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SQL

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8 views

SQL

Uploaded by

Navya Shree
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

Basic SQL Queries:


• To select all records from a table, you can use SELECT * FROM table_name;.
• To select specific columns from a table, use SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;.
• To filter rows using the WHERE clause, add WHERE followed by your condition, like SELECT
* FROM table_name WHERE column_name = 'value';.
• To sort results using ORDER BY, use SELECT * FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name;.
• To limit the number of results using LIMIT, add LIMIT followed by the number, e.g.,
SELECT * FROM table_name LIMIT 10;.

2. Joins:
• Different types of SQL joins include INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL JOIN.
These combine rows from two or more tables based on related columns.
• To join tables, use a query like SELECT * FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column =
table2.column;.

3. Aggregation Functions:
• SQL aggregation functions (e.g., SUM, COUNT, AVG, MAX, MIN) perform calculations on
columns in a result set.
• Example: SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name; calculates the average of a column.

4. Grouping and HAVING:


• GROUP BY is used to group rows based on a specified column.
• HAVING filters grouped results.
• Example: SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department HAVING
AVG(salary) > 50000;.

5. Subqueries:
• A subquery is a query nested within another query. It can be used to retrieve data for
use in the main query.
• Example: SELECT * FROM table1 WHERE column1 IN (SELECT column2 FROM table2);.

6. Constraints:
• Primary keys uniquely identify rows in a table.
• Foreign keys establish relationships between tables.
• Example: CREATE TABLE orders (order_id INT PRIMARY KEY, customer_id INT, FOREIGN KEY
(customer_id) REFERENCES customers(customer_id));.

7. Normalization:
• Database normalization is the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy and
dependency.
• Benefits include reduced data duplication and improved data integrity.
8. Indexes:
• An index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a
database table.
• Types include B-tree and Hash indexes.

9. Transactions:
• A database transaction is a sequence of SQL statements treated as a single unit.
• ACID properties ensure reliability: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability.

10. Views:
• A database view is a virtual table based on the result of a SELECT query.
• Views simplify complex queries and restrict access to data.

11. Stored Procedures and Functions:


• Stored procedures are sets of SQL statements executed as a single unit.
• Functions return a value.
• Example:
sqlCopy code
CREATE PROCEDURE sp_example AS BEGIN -- SQL statements END ;

12. Normalization Beyond 3rd Normal Form:


• 4th and 5th Normal Forms deal with multi-valued and join dependencies.
• They are essential for very complex data models.

13. SQL Injection:


• SQL injection is a security vulnerability where malicious SQL queries are injected into an
application's input fields.
• Prevent it by using prepared statements or parameterized queries.

14. Indexes and Query Optimization:


• Optimize slow queries by using indexes, writing efficient queries, and denormalizing
data when appropriate.

15. Backup and Restore:


• Use database-specific commands like mysqldump for MySQL to backup and restore
databases.

16. Triggers:
• Triggers are automatic actions that occur in response to specific database events.
• They can be used for data validation, auditing, or maintaining data integrity.
17. NoSQL vs. SQL:
• Compare SQL databases (structured, relational) with NoSQL databases (unstructured or
semi-structured).
• Choice depends on data structure and scalability needs.

18. Self-Joins:
• A self-join is when a table is joined with itself. It's useful for hierarchical data structures.
• Example: SELECT e1.name, e2.name FROM employees e1 INNER JOIN employees e2 ON
e1.manager_id = e2.employee_id.

19. UNION vs. UNION ALL:


• UNION combines and deduplicates rows, while UNION ALL combines all rows, including
duplicates.

20. Differences Between SQL Databases:


• Compare SQL databases like MySQL, PostgreSQL, and SQL Server in terms of features,
performance, and licensing.

21. Database Design:


• Database design involves defining tables, relationships, constraints, and data types to
create an efficient schema.

22. Data Migration:


• Data migration involves transferring data from one database to another using tools or
scripts.

23. Data Types:


• SQL data types include INT, VARCHAR, DATE, among others, each suited for different
types of data.

24. SQL Performance Tuning:


• Techniques for optimization include indexing, query rewriting, and hardware upgrades.

25. Data Modeling:


• Data modeling is the process of creating a visual representation of data structures and
relationships.

26. Concurrency Control:


• SQL handles concurrent transactions using locking mechanisms and isolation levels to
maintain data consistency.

27. Triggers vs. Stored Procedures:


• Triggers are event-driven, while stored procedures are user-invoked.
28. Database Security:
• Secure a SQL database by using strong authentication, access control, and encryption.

29. SQL vs. NoSQL Use Cases:


• Choose SQL for structured data with complex relationships and NoSQL for flexible,
unstructured data.

30. Database Sharding:


• Database sharding involves partitioning data across multiple servers for scalability.

31. Temporal Tables:


• Temporal tables track changes to data over time, useful for historical data analysis.

32. Database Scaling Strategies:


• Horizontal scaling adds more servers, while vertical scaling increases server resources.

33. Database Backup and Recovery Strategies:


• Strategies include full, differential, and incremental backups, with regular testing of
recovery procedures

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