieces. Make a small opening on the other closed side of
the box to enable you to see the inside of the tube (Fig. 8.66 (a) and (b)).
 Fig. 8.66: A kaleidoscope

Unit Test
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is upright. Which row is correct
according to the characteristics of the image?
Laterally inverted Magnified Virtual
A. No Yes Yes
B. Yes Yes Yes
C. Yes No Yes
D. Yes No No
2. The diagram in Fig. 8.68 shows a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror.

Fig. 8.68
What is the angle of reflection?
A. 20°
B. 90°
C. 60°
D. 30°
3. Which diagram in Fig. 8.69 correctly shows a ray of light passing through a
rectangular glass block?

Fig. 8.69
4. Bouncing back of light rays is known as?
A. Dispersion
B. Diffusion
C. Refraction
D. Reflection
5. A ray of light strikes a plane mirror as shown in Fig. 8.70. Copy the diagram
and draw the path of the reflected ray. Mark clearly any two angles which
are equal.

Fig. 8.70

6. Draw the reflected ray of light for the incident ray shown in Fig. 8.71. Now
draw a second mirror like the first mirror arranged so that the reflected ray
 is again reflected. The reflected ray should be parallel to the original path
but in the opposite direction.

Fig. 8.71

7. A triangular object ABC is on one side of a vertical mirror (fig. 8.72). Draw
the image formed by the mirror.

8. Fig. 8.73 shows the path of light PQRS in a simple optical fibre which
undergoes reflection. Calculate the angle between the rays PQ and RS.

9. Distinguish between solar and lunar eclipses.

10.Describe a project on how to make a periscope.
11.Draw rays from the object OB to show the image formed by a pinhole
camera on a screen (Fig. 8.74). Is the image upright or inverted? Is the
image real or virtual?
12.State and explain the effect on the image formed in a pinhole camera if
a) The object distance is decreased
b) The length of the box used is decreased.
13.A pinhole camera forms an image of size 10 cm. The object is 5 m tall and
10 m away from the pinhole. Calculate the length of the pinhole camera.
14.Describe how a kaleidoscope works.
Unit 9 Introduction to Nuclear Physics

9.1 Structure of an atom

In Junior 1, you learnt that matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. For a
long time, scientific activities thought that atoms are the smallest building blocks
of matter and they could not be subdivided further. In 1897, a particle smaller
than an atom called electron was discovered. Today they have a better picture of
an atom. (Fig. 9.1).

An atom is made up of two parts. The central core called the nucleus where
protons + and neutrons n are closely packed and an outer orbit where electrons
go round its nucleus. They carry a negative charge. Protons carry a positive
charge. Neutrons carry no charge. The number of protons and neutrons are
issued in as an atom and hence an atom is always neutral or uncharged.
Charge number or atomic number (Z) is the number of protons inside its nucleus
Mass number or atomic weight (A) is the number of protons and neutrons inside
the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are called the nucleus.
The composition of the atoms of an element is represented as:
A

X
Z
Where X – as symbol for the element
A – atomic mass
Z – atomic number
Example 9.1
Given that Lithium atom 73Li . Identify the charge number, mass number and the
number of neutrons.
Solution
The charge number is 3, i.e. the number of protons inside the nucleus
The mass number is 7, i.e. the number of protons and neutrons inside the
nucleus.
The number of neutrons is equal to 7 – 3 = 4
Example 9.2
Given a Uranium atom, 23892U, determine the charge number, mass number and
the number of neutrons.
Solution
The charge is 92 i.e. the number of protons inside the nucleus
The mass number is 238 i.e. the number of protons and neutrons inside the
nucleus.
The number of neutrons is equal to 238 – 92 = 146
9.2 Isotopes
Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons i.e. isotopes are atoms with the same atomic
number but different mass number.
Example 9.3
Explain why 11H, 21H, 31H are isotopes of hydrogen atom.
Solution
1 2
and 31H have the same number of protons (z = 1) but different mass
1H, 1H
number i.e. different number of neutrons.
In 11H there are no neutrons. In 21H hence 1 neutron and in 31H there are 2
neutrons
Example 9.4
Explain why
12
6C and 146C are isotopes of carbon atom.
Solution
12
6Cand 146C have the same number of protons (z = 6) but different mass number
of neutrons i.e. different number of neutrons.
In 126C , there are 6 neutrons and in 146C there are 8 neutrons.
9.3 Radioactivity
In 1896, Henri Becquerel, a scientist in Paris, placed a few crystals of double
sulphate of potassium and uranium near a photograph plate well wrapped in a
black paper in a light proof drawer. On developing the photographic plate, he
found that the plate had been affected. This observation prompted Becquerel to
conclude that the uranium salt had the power of emitting some invisible
penetrating radiation spontaneously on its own. On further examination, it was
found that the intensity of this radiation was not affected by any variation of
temperature, pressure or application of any electric or magnetic field or any other
external influence. It was further found that the radiations were emitted by all
chemical forms of uranium and the emission of the radiation were attributed to
the nucleus. These radiation were named Becquerel rays. Becquerel’s discovery
led to an intense search by many scientists for other materials that emit
Becquerel rays. Madam Curie, a scientist from Poland discovered a substance
which was 400 times more active than uranium. She called it polonium, in honour
of her native country. Six months later, she and her husband Pierre Curie
discovered another new element millions of times more active than uranium. This
element was named radium. Madam Curie described these elements which are
capable of emitting Becquerel rays as being ‘radioactive’. Radioactivity is
therefore the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of certain substances
which emit Becquerel rays.
9.4 Radioactive decay and half-life
Radioactive decay
Atoms of some elements are known to disintegrate, by emitting either particles or
radiations. It has been shown that these particles or radiations are from the
nucleus of the atom. Such elements are called radioactive elements.
A radioactive elements may change itself into another elements by disintegration.
The process by which an element changes into another element by emitting a
particle (s) or radiations from the nucleus is called radioactive decay.
It is not yet understood what causes a particular atom to disintegrate at a
particular moment. The disintegration is random and haphazard and it is not
possible to predict which atoms are going to decay and when they are likely to
decay. Hence radioactivity is a spontaneous and random process.
9.5 Types of radiations emitted and their properties
A number of experiments were carried out by a physicist called Ernest Rutherford,
to determine the exact nature of radiations emitted by a radioactive substance
during the process of disintegration. On the basis of such experiments, it has been
established that the radiation emitted by a radioactive substance are of three
different types. The radiations are called alpha (α) beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays.
Every radioactive element does not necessarily emit all the types of radiations.
Properties of alpha (α) particles
 1. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, i.e. a helium atom without the two
orbital electrons. An alpha particle is about 8 000 times heavier than an
electron. The charge of an alpha particle is + 2e, where e is the charge of a
proton which is equal to the charge of an electron in magnitude. It thus has
a mass number 4 and atomic number 2.
2. Alpha particles, travel in a straight line in free space.
3. Alpha particles travel almost with the same speed, which is about 1 × 106
m/s.
4. Due to their heavy mass, alpha particles possess a lot of kinetic energy and
also are mono-energetic, since they all have approximately the same
energy.
5. They affect photographic papers, - the ‘fogging’ effect is prominent.
6. They ionize the gas through which they travel
7. They cause fluorescence on certain substance like zinc, sulphide, barium,
platinocyanide, etc.
8. Their range in air is about 5-7 cm. during this distance, they distance, they
ionize the air molecules and lose their energy almost completely.
9. Since they lose their energy in the ionization process, their penetration
power is limited.
10.Alpha particles are deflected in both magnetic and electric fields.
11.Alpha particles get scattered while passing through thin metals foils.
Properties of Beta (β) particles
1. A beta particle is a negatively charged fast moving electron emitted from
the nucleus. During a beta emission, a neutron which is slightly heavier
than a proton, emits an electron and becomes a proton.
Neutron proton + electron
2. Beta particles do not have a well-defined path like alpha particles.
3. Speed of beta particles is about 10-15 times the speed of alpha particles.
The most energetic beta particles are emitted with almost the speed of
light.
4. Beta particles are emitted with different energies.
5. Beta particles affect photographic paper but the effect is slightly less than
that of alpha particles.
 6. Beta particles ionize the gas through which they travel, but their ionizing
power is less than that of alpha particles.
7. Beta particles cause fluorescence on certain substances like zinc sulphide
and other fluorescence materials.
8. The ‘range’ in air of beta particles is a few metres, the maximum range
being about 5 m.
9. The penetrating power of beta particles is more than that of the alpha
particles.
10.Beta particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
Properties of gamma (γ) rays
Gamma rays:
1. Are unchanged electromagnetic radiation having no mass and no charge.
They are like visible light or X-rays, but of very short wavelength (10-11 10-
13 m) and high frequencies. They originate from the energy changes in the
nucleus of an atom. There is no change in the composition of the nucleus
during gamma ray emission.
2. Travel in a straight line, but have no well-defined path.
3. Travel with speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) in air.
4. Possess energy called photon energy. Each gamma ray photon has an
energy = hf, where h is the Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of the
gamma rays emitted.
5. Affect photographic papers, but the effect is the least as compared to alpha
and beta particles.
6. Ionize the gas through which they travel.
7. Cause fluorescence on certain materials.
8. Have an almost infinite range in air.
9. Have the highest penetrating power when compared to alpha and beta
particles.
10.Are not deflected in either electric or magnetic field.
11.Show diffraction effect in crystals and they are transverse in nature.
9.6 Dangers of radioactivity
All radioactive substances are dangerous because the radiations they emitted can
ionize the medium through which they travel. The radiation can cause different
chemical changes in living cells. Since the body absorbs the radiation energy, ions
produced can change or destroy living cells. Widespread damage of cells may
cause death.
Apart from the immediate effect like skin burns, vomiting, diarrhea, there are also
possible delayed effect of radiation like loss of hair, cancer, leukemia and genetic
damage. The leakage of radioactive materials to the ground or atmosphere can
lead to disasters and the damage done to the environment is extensive.
Radioactive waste, produced in the nuclear reactors, are dangerous to health and
continue to be dangerous for a long time. Many people died when a nuclear
reactor exploded in Chernobyl (Russia) in 1986. The atomic bombs dropped in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Japan) in 1945 not only killed many thousands of people,
but the survivors of the explosion suffered from serious mental depression and
genetic damage.

Precautions
When outside the human body, alpha particles do not penetrate far into the body
and therefore the risk is small; but when they come from inside the body the risk
is high. They ionize living cells leading to dehydration. Necessary care must be
taken to avoid radioactive materials being eaten or radiation inhaled from air. No
eating, drinking or smoking is allowed where any radioactive materials are
handled. Disposable gloves, protective clothing (lead lined aprons) and masks are
to be worn. The warning symbol alongside should be displayed clearly at the
prominent places where radioactive materials are kept (Fig. 9.2)
Gamma rays can penetrate deep into the body. People exposed to external
source of gamma rays must be protected by limiting the dosage of radiation using
shielding metal (aluminium, lead), keeping the exposure time as short as possible
and keeping large distance between the source and the person.
People should use remote controlled tools like tongs to handle the radioactive
materials and sit behind a shielding wall made of concrete and lead. People
should use radiation “badges”.
In medicine, the radioactive materials used should have a short half-life so that
the materials reaching the body quickly decays away.
Though the radioactive materials used in the school laboratories have low activity,
they should be kept in lead boxes and handled with tongs, forceps, tweezers, etc.
for safety. The source not be pointed at people.
Radioactive waste must be buried in deep tranches inside the earth far away from
place of human habitation and their activity monitored till they become harmless.
Caution!
Cancer is a killer disease. You should have regular medical checkup.
9.7 Applications of radioactivity
Uses in medicine
Radioactive materials can be used as tracers in medicine. For example, a
radioactive nuclide like iodine- 131, which has a short half-life is used as a tracer
to monitor the function of thyroid gland which controls the metabolism rate (rate
at which the body ‘burns’ its food). Also blood clots can be traced by injecting
radioactive sodium to the body and using detectors to find where the blood flows
stops.
Strong sources of radiation, such as gamma rays emitted by coblt-60, are being
used to kill the harmful tissues such as cancerous cells inside the human body.
The plastic disposable syringes used for inoculations are sealed inside airtight
plastic bags and irradiated with the gamma rays from cobalt-60. This kills all the
bacteria in the plastic bag and remains sterile until ready for use.
Uses in biology and agriculture
Tracer technique are used to monitor how plants take up the fertilizers. Radiation
can be used to sterilize insects and to eliminate pests which destroy crops.
Wheat, maize etc. when irradiated with mild gamma rays can be stored for a long
time without damage.
Uses in industries
Leakages in underground water pipes can be located using gamma ray source of
short half-life.

Fig. 9.3: Leakage in underground pipe

The radiations from the gamma rays source emerge out through the leak in the
steel pipe and give a much higher count rate than the rest of the pipes. Leakages
can be detected without having to dig long distances of the earth.
Also thickness of paper manufactured can be monitored with a beta particle
source having a long half-life. Similarly a gamma ray source could be used to
gauge the thickness of manufactured metal sheets.
Tea leaves packing industries use beta particles sources to monitor the volume of
tea leaves in the packing processes.
Source of electrical energy
The energy released in the fusion process is used to drive a turbine of a generator
to generate electrical energy. Since the fuel required for fusion process (heavy
water 21H ) is available in plenty in the sea, electrical energy from the fusion
process may be the solution to man’s electrical energy crisis.
Unit Test 9
1. Which statement about a carbon nucleus represented by 146C is correct?
A. It contains 6 neutrons.
B. It contains 6 protons
C. It contain 14 electrons.
 D. It contains 8 protons
2. A radioactive nucleus emits a β particle. What happens to the proton
number (atomic number) of the nucleus?
A. It stays the same
B. It decrease by 4
C. It decrease by 2
D. It increase by 1
3. A nuclide of substance X has the symbol 2612X. How many electrons are here
in a neutral atom of substance X?
A. 14
B. 26
C. 38
D. 12
4. How many neutrons and how many protons in nuclear of 23892U?
Neutron Proton
A. 238 92
B. 146 238
C. 146 92
D. 92 146

5. The neutral atoms of all isotopes of the same element contains the same
number of:
A. Neutrons and protons
B. Neutrons only
C. Electrons and neutron
D. Electrons and protons
6. What is meant by the following terms in relation to radioactivity:
a) Randomness.
b) Activity
c) Radioactive decay
d) Half-life
7. a) Define the terms i). Radioactivity ii) background radiation.
b) State 2 possible sources of background radiation
8. What are gamma rays? State three properties of gamma rays which differ
from that of alpha and beta rays.
9. Which property of the radiation from a radioactive source makes it
harmful? Explain.
10. Alpha particles are more dangerous when inside a human body than
outside. Explain.
11. State two hazards which can be inflicted immediately by the strong
radiation from radioactive source and two of long term effects.
12. As a school student, explain the fundamental precautions that should be
taken in handling a radioactive source.
13. State how radioactivity is used in:
(a) Industries (b) archaeology. (c) Medicine