INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

AND

APPLICATION

COE 121

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 DISCLAIMER
THIS DOCUMENT DOES NOT CLAIM ANY ORIGINALITY AND CANNOT BE
USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR PRESCRIBED COURSE TEXTBOOKS. THE
INFORMATION PRESENTED HERE IS A COLLECTION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
THAT INCLUDES BOOKS AS WELL AS FREELY AVAILABLE INTERNET
MATERIAL.

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COE 121 : INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND APPLICATIONS

This course is designed to provide students with comprehensive, systematic

knowledge of fundamental concepts in Computer Science and equip students
with basic practical knowledge in computer applications that form a basis for
subsequent courses as a support course.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the course is to prepare students to be able to relate the
use of computers and their respective courses as well as use them in their
day-to-day work (computer Literacy). During the course, the student will be
expected to develop knowledge of how the computer is organized to perform
its work and use the computer in running various basic applications.
This will be achieved through systematic instructional material and practical
assignments.

During the course the student will be expected to:-

 Acquire knowledge on the applications of computers to different fields
and impact of computers to the society.
 Acquire knowledge on the characteristics and purposes of all the sub-
units in a computer system.
 Understand the number system; perform binary operations in arithmetic
and the conversions to different basis.
 Understand the principles of software systems, operating systems and
the features of WindowsOperating system.
 Understand the use of networks and other data communication facilities.
 Understand the use and features of several application packages such as
word processing software, spreadsheet software, and presentation software.

BROAD AREAS TO BE COVERED

The following are the broad areas to be covered:-

 An introduction to Computer Science, applications to

different fields and impact ofcomputers to the society.
 Computer Systems organization and hardware structure.
 Principles of software systems, operating systems and the features
of Windows Operating system.
 Features and use of several application packages such as
word processing software, spreadsheet software and
presentation software.

TEACHING/ LEARNING METHODS

The course will be implemented using innovative and participatory self-

learning instructionalmaterials issued, assignments and a course project.
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STUDENT ASSESMENT

The student will be expected to take responsibility of the course and the
instructor will provide essential facilitation, guidance in undertaking the
course so as to achieve its objectives.

The student performance will be assessed on the following:-

 Assignments
 End of semester examination.
The assignments and examination marks contribute to the final mark of the course.

LEARNING RESOURCES

There are many learning materials that are available for this course. They
include books, and online materials, Help and support on all Windows
operating systems menu, articles and others. The student will be required to
do wide study on relevant and appropriate materials from the library or
online resources. Some resources that are recommended for this course that
will be found useful include:

Core Reading Material

 June Jamrich Parsons, Dan Oja Schneider, New Perspectives Computer
Concepts 2010: Introductory: 10th Edition. Course Technology Boston USA.
 Joan Preppernau, Joyce Cox, Curtis Frye: Microsoft Office Home and
Student 2007 Step by Step. Barnesandnoble, 2007.
Recommended Reference Material:
 Gary, B.S, Cashman, T.J. and Vermaat, M.E.: Discovering Computers
2010: Living in a Digital World, Complete – Fundamentals: 4th Edition.
Thomson Learning, 2009.

 Morley, Deborah: Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow: 11th

Edition. Thomson Learning, 2006

 Gary B. Shelly, Thomas J. Cashman, Misty E. Vermaat, Microsoft Office

2007: Essentials Concepts and Techniques. Cengage Learning, 2007

Recommended Software.

 Computer Installed with the latest Ms Windows OS and Ms Office suite.

NB/ An older version of Windows OS and Office suite is used in this

material for illustration purposes

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Week 1: Learning objectives

1. Define: - computer, system, data, information, data processing.
2. Differentiate between digital and analogue computers
3. Explain Computers are applied to: - business applications, office automation, science and
engineering, healthcare, education, artificial intelligence, government, homes, arts and
humanities.
4. Benefits of computers
5. Negative impact of computers to the society.

Topics

 Introduction to computers: - terminologies: - computer, system, data,

information, data processing.
 Application of computers to different areas and impacts of computers
in society.

What is a Computer?

A Computer is a high-speed electronic device which when given data and

instructions from an input device will process the data in accordance with the
predefined set of instructions ( program) to produce the desired or required
output and may store the data, instruction and output for future retrieval or use.

It can also be defined as an electronic device that accept data and instructions,
stores them temporarily in its memory awaiting processing, automatically
executes/obeys the sets of the issued instructions to produce information from
the input raw data.

It is described as an electronic device because it uses electric energy in its

logical operations.

What is a System?

A system is the entire set of components, both computer related, and non-
computer related, that provides a service to a user. Or a system is a group of
related parts/components that work together as a unit to realize a common
goal/function.

What is Data?

Data is simply the basic facts or raw facts including numbers and words, given
to a computer during the input operation.

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What is Information?

Information is a term with many meanings depending on context, in

computing, information can be defined as a collection of facts from which
conclusions may be drawn. Information therefore refers to data that has been
processed into a form that has meaning and is useful in decision-making.

Computer Application Areas

a) Business Applications
Computers are used to reduce inventory costs, analyse new markets, analyse
the performance of sales people, make sophisticated financial analysis,
determine production costs, forecast labour needs, and eliminate production
bottlenecks.

The typical business procedures that utilize computers include the following:
(i.) Accounts receivables: To maintain and process records on money
owed to a companyby customers or clients.
(ii.) Accounts payables: To maintain and process records on money
owed by the company to vendors.
(iii.) Payroll: To maintain employee payroll records and process payroll
checks.
(iv.) Inventory control: To maintain records on items or goods on hand,
on quantities ordered, and in general to maintain inventory files by
producing purchase orders on out-of –stock items, o determine
economic order quantities

Computers are widely applicable in the following Business areas:

(i) Banking.

 Banks use computers to process the huge amount of checks and credit
cards transactions that take place daily.
 The Automated teller machines allow the banking transactions to be
carried out day and night. The customer uses a plastic card and selects
the transactions by pressing a series ofbuttons.
 Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): This is the automatic recording of
account transactions and money transfers. However, no money actually
exchanges hands.

(ii) Retailing.

 By use of the Universal Product Code (UPC), and Point-of-Sale

(POS) terminals, computers can greatly enhance the performance of
retail stores. The UPC is a standardized bar code found on most
products in retail outlets. POS terminals are used to record product
sales. The sales person using POS terminal passes the product’s UPC by
using an optical scanner programmed to read the code. The scanner
interprets the code, looks it up on the computer files, and retrieves the
product name and price. The computer then records the transaction and
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 a customer is provided with a receipt.
 Retail computers using POS terminals are also used to update
inventory levels and calculate the sales figures.
 In addition, these systems allow determination of the customer’s credit
status. A credit card number can be entered into the system and the
computer checks the customer’s account and determines if the
transaction is acceptable.

(iii) Manufacturing.

 Many programs are available to manufacturing facilities. Inventory

control is handled by a complex system called Materials Requirement
Planning (MRP). This system allows the manufacturers to enter future
demands into computer and receive a report that lists the scheduling
dates and raw materials needed to manufacture the product to meet
the demands.
 Computer assisted design and computer assisted manufacturing
(CAD/CAM) have greatlyassisted the manufacturing jobs.
 Process control: Computers are used to process continuous flow
materials such as chemicals, petrol, energy etc. Which are complex
activities in nature. Computer equipment is used in these industries to
measure continuously the key variables such as flow of fluid,
pressure and temperature. If the measured quantities deviate from a
prescribed standard, the computer will either notify the supervisor via
a terminal of the discrepancy or automatically make the necessary
adjustments.
 Numerical Control: This is the use of computers to automatically
produce machine tools to required specification. Numerical control
devices can automatically drill, grind, and shape metals according to
some required specifications.

b) Office Automation

Computers perform word processing, electronically handles mails and

messages and handles electronic voice storage and forwarding (using
telephone to dial up a computer to leave messages for other people).

c) Science and Engineering

Computers are used to make millions of complex calculations in seconds.

They are also used in guidance and light control, voice print identification,
earthquake detection, image processing (using the computer to enhance better
understanding of images or pictures), stolen vehicles identification etc.

d) Healthcare

 Computers are used in hospitals for clerical and administrative

functions.
 Personal computers have been used to diagnose potential problems
and prescribe their remedies
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at the scene of an accident. They have
 also been used in ambulances to locateinvalids quickly.
 Information retrieval functions: many hospitals have recently
automated their operations. The patient sits in front of a television
like terminal, where questions are displayed on the
screen. The patient answers the questions by using a pointing device
to point to the correct answer on the screen. Depending on the
answer, the computer can ask more questions. The use of this
automated system has greatly reduced the amount of time required of
the patient and the doctor.
 Computer Assisted Diagnosis: One of the latest innovations in medical
care is the concept of multiphasic testing. Multiphasic testing occurs
when computer equipment is used to perform a series of tests, store the
results of the test, and report the result to the doctor.
 Trained technicians and paramedics use the computer
equipment to perform physical examinations.
 Multiphasic centers use computer equipment to perform
electrocardiograms, X-rays, blood tests vision and hearing tests
blood pressure tests and height and weight measurements.
 The use of Computerised Tomography (CT) Scanners
• A relatively new diagnostic technique is CT Scan which
has provided doctors with the ability to obtain information
about organs that were previously obtainable only through
surgery. The CT scanning technique basically involves rotating
an X-ray tube around a specific area of the body, thereby
producing a detailed photographic slice of the anatomy. Many
hospitals use the computer to develop images that can show
slices through the brain or any other part of the body.

e) Sports

Used to analyse and design new plays, make draft picks, scheduling
competitors etc.

f) Entertainment and Leisure e.g. Musical sounds, computer games etc.

g) Education

Computer aided instructions (CAI) is used to help the students learn other
subjects. Multiple-choice questions appear on the screen for a student to
answer. If the student answers correctly, the computer responds
appropriately and asks another question. CAI helps in teaching all the
subjects.

h) Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems

Using sophisticated programs and computer systems, artificial intelligence

makes the computer act like a human being in making intelligent decisions
and judgement.

i) Government and Military

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  Use of computerized graphics that reconstruct an accident which
can be used in court to counter the police account of what happened.
 In Military: Departments within the armed forces are involved in the
military planning and decision- making. Many of the decisions are
made by high-level officials with the aid of computer- generated
information. Computers are also used by military planners to simulate
wars. Military commanders can practice making decisions based on
the lifelike situation that the computer presents. This allows them to
gain experience without engaging in real battles..
 Law enforcement agencies and intelligence gathering agencies use
computer systems to store information and plan their operations.

j) Computer in the Home

In what has been called a “smart house”, computers are used to help
occupants live healthy and safe by performing many tasks automatically to
help manage the household. These may include waking them up in-case of
intruders coming.

k) Computer in the Arts and Humanities

 Arts: Computers are used by artists to produce art forms.

 Music: Computer generated music is made possible with the use of
music synthesizers.

Characteristics of Computers

The following are the features that make a computer a good tool for
information processing.

a) Versatile: Computers can process many types of information e.g.

Data, texts, voice, pictorial and do different types of tasks.

b) Speed: It works at a very high speed in taking in data and outputting the
information. Computers can process millions of instructions per second

c) Storage: It is able to store large amount of information in manageable

form.

d) Diligence : Computers can work over long periods and doing

repetitive work with consistency and reliability seconds without
showing fatigue.

e) Accuracy: It is very accurate in its processing and errors that do occur

can almost be attributed to human error
f) Retrieval: The information stored in the computer can be retrieved by
more than one person.
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g) Updating of information: It is possible to change stored
information without having to retype.

The following are other advantages of a computer:

h) Information analysis is very easy using computers.

i) They can operate in risky environments such as volcanic sites, lethal
chemical plants, where human life is feared.
j) Computers are not emotional

Negative impacts of Computers in the Society

 Social activities: A high percentage of people who sit at their

computer for too long and some people lose reality as far as social
activities and learning social skills.
 Computers can distract a person so much they lose contact with the
reality around them such as taking time with family, friends and
children.

 Health: Sitting behind a computer all day strains the eyes.

 Creativity: Being on the computer too much takes away the

imagination, though some gain more imaginations as used in
advertising, simulations and digital imagery.
 Less human interactions: People may spend a lot time in
computers either doing productive work or playing games.
 Pollution: With un-managed disposal, obsolete computers pollute
the environment in the form of e-waste.

 Addiction: Over use of computer can breed addiction

especially where people do gaming using computers .
 Privacy: - It's possible for someone to crack passwords and access
private information illegally.

A computer system is made up of three parts:

a) Hardware - physical components of a computer

b) Software - programs that allows the hardware to function.
c) Lifeware - the human being operating the computer.

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Week 2: Learning objectives
1. Classify computers: by type of data accepted, by size, by purpose, by use and by computer
generations.
2. Define computer hardware and give examples.
3. Explain what each part of hardware does.
4. Define peripheral devices and give examples
5. Define computer input devices, give examples and explain their functions.
6. Explain the processing unit of the computer :- central processing unit,
7. Differentiate between the ALU, control and the internal Memory and what they do in a
computer.
8. Differentiate between ROM, RAM and cache types of memory.

Topics

 Classification of computers
 Computer hardware: - input devices, central processing unit,
storage devices and output devices.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are several methods of classifying computers:

a) By the type of data accepted and form in which output

data/information appears (i.e. Digital, Analogue & Hybrid
Computers).
b) Classification by purpose.
c) Classification by generation/age of technology.
d) Classification by size and capabilities.
e) Classification by use.

1. Classification by Type of Data Accepted

a) Digital Computers

They process data that is represented in the form of discrete numbers

or digits such as 0 and 1. Their arithmetic operations and logical
comparisons are based on digits and on other characters that have been
numerically coded.

b) Analogue Computers

They are computers that deal with variable/continuous data/quantities

such as temperature, pressure, humidity etc. The output from them is
often in form of graphs or smooth curves from which the information
can be read. They perform arithmetic operations and logical
comparisons by measuring 11 changes in physical magnitudes such as
 electronic voltage and pressure changes.

c) Hybrid

These are the computers that have the combined features of digital and
analogue computers. Both the digital and the analogue features are built
within the same processor.

2. Classification by Purpose

1. Special Purpose: These are computers designed for a particular job

only. They solve problems of a restricted nature e.g. Weapon
guidance systems or the ones used in digitalwatches.
2. General Purpose: These are computer designed to solve a wide
variety of problems.

3. Classification by Size

a) Mainframe Computer

These are large general-purpose computers with extensive processing,

storage and input/output capabilities. A large number of peripherals can
be attached to them. Atypical application is the airline reservation system.
The airlines have a mainframe computer at their head office where
information of all the flights is stored. Small computers, installed at the
booking offices, are attached to the central data bank so that up to date
information of all flights is always available.

b) Mini – Computers

These are physically smaller computers as compared to mainframes.

They are used for special purpose or small-scale general-purpose
work.

c) Micro – Computers

Various integrated circuits are replaced by a single circuit. They can

be categorized by size and relative capabilities into workstations,
desktops and laptops.

d) Super Computers

They are the largest and the fastest machines.

4. Classification by Use

a) Personal Computer (PC) - a microcomputer designed for

independent use by an individual at work or in the home. Some PC’s
are portable.
b) Home Computers - A low cost microcomputer of limited
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 capabilities designed for domestic use with programs such as playing
games on controlling family finances.
c) Embedded Computers - These computers are within some other
devices/systems but are not accessed directly e.g. Small computers
found in digital watches, video recorder, washing machines etc.

5. Classification by Generation

The first electronic computers were made in 1940’s. Since then a series of
radical breakthroughs in electronics have occurred. The computer
generations are the stages in the evolution of electronic circuitry, hardware,
software, programming languages and other technological developments.

These include:
1) First Generation.(1940- 1956) – Vacuum Tubes
These computers used vacuum tubes as their electrical switching devices.
Their CPU speeds were very low. The input devices were paper tapes or
punched cards. Electronic typewriters, programmed to type by a paper tape
or punched card reader were used for printing reports. They had between
1K and 4K of RAM. The computers received its instructions in machine
language or electrical on/off signals. There were no programming
languages.

The application software available was tabulating, now called spreadsheets.

Since computers could only perform one task a time, the computer work was
done in batches thus the operating system was called batch processing
systems in 1950’s.

2) Second Generation (1956 - 1964) - Transistors

These used transistors, which were much smaller cooler and reliable.
Processing speed has improved by a factor of five.

They utilized keyboards and video display monitors. The first light pen was
used as an input device for drawing on the face of the monitor. High-speed
printer came into use.
RAM grew from 4K to 32K, making it possible for the computer to hold more
data and instructions. Use of magnetic tapes and disks was introduced to
replace permanent storage on computer cards.
The IBM 1401 didn’t have an operating system; instead it used a special
language called Symbolic Programming System (SPS) to create programs.
This generation marked the common use of high- level languages.
FORTRAN (1957) was used for scientific purposes and COBOL (1961) for
business purposes. There were also improvements in system software.
Almost every computer had its unique operating system, programming
language and application software.

3) The Third Generation (1964-1971) – Integrated circuits

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Started with the introduction of IBM 360 in about 1960s which used
integrated circuits (a number of electrical components on a single slice of
silicon) termed as hybrid integrated technology where separate transistors
and diodes were inserted into circuits.

There were several improvements such as:-

 Increased processing speeds
 Increased accuracy.
 Integration of hardware and software.
 The ability to perform several operations simultaneously
 Data communication advances.
Many high level programming languages were developed among them
BASIC and Pascal. IBM created os/360 operating system. Software growth
enhanced due to unbundling, or selling the software separate from the
hardware.

4) The Fourth Generation (1971 - 1988) - Microprocessors

Large-scale integration, a technique for packing more and more circuitry in
a single chip was developed. “4th generation brought major advances in
2nd generation mainframes, in 3rd generation minicomputers and added a
brand new category of machine; the microcomputer or personal computer.
There was dramatic increase in processor speed. The keyboard and the
video monitor have become standard 1/0 devices. The mouse began playing
a major role.
There was introduction of fourth - generation language programs.

5) The Fifth Generation (1983 .............. ) – Artificial Intelligence

Super chip development is truly at the Center of the fifth generation. (A chip
is a thin piece of silicon on which electronic components are etched). Much
advancement is still going on e.g. use of object-oriented languages, artificial
intelligence.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

Revision Questions:

1. Describe the advantages of third generation over the 2nd generation

computer.
2. What were the major problems with using vacuum tubes in
computers?
3. Describe the fourth generation and the start of the fifth generation.
4. What is the primary difference between the first and second-
generation computers? What were some of the advantages of the
second-generation computers over the first generation computers?
5. What are the negative impacts of computers to society?

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 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Computer architecture refers to the design and construction of a computer

system.

Computer System Components

A computer set has the following major elements:-

 Input devices
 Output devices
 The processor (CPU)
 The storage devices
The organization of computer Hardware is based on the Von-Newman
Architecture, which is based on the concept of binary representation of
numbers in the computer. This organization, also known as the computer
theoretical organization, describes how the different types of computer
hardware interact with each other, in the processing of data, so that the
desired results can be achieved. The figure below illustrates the architecture:

SECONDARY MEMORY
OR
AUXILLIARY STORAGE

OUTPUT
INPUT MAIN DEVICES
DEVICES MEMORY

CONTROL Key:

Data Flow
ARITHMETIC /
LOGIC UNIT

Command

Flow

Peripheral Devices

These are equipment that are used with the computer but are not integral
part of it. They include printers, keyboards, monitors, mice, disk drives.

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Input Devices

Input refers to the process of entering programs, commands, user responses

and data into main memory. The most common input devices are:

a) Keyboard

Users input data to a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. As the
user enters the data on the Keyboard it displays on the screen. It has several
keys such as:-

 The function keys labelled with letters F1 - F12. Which perform

different tasks depending onthe software program you are using.
 The arrow keys/cursor control keys used to move the cursor.
 The Data Keys used to enter the letters, numbers and symbols.
 Special purpose keys e.g. Backspace, Del. Shift, Alt., Ctrl, Enter
,Esc., Pause etc.
b) Mouse

This is a small lightweight device that easily fits in the palm of your hand.
Software programs designed to use mouse display a mouse pointer on the
screen. The pointer may be an arrow, small rectangle, an I-beam or even a
hand with a pointed finger.
To move the pointer, you gently slide the mouse around the mouse pad.
Mouse has a language of its own.
E.g.
Point - to move a pointer o a desired spot. Click - press and release the
left hand button.
Double click - press and release button twice as quickly as possible.
Drag - press and hold the right mouse button while moving the pointer
to another location.
Drop - release the mouse button after dragging.

c) Trackball

It is a pointing device that is used as an alternative to a mouse. You roll the

ball to position the pointer on the screen. Unlike the mouse, a trackball
doesn’t move on the desk and therefore requires less space.

d) Scanners

Scanners convert texts, characters or images into a form that can be

processed by the computer.
Other input devices include
e) Touch screens
f) Graphic inputs
g) Optical character reader (OCR)
h) Optical mark reader (OMR)
i) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
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The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the circuitry in a computer that executes instructions to process data.

CPU is the heart of the computer system. It retrieves instructions and data
from RAM, processes them and places the result back into RAM so they can
be displayed or stored.

CPU Architecture
The CPU consists of one or more integrated circuits. In microcomputer the
CPU is a single integrated circuit called a micro-processor.
The CPU has two main parts; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit
(CU).
The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
division and multiplication. It also performs logical operations such as
comparing two numbers. It uses registers to hold the data that is being
processed. In ALU, the results of an arithmetic or logical operation is held
temporarily in the accumulator.
The CU (Control Unit) - directs and coordinates processing and places it in
a special instruction register. The CU then interprets the instruction to find
out what needs to be done. According to its interpretation, the control unit
sends signals to the data bus to fetch data from RAM, and to the ALU to
perform a process.

CPU Performance

CPU performance/speed is influenced by several factors such as clock rate,

word size, cache and instruction set size.

Clock rate
A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing
for all system operations. The “system clock” is not the same as “real-time
clock” that keeps track of the time of day.The system clock sets the speed for
data transport and instruction execution. The clock rate set by the system
clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction.
The time to complete an instruction circle is measured in megahertz (MHz).

Word Size
This refers to the number of bits the CPU can manipulate at a time. e.g.
CPU with 8 - bit word size is referred to as an 8 -bit processor.

Cache
This is a special high-speed memory that give the CPU more rapid access to
data. As you begin a task, the computer anticipates what data the CPU is
likely to need and loads or caches this data into the cache area. The CPU
then takes the data from cache instead of fetching it from RAM, which takes
longer. Therefore more cache means faster processing.
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Instruction Set Complexity

A computer with a complex instruction set is known as a complex

instruction set computer (CISC) and a computer whose CPU has a reduced
instruction set is called a reduced instruction set computer (RISC).
RISC is a microprocessor architecture with a simple collection and highly
customized set of instructions. It is built to minimize the instruction
execution time by optimizing and limiting the number of instructions. It
means each instruction cycle requires only one clock cycle, and each cycle
contains three parameters: fetch, decode and execute. The RISC processor is
also used to perform various complex instructions by combining them into
simpler ones. RISC chips require several transistors, making it cheaper to
design and reduce the execution time for instruction. and has a limited set of
instruction that it performs very quickly. Therefore RISC machine is more
faster than CISC machine for most processing tasks.

Output Devices

Output is the data that has been processed into useful form/information that
can be used by a personor a machine.
Most outputs are in form of reports or graphics. The most used output
devices are printer and monitors

1. Printers

Types of Printers

1) Dot Matrix Printers

Create letters and graphics by striking an inked ribbon with a column of
small wires called pins. By activating some wires in the column, but not
activating others, the printer creates patterns for letters and numbers.
Advantages
 Low operating costs
 Low price
 Can print multi-part forms – Make carbon copies
 Durable
Disadvantages
 Noisy
 Low to medium quality output
 Slow
2) Ink-jet Printers
Produce characters and graphics by spraying ink onto paper. The print-head
is a matrix of fire spray nozzles, patterns are created by activating selected
nozzles.
Advantages
 Moderate price
 Inexpensive to operate 18
  High quality color printouts/high quality output.
 Quiet
 Durable
Disadvantages
 Slow
 Cannot print multi-part forms – cannot make carbon copies
 Poor quality colour compared to laser printers

3) Laser Printers

Use the same technology as the duplicating machines.

Advantages
 Quiet
 High quality output
 Fast
 High quality colour
 Durable

Limitations
 Expensive colour
 Cannot print multi-part forms
 More expensive to operate

Others
4) Daisy wheel printers
5) Thermal printers
6) Chain printers
7) Band printers

2. The Monitor (The Screen)

It lets you see the information you are exchanging with the computer. They
can be either monochrome or colour. Monochrome display only two colours,
either black and white or green and black. The size is measured diagonally
(like TV) in inches e.g. 14”. Inside the monitor is a video display adapter,
which is an expansion card that translates the signal, processed by the CPU
into a format that the monitor can display.

3. Plotters
Used to produce high-quality line drawing, such as building plans, charts or
circuit diagrams. The two types are (a) pen plotters - create image on a sheet
of paper by moving the paper under the tip of pen (b) electrostatic plotters.

4. Computer Output Microfilm

COM is an output technique that records output from a computer as

microscopic images on roll or sheet film.

5. Voice Output
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Consist of spoken words that are conveyed to the user from the computer.
The data that produces voice output is usually created in one of two ways:-

a) A person can talk into a device that will encode the words in digital
pattern. The digital data is then stored on a disk. It can later be
translated back from digital data into voice.

b) Voice Synthesizer:- can transform words stored in main memory

into speech.

20
The System Unit

The system unit also known as a base unit, is the main body of a desktop
computer of the computer system.

Inside the System Unit

In a typical microcomputer, the system unit contains the power supply,

storage devices and the main circuit board with the computer’s main
processor and memory.

The Power Supply

This component converts the AC electricity from the outlet to the DC

electricity for PC uses. A fan keeps the power supply and other components
in the system unit from overheating.

The Main board/Motherboard/Systemboard.

This is the main circuit board that houses the integrated circuits in the system
unit. It contains the microprocessor, the RAM, expansion cards and is
connected to peripheral devices that collect input and produce output.

Computer Storage/Memory

Primary Memory

Memory is electronic circuitry that holds data and program instruction.

Primary Memory is internal memory of the computer. RAM and ROM both
form part of primary memory. The primary memory provides main working
space to the computer. The following terms comes under primary memory
of a computer are discussed below:

Random Access Memory (RAM)

This is an area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds data before
and after it is processed. For example, when you enter a document, the
characters you type usually are not processed right away. They are held in
RAM until you tell the software to carry out process such as printing.

RAM comes in the form of IC chips often called modules or sticks. They can
be plugged directly into the computer’s motherboard and hold the electronic
signals for the binary codes that represent the data. RAM is volatile i.e. if the
computer is turned off or the power goes out, all the data stored in RAM
instantly and permanently disappears.
The most common form of RAM is Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DRAM) which has many tiny capacitors and transistors which are paired to
create a memory cell. The capacitor holds the bit information in the form of
binary codes i.e. 0’s and 1’s. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the
control circuitry on the memory chip to read the capacitor and change its
state. The other type is static RAM (SRAM) which can only retain its
21
contents as long as electrical power is applied to the chip. If the power is
turned off or lost temporarily, its contents will be lost forever. DRAM, on the
other hand, has an extremely short data lifetime-typically about four
milliseconds. This is true even when power is applied constantly, DRAM
controller is to therefore used to periodically refresh the data stored in the
DRAM. By refreshing the data before it expires, the contents of memory can
be kept alive for as long as they are needed. So DRAM is as useful as SRAM
after all.

Functions of the RAM

The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process any data.
The CPU receives instructions from RAM, uses the data in RAM for
processing and keeps the results of processing temporarily in RAM until they
are needed again or stored on disk.

RAM stores user data, operating system instructions and program

instructions temporarily. Every time you turn on your computer, it copies a
set of operating system instructions from disk into RAM. These instructions,
which help control basic computer functions, remain in RAM until you turn
the computer off.
RAM also holds program instructions. When you use a word processing
program, the computer copies the instructions that turn your computer into a
word processor from disk into RAM.

RAM capacity
The storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or
Gigabytes (GB). Most recent micro-computers have between 128 MB – 8
GB of RAM. The amount of RAM your computer needs depends on the
software you use.

Virtual Memory

The computer sometimes uses space on the computers hard disk as an

extension of RAM. A computer’s ability to use disk storage to
simulate RAM is called virtual memory.
Virtual memory allows computers without enough real memory to run large
programs, manipulate large data files and run more than one program at a
time. One disadvantage of a virtual memory is reduced performance.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a set of chips containing instructions that help a computer prepare for
processing tasks. These instructions also called firmware are permanent, and
the only way to change them is to remove the ROM chips from the main
board and replace them with another set.

When you turn on your computer, the CPU receives electrical power and is
ready to begin executing instructions. But because the computer was turned
on, RAM is empty with no instructions for CPU to process. This is when
22
 ROM finds its use.
When you turn on your computer, the CPU performs a series of steps by
following instructions stored in ROM. This series of steps is called the boot
process.
 Masked read- only - memory (MROM)- were hard-wired devices
that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind
of ROMs are known as masked ROMs and they are the cheap type of
ROM to manufacture. 
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) - acts the same as ROM
when it is part of the computer. I.e. it can only be read but its contents
cannot be altered. However the data or programs are not stored in the
memory when they are manufactured. Instead it can be loaded with
special programs during installation.
 Erasable Programmable read-only memory (EPROM) - their data
can be erased using special ultraviolet light device that destroys the bit
settings within the memory.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable read-only memory
(EEPROM) - is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased
and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip and is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. Hence the process
is flexible but slow.

CMOS Memory

This is a type of memory which is more permanent than RAM but less
permanent than ROM which is used to store boot data such as the number
of hard disk tracks and sections. CMOS require very little power to retain
its contents and as such can be powered by a battery. To change CMOS
data, you usually run a CMOS configuration, or set up program during
booting.

Cache Memory

The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory.
Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
Cache memory acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of
data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system,
from where CPU can access them.
Advantages: Cache memory is faster than main memory, consumes less access time as
compared to main memory, stores program and data that can be executed within a
short period of time
Disadvantages : Cache memory has limited capacity and is very expensive.
23
Auxiliary/ Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It
normally stores system programs, instruction and data files. It can also be
used as an overflow/virtual memory in case the main memory capacity has
been exceeded. Secondary memories can not be accessed directly by a
processor. First the data / information of secondary memory is transferred to
the main memory and then that information can be accessed by the CPU.
Characteristics :
Non-volatile memory - Data is not lost when power is cut off
Reusable - The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until it

Reliable - Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability

of secondary storage device. Convenience - With the help of a computer

Capacity - Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of

Cost - It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary
memory

Examples of Secondary Memory

1) Hard Disk

This is where most of the computer data is stored especially the programs
and personal files. It consists of one or more rigid metal platters coated with
a metal oxide material that allows data to be magnetically recorded on the
surface of the platter.

2) Floppy Disks/Diskettes/Floppies/Disks

Consists of a circular piece of a thin Mylar plastic (actual disk) which is

coated with oxide material. The circular piece is enclosed in a flexible square
plastic jacket.
This type of storage is convenient, reliable and relatively low in cost. The
storage capacity ranges between 360 K to 2.88 MB. They come in several
sizes: Most common being 3½ inch.

3) Magnetic Disk

This is used for medium and large computers. They are similar to the
devices used in PC’s but have larger capacities.

24
Week 3: Learning objectives
1. Define software, classify and give examples of each.
2. Understand the functions of an operating system.
3. Outline characteristics of an operating system.
4. Understand the concept of service/utility programs in computer systems.
5. Explain how computers store data in memory
6. Explain various data representation coding schemes:-
o Decimal – base 10
o Binary – Base 2
o Octal – base 8
7. Hexadecimal – Base 16Convert numbers from decimal to binary and binary to decimal
8. Convert numbers from decimal to octal and octal to decimal.
9. Convert numbers from octal to binary and binary to octal.
10. Perform binary arithmetic operations.

Topics

 Software: - definition, classification, operating systems.

 Data representation, coding schemes, number system,
conversion to binary, binaryarithmetic, octal.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Definition:
Software refers to a group/set of instructions that enables the hardware to
function. It is the collection of computer programs, procedures and
documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system. It
actually tells the computer what to do and how to do it.
Software may be installed into the computer through any of following ways.
(i) It may be build into the computer circuit in the form of firmware.
(ii) It may be loaded into the computer from a secondary storage device such
as flash disk or hard disk drives
(iii) It can also be typed into the computer with the aid of the keyboard and
programming tools

Types of Software

 Applications software
 Systems software
25
Application Software

This is software that directs the computer to perform user specific task. It
performs a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit
of the user. They can be categorised based on purpose as follows:

A General Purpose Application Software

Sometimes known as ‘off-the-shelf‘ is the sort of software that you use at

home and school. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets,
databases, desktop publishing packages, graphics packages etc. This type of
software provides many features that the majority of users will want e.g.
formatting text, creating charts, organising tables. They have a number of
features that all users may never use e.g. statistical functions, mail merge etc.
This makes the storage size of these applications fairly large.
There are several g
-
-
-It will have been thoroughly tested so there won‘t be any serious problems

-There will be lots of user support i.e. books, user guides, online help and
discussion forums on the Internet

Examples:

Desktop Publishing Software - Often used to create graphics for point of

sale displays, promotional items, trade show exhibits, retail package designs
and outdoor signs. In very simple words, it could be said that it is a page

Word-Processing Software - Used for the production (including

composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of
printable material. This software enables users to create, format, edit and
print electronic documents (Letters, reports, articles, …). The most popular
examples of this type of software are MSWord, WordPad and Word Perfect,

Spreadsheet Software - Used for any kind of spreadsheet work including

analysis, planning or modeling. This is a general purpose software with many
functions. Spreadsheet software are used for creating documents to manage
and organize numerical data. It is used to perform calculations on rows and
columns of data Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some

Database Software- Database is a structured collection of data. A computer

database relies on database software to organize data and enable database
users to perform database operations. Database software allows users to store
and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle, MSAccess, EasyPhp,

Graphic package- Allow you to create pictures and edit photographs.

Example software: CorelDraw. Paint Shop Pro
26
Presentation Software- The software that is used to display information in
the form of a slide show is known as presentation software. This type of
software includes three functions, namely, editing that allows insertion and
formatting of text, methods to include graphics in the text and a functionality
of executing slide shows. Micro

Specific Purpose Software

Specific software are highly specialized software that are designed to handle
specific tasks. They're more limited in what they can do, but they usually
perform much better than a general purpose program in a specific task. For
example, TurboTax (a tax preparation package) is a special purpose
application. Sure, it adds and subtracts numbers like a spreadsheet, but you
can't use it to plan your monthly budget. It does only one thing - prepare tax
returns. Other examples of special purpose application software are web
browsers, calculators, media players, calendar programs etc.

Examples :

Communications software: Used to send messages and emails Example

Desktop publishing programs: Used to combine and control graphics and

text in a single document. Example software: Adobe PageMaker. MS

Web browser: Computer program that enables internet users to access,

navigate, and search World Wide Web sites. It is also called browser. Ex:
Enterprise
Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow.
Customer relationship management or the financial processes in an
organization are carried out with the help of enterprise software. Ex: Sage

Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video
files. They are capable of playing media files. Audio converters, audio
players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some forms of multimedia
software. Examples of this type of software include Real Player and
Windows Media Player

Bespoke Software

Although most organisations use general purpose software, some

organisations will find that it just doesn‘t do exactly what they want or it
doesn‘t work with their current systems. In this case, they might decide to
have the software system they need designed and developed specifically for
them. This is called ‘tailor-made’or ‘bespoke‘ software. Bespoke application
software is tailor made for a specific user and purpose. For example a factory
may require software to run a robot to make cars; however, it is the only
factory making that car in the world, so the software required would have to

-
- the software will work exactly how they want it to wo
27
-the software will only have the features that they specifically need in their
business.

-it takes a long time to develop such a system, between a few months to years

System Software
These are the programs that monitor and control the operations of a
computer. They run the computer system by performing a variety of
fundamental tasks such as:-
 BIOS-boots computer by checking all hardware (Power on self test-
POST) and loading of important OS files into main memory .
 Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and
storing application programs.
 Storing and retrieving files.
 Performing a variety of system utility functions.
Examples include; Operating system, Utility programs, Programming
software etc

What is BIOS?

BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output system which is small program that
comes pre-installed in the computer. It works together with Complementary
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) to handle a essential processes of
checking the computer hardware and booting.
Some of the major functions of BIOS are:

POST–The first and foremost task of BIOS is to ensure the proper

functioning of the computer hardware, and to ensure there is no hardware
problem. Power-On Self-Check (POST) does this task efficiently. If the
POST fails, the computer produces different forms of beeps to show the error
type(s). If the POST is passed then it continues with the booting process.

 Booting – Upon successfully running POST, the BIOS locates the

operating system using the CMOS settings and transfers OS files to primary
memory. This is called Booting.
 BIOS drivers – BIOS drivers are a set of programs that are stored in the
erasable memory chips which are non-volatile. The BIOS Drivers supplies
basic computer hardware information.
 BIOS Setup – Configuration software that allows you to configure
hardware settings including the device settings, computer passwords, time
and date. BIOS setup is also called a CMOS setup.

Operating System

This is a suite/collection of related computer programs that help manage the

computer resources. It is an interface between the computer hardware and
application programs. Operating systems are contained in almost all devices
including mobile phones
28
Functions of Operating Systems

Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of

computer hardware resources by using a variety of programs. It manages
computer system resources, including its CPU, primary memory, virtual
memory, secondary storage devices, input/output peripherals, and other
devices. For example, most operating systems now are plug and play which
means a device such as a printer will automatically be detected and

Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the
running of many tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a
computer system simultaneously. That is, this function of operating system
manages the completion of users' tasks. A task management program in an
operating system provides each task and interrupts the CPU operations to
manage tasks efficiently. Task management may involve a multitasking

File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating

system contains file management programs that provide the ability to create,
delete, enter, change, ask, and access of files of data. The operating system
keeps track of where files are located on the hard drive through the type of
file system. The type two main types of file system most used are File
Allocation
User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to
interact with a computer. The two main types of user interfaces are:
command line and a graphical user interface (GUI). With a command line
interface, the user interacts with the operating system by typing commands to
perform specific tasks. An example of a command line interface is DOS (disk
operating system). With a graphical user interface, the user interacts with the
operating system by using a mouse to access windows, icons, and menus. An
example of a graphical user interface is Windows 7

Examples: Android, BSD, iOS, Linux (ubuntu, Knoppix, Dreamlinux, …)

OS,,Microsoft Windows(Windows 95, 2000, Vista, 7, 8, …), and IBM z/OS.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating Systems can be classified based on two criteria:-
(i) Whether or not they allow more than one user to use the
computer at the same time.
(ii) Whether or not they allow more than one program to run at the
same time.

Single program/single user program

This allow only a single user to run a single program at one time e.g.
MsDos.

Multiprogramming/Multitasking OS
Allow more than one program to be run at the same time. The CPU
switches back and forth between programs. E.g. the computer could be
performing a complex spreadsheet calculation at the same time downloading
29
a file from another computer while the user is writing a memo.

Multiprogramming OS on PC’s can usually support a single user running

multiple programs. On some PCs and most mini and mainframe computers,
the Multiprogramming/OS's can support more than one user running more
than one program. This version of mp/os is called multi-user -
multiprogramming operating system.

Multiprocessing
Computers that have more than one CPU are called multiprocessors. A
multiprocessing operating system co-ordinates the operating of
multiprocessor computer. They have an advantage that if one CPU fails,
work can be shifted to the remaining CPUs. The ability to continue
processing when a major component fails is called fault tolerance.

Virtual Machine (VM)

VM operating system, available on some large computers, allows a single

computer to run two or more different operating system. It allocates system
resources to each operating system.
The advantage is that an organization can concurrently run different
operating systems that are best suited for different tasks.

Popular Operating Systems

Many computer users move away from proprietary operating systems

(privately owned) and toward portable operating system that will run on
many manufacturer computers.

1) Personal computer operating systems.

E.g. Dos, Operating System 2, MultiFinder (Macintosh) - uses icon and
graphics instead of command lime os2 and Dos. Win
95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP/Vista.

2) Minicomputer OS’s
e.g. - UNIX
- VMS for XAX (virtual address extension) computers

3) Mainframe Operating Systems

E.g. MVS - Specializes in batch processing.

Utilities Software

This is system software designed to help analyse, configure, optimise or

maintain a computer. A single piece will be called a utility or tool. Some
Well-
Antivirus programs: They are used to detect and eliminate computer
viruses and related malicious software. Some examples are: avast, AVG,

Backup programs: They help to 30

make copies of all information valuable to
a computer or information system and store it safe. The information can be
restored in the event of disk failure or other accidents that will lead to data

Data Recovery: As the name implies, data recovery programs are used to
recover data. Since disk drives or other hardware may fail, these utilities are
essential to recover da
Data Compression programs: They make the data more compact, reducing

Disk management programs : These are program involving formatting and

Memory management software : It handles locations in RAM where data

put their current data. It can move certain memory-resident items out of the

The Server: In the context of client-Server architecture, a server is a

computer program running to serve the requests of other programs – ―the
clients‖. The clients may run on the same systems or through networks

Programming Software

It is the type of software that is used for creating other software. Another
name for programming software is Integrated Development Environment
(IDE). An IDE normally consist of a source code editor, a translator
(compiler or interpreter) and a debugger. - Editor: It is a programming tool
that is used for creating and modifying application programs. It helps the
computer user to enter, search, delete, replace, copy and insert text or
sections of a text in a desired position.

Translators

These are the software that converts the source code/programs to their
object code/programequivalence.

Types of translators

1. Compiler: It is used to convert a complete program written in a

high-level language (such as Pascal and C) into a program in machine
language.
2. Assembler: A programming tool that convert a program in assembly
language into program in machine language.
3. Interpreter: A program which translates the program statements
into machine language one line at a time as the program is running

Debugger: It is a program that is used for locating and correcting

programming errors

Device drivers

Device drivers are computer programs that allow higher level computer
programs to communicate and interact with a hardware device. All hardware
devices have the devices drivers that communicate with them through the
computer bus to which the hardware is connected. Drivers are hardware
31
dependent and operating system specific. Some specific categories of device
drivers are Logical Device Drivers (LDD) which are written by the
Operating System vendors Physical Device Drivers (PDD) which are written
and implemented by the hardware vendor. To solve device driver crises,
Microsoft has created the Windows Drivers Foundation (WDF) which
collects and keeps all device drivers as a database

Questions

1. What kind of software is the Operating System

2. Define the following terms
a) Multitasking
b) Fault tolerance
c) Multi-user system
3. Identify 5 functions of an operating system
4. How does an operating system use time slicing?
5. List the various types of operating systems and briefly describe their capabilities.
6. What do we mean by a VM OS
7. What advantage does a virtual machine Os have
8. What do you understand by the term spooling?

DATA REPRESENTATION

Program instruction and data are made up of a combination of three types of

characters. Alphabetic (A - Z), Numeric (0 - 9) and special (all other
characters E.G @, #, $). The data and program instructions are being stored
character by character. Each character in storage has got its electrical
representation which uniquely identifies it.

All digital computers use some variation of binary numbering system for
representation of characters. The binary numbering system has only two
digits 0 and 1. 1 denotes the presence of electrical pulse and 0 denotes the
absence of such a signal.

The computer is unable to understand the supplied data represented by

these symbols. To make communication possible between a computer and
man, data must be coded in a form understandable to the computer and the
information supplied by a computer, as a result of data processing, must be
decoded in the form understandable to the user. The responsibility of
coding and decoding in a computer system lies with the input-output
devices.

Number Systems

A number system is a set of symbols or numbers combined with rules for

how these numbers are used. The various number systems are:
 Decimal number system
 Binary number system 32
  Octal number system
 Hexadecimal number system.

Decimal System

This consists of ten digits 0 –9. Each digit has a digit value 0 to 9. Because
the decimal system is used almost universally, basic arithmetic performed by
a person in one country is easily understood by a person in another country.

In a decimal system each digit has a positional value determined by how

many places to the left or the right of the decimal point the digit is written.

103 102 101 100  10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 ............. Power
4th 3rd 2nd 1st  1st 2nd 3rd 4th .............. Position
1000 100 10 1  0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 ........ Value

Since the positional increment is a power of 10, the value 10 is known as the
base or radix of the number.

For example
632.85 = 6 x 102 + 3 x 101 + 2 x 100 + 8 x 10-1 + 5 x 10-2
= 600 + 30 + 2 + 0.8 + 0.05

Binary System:

This is a base two number system since it uses only two digits 0 and 1
called the binary digits. Its lowest digit is 0 and the highest digit is 1 – one
less than the base of 2. Internally, the computer uses binary number system
since the two digits 1 and 0 represent the two electrical states, on and off.

In binary number system, each of the position is a power of the base (2) and
these powers begin at 0 and increases by 1 as we move left in the number.

. . . 22 21 20 Power
23
...4 3 2 1 Positional Value
...8 2 2 1 Value

That is why computer memory is incremented by powers of 2. Consider the

RAM sizes 64k, 128k, 256k, 512k, 640k and so forth.

Machine language uses binary number system to provide instructions for the
CPU. It is the most basic language for the computer. It requires no
translation to be understood. Binary numbers tend to be much longer than
their decimal equivalents.
Programmers, who work in assembly language and in high-level languages
that enable programmes to reach down to the machine level, find it
cumbersome to work with binary numbers. For this reason, two other
33 and the hexadecimal system (base 16) –
systems, the octal system (base 8)
are used primarily because they make it convenient to abbreviate binary
numbers.

Octal System:

It uses 8 digits from 0 – 7. Because 8 is an integral power of 2 i.e. 810 =

2310, one octal digit has a value equivalent to that of a group of three binary
digits and vice versa. This relationship simplifies the programming of
digital computers, since the octal system may be used in place of the more
cumbersome binary system.

34
Week 4: Learning objectives
1. Convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal and hexadecimal to decimal.
2. Convert binary numbers to hexadecimal and hexadecimal to binary.
3. Understand the concept of an operating system.
4. Give the functions of an operating system
5. Name examples of operating systems and their evolution.
6. Explain the concept of data communications and computer networks.
7. Identify and explain various model of computer networks
8. Identify and advantages and disadvantages of various network structures.
9. Define a computer virus and give examples.
10. Explain the sources and spread of computer viruses.
11. Explain the effects and control of computer viruses.

Topics
 Data representation:- hexadecimal,
 Introduction to operating systems, types, functions of OS.
 Basic computer data communications and networks.
 Computer viruses, spread, effects and control.

Hexadecimal Systems:

This is a base 16 number system that uses 16 symbols; the digits 0 to 9, then
the letters A to F to represent the numbers 10 to 15. The number 16 is also 10
an integral power of 2 that is, 1610 , 24 . Thus, one hexadecimal digit has a
value equivalent to that of a group of four binary digits and vice versa.
Counting in Hexadecimal is thus as:-

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Conversions to Different Basis

1. Converting from Decimal to Binary, Octal, or Hexadecimal

a) Decimal to Binary
Suppose we want to convert the decimal number 57 to its binary
equivalent. There are two methods that we can follow.

35
Method 1:
Begin by writing the positional values of the columns right to left until we
reach a column whose positional value is greater than the decimal number.

Powers: 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Positional values: 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Then we discard the column with positional value 64 leaving:

Positional values: 32 16 8 4 2 1.

Next we work from the left most column to the right. We divide 32 into 57
and observe that there is one 32 in 57 with a remainder of 25, so we write 1
in the 32 column. We divide 16 into 25 and observe that there is one 16 in
25 with a remainder of 9 and write 1 in the 16 column.

We divide 8 into 9 and observe that there is one 8 in 9 with a remainder of

1. The next two columns each produce quotients of zero when their
positional values are divided into 1 so we write 0s in the 4 and 2 columns.
Finally 1 into 1 is 1 so we write 1 in the 1 column.

This yields
Positional values: 32 16 8 4 2 1
Symbol values: 1 1 1 0 0 1

And thus decimal 57 is equivalent to binary 111001.

We could as well write 57 as a sum of

the positional values. That is 57 = 32 +
16 + 8 + 1

In the positional values, put a “1” whenever the sum of the given number falls and
“0” elsewhere.

Method 2: Division Algorithm

Divide the given decimal number by two and at each stage write down the remainder
on the side.

2 57 Remainders
2 28 1
2 14 0
2 7 0
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

Read the remainders from bottom to top. We thus have 5710 = 1110012
36
Example 2: Convert 5310 to its binary equivalence:-

Solution
Method 1
Write 53 as a sum of powers of 2.
That is 53 = 25 + 24 + 22 + 20 = 32 + 16 + 4 + 1

Construct a table for the positional values of a binary number system. We have

.... 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
.... 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Put a “1” under the positional values whenever the sum of the given
number falls and “0” elsewhere. Thus we put a “1” under 32, 16, 4 and 1
and “0” otherwise. We therefore have.

25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 0 1

Start reading the binary numbers from left to right. Therefore we have 5310 =
1101012

Division algorithm:- Divide the given decimal number by two and at each
stage writing down the remainder on the side.

2 53 Remainders
2 26 1
2 13 0
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1

Read the remainder from bottom to top. Thus we have 5310 = 1101012

Example 3: Convert 4910 to base2:-Solution: Method 1:

2 49 Remainders
2 24 1
2 12 0
2 6 0
2 3 0

37
 12 1
0 1
Read the remainder from bottom to top. Therefore 4910 = 1100012

Method 2

49 = 22 + 24 + 20 = 32 + 16 + 1

Thus we have.

25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1

Thus 4910 = 1100012

Conversion of fractional parts

Consider the decimal number 0.375. We also have two methods to

convert this to binary. Method I
Write the positional values
Powers: 2-1 2-2 2-3
Positional Values: 0.5 0.25 0.125

Write 0.375 as a sum of the power of 2. 0.375 = 0.25 + 0.125 we put 1

where the sum fall and 0 elsewhere.

Thus we have
Positional values: 5 25 125
0 1 1

Therefore .3751 = 0.0112

Method 2: Multiplication Algorithm

 375
x 2
0
0.
750
x 2
1 1
. 50
2
1. 1.0

Reading from top to bottom we have 011.

38
 c) From Decimal to Octal

Consider the decimal number 103. To convert it to octal number system we

can use any of the methods discussed above for binary except that we shall
have the base as 8.

Method 1
Write the positional values of the columns until we reach a column whose
positional value is greater than the decimal number. We do not need that
column so we discard it.

Powers 82 81 80
Positional Values 64 8 1

Next work from the left most column to the right. We divide 64 into 103 and
observe that there is one 64 in 103 with a remainder of 39, so we write 1 in
the 64 column.

We divide 8 into 39 and observe that there are four 8s in 39 with a remainder
of 7 and write 4 in the 8 column. Finally we divide 1 into 7 and observe that
there are seven 1s in 7 with no remainder so we write 7 in the 1 column. This
yields

Positional Values: 64 8 1
Symbol Values: 1 4 7

And thus 10310 = 1478.

Method 2: Division Algorithm

We shall use this method with another number, then you can try it with the
previous example. Convert 695410 to base 8.

8 6954 Remainders
8 869 2
8 108 5
8 13 4
8 3 5
8 1 1
Read the remainder from bottom to top. Thus 695410 = 154528.

Fractional Parts
Convert 0.58910 to an octal number.

Solution:
We shall use the multiplication algorithm

0 . 589
x 8
4 4 . 712 39
 x 8
5 5. 696
x 8
5 5 . 568

x 8
4 4 . 544

Thus 0.58910 = 0.45548

c) From Decimal to Hexadecimal

We can still use the two methods discussed above.

Example 1
Convert the decimal number 375 to hexadecimal.

Solution:
Write the positional values of the columns until we reach a column whose
positional value is greater than the decimal number. We do not need that
column so we discard it. Thus, we first write.

Powers: 163 162 16 160

1
Positional Values: 4096 256 16 1

We discard the column with the positional value 4096. Next we work from
the left most column tothe right. We divide 256 into 375 and observes that
there is one 256 in 375 with a remainder of 119, so we write 1 in the 256
column.

We divide 16 into 119 and observe that there are seven 165 in 119 with a
remainder of 7 and write 7 in the 16 column.

Finally, we divide 1 into 7 and observe that there are seven 1s in 7 with no
remainder so we write 7 in the 1 column. This yields:

Positional Values: 256 16 1

Symbol Values: 1 7 7

And thus decimal 375 is equivalent to hexadecimal 177.

Example 2:
Convert 482310 to base 10.

Solution
We shall use the division algorithm.

16 4823 Remainders
40
 16 301 7
16 18 13 = D
16 1 2
16 0 1

Thus 482310 = 12 D716

Exercises:
1) Convert each of the following decimal numbers to their binary equivalent.

i) 54.375 ii) 127½

iii) 246.125 iv) 2¾
v) 11/8 vi) 5/16

2) Convert each of the following decimal fractions to a

four-place octal fraction i) 0.587

ii) 0.987iii) 0.642 iv) .2017v) 0.9716

Answer
(i) 0.45448 (ii) 0.77138 (iii) 0.51068 (iv) 0.14728 (v) 0.76148.

2. Converting from Binary, Octal, or Hexadecimal to Decimal

Because we are accustomed to working in decimal, it is often convenient to

convert a binary, octal, or hexadecimal number to decimal to get a sense of
what the number is “really worth”. To convert a number to decimal from
another base, multiply the decimal equivalent of each digit by its positional
value, and sum these products.

a) Converting a Binary

Number to Decimal

Examples:

(i) Convert 1101012 to base10

Solution
110101 2 = (1 x 25) + (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22 ) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 100)
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 5310

(ii) Convert 1100012 to base10

Solution
41
1100012 =(1 x 25) + (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (0 x 21) +(1 x 20)
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 4910

Other examples
Binary Decimal
0 0
1 1
10 2
11 3
100 4
101 5

b) Converting an Octal

Number to Decimal

Examples:
1) Convert 617328 to base 10.

Solution:
617328 = (6 x 84) + (1 x 83) + (7 x 82) + (3 x 81) + (2 x 80).

= (6 x 4096) + (1 x 512) + (7 x 64) + (3 x 8) + ( 2 x 1)

= 24,576 + 512 + 448 + 24 + 2
=25,56210

ii) Convert the octal 7614 to decimal

7614 = (7 x 83) + (6 x 82) + (1 x 81) + (4 x 80)

= (7 x 512) + (6 x 64) + 8 + 4
= 358 4 + 384 + 8 + 4
= 398010

iii) Convert 0.45548 to a decimal fraction

When converting this, you must compensate for the expression of the
negative powers.

To do this, simply ignore the negative power and treat the number as a
whole number. Convert theoctal fraction to a decimal fraction using the
same procedure as before. Once the number is converted, divide it by the
conversion factor. The conversion factor is equal to the positive power of
the radix at whose position the fractional least significant digit (LSP),
appears.

For this case the conversion

factor is 84 = 409610 Since the
LSD is at the 8-4 position.
42
Steps
Disregard the decimal point in 0.4554 and write the octal number as if it were a whole
number

Set up the octal number for conversion to base 10.

45548 = (4 x 83) + (5 x 82) + ( 5 x 81) + (4 x 80)
= (4 x 512) + (5 x 64 + 40 + 4
= 241210.

Divide the product obtained above by the conversion factor you obtained earlier
2412 = 0.58888
4096

Thus the decimal equivalent of 0.45548 is 0.58888.

c) Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to Decimal

Examples
(i) Convert the hexadecimal AD3B to decimal

Solution
AD3B = (A x 163) + (D x 162) + (3 x 161) + (B x 160)
= (10 x 4096) + B x 256) + (3 x 16) + (11 x 1)
= 40960 + 3328 + 48 + 11
= 4434710

(ii) Convert C14A16 to base 10.

Solution
C14A16 = (12 x 163) + (1 x 1 62) + (4 x 161) + (10 x 160)
= (12 x 4096) + 256 + (4 x 16) + 10
= 4948210.

3. Converting Octal Numbers and Hexadecimal Numbers to Binary Numbers

a) From octal to binary

We convert each digit separately to 3 binary digits.

Examples
i) Convert 47328 to base 2.

Solution
4 7 3 2
100 111 011 010

Thus 47328 = 1001110110102

43
ii) Convert the octal number 653 to its binary equivalence.
Solution
Simply write 6, 5 and 3 in their three digit binary equivalent.

6 5 3
110 101 011

Thus 6538 = 1101010112.

b) From Hexadecimal to binary.

Convert each digit separately to 4 binary digits
Examples:
(i) Convert A146B16 to base 2.

Solution:
A 1 4 6 B
1010 0001 1100 0110 1011

Thus A 1 4 6 B16 = 1010 0001100011010112

(ii) Convert FAD5 to binary

Solution
FAD516 = 1111010110101012
(iii) Convert 3C8.9616 to its binary equivalent.
Solution:

3 C 8 . 9 6
0011 1100 1000 .1001 0010

Thus, 3C8. 9610 = 1111001000 .10010112

4) Converting from Binary to Octal and Hexadecimal

The main use for octal and hexadecimal numbers in computing

is for abbreviating lengthy binary representation.

(a) From Binary to Octal.

Group the binary digits 3 at a time starting from the right.

Examples:
(i) Convert 1111010010112 to base 8.

Solution
:
111 10 001 011
1
7 5 1 3

44
 Thus 1111010010112 = 75138

(ii) Convert 0.1001010101002 to base 8.

Solution:
Group the binary digits 3 at a time starting from the most
significant digit (MSD) to the right.

0. 100 101 101 100

0. 4 5 5 4

Thus 0.1001011011002 = 0.45548

b) From Binary to Hexadecimal

Divide the binary number into groups of four digits and assign the
hexadecimal equivalent to each group.

Examples:
(i) Convert 1111010010112 to base 16

Solution:
1111 0100 1011
F 4 B

Thus 1111010010112 = F4B16

(ii) Convert 111011 . 011012 to its hexadecimal

Solution:
0011 1011 . 0110 1000
3 B . 6 8

Thus 111011. 011012 = 3B.6816

5) Converting from octal to hexadecimal

Convert first to binary then to hexadecimal.

Example:
Convert 47328 to base16

4 7 3 2 …… Base 8
100 111 011 010 …… Base 2 in groups of
3.
1001 1101 1010 …… Base 2 in groups of 4
9 D A ……. Base 16

Thus 47328 = 9DA16

6) From Base 16 to Base 8.

45
 Convert first to binary then to octal.
Example:
Convert A146B10 to base 8

Solution:
A 1 4 6 B ........................................ Base 16
1010 0001 0100 0110 1011 …….. Base 2
010 100 001 010 001 101 011 …….. Base 2 in groups of
3
2 4 1 2 1 5 3 …….. Base 8

Thus A146B16 = 24121538

Exercises
Note: The answers for these exercises are given beside the
question and enclosed in square brackets.

(i) Convert the following numbers to the indicated numbering system.

i) 1507.068 to binary [1101000111.0001102]

ii) 1101000111.0001102 to [839 .0937510]
decimal
iii) 777. 778 to binary to decimal [111111111 .1111112 and 511. 984410 (rounded
off)]
iv) 10111 .1011012 to decimal [23 .70312510]
v) 6366. 368 to decimal [3318. 4687510]
vi) 983. 983 to octal [1727. 76728]
v) 7106. 532 to binary [1101111000010. 1000100000112]

Bits
These are the on and off pulses or each 1 or 0 that represent the data.

A byte is a collection of 8 bits or a one character of data. Each storage

position in memory is called a byte. The size of memory of a computer is
measured in thousands of bytes.

1,024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (1K) - usually

rounded off to 1000 bytes. 1 000 Kilo bytes =
I Megabytes (MB)
1 000 Megabytes = 1 Gigabytes (GB)

Representing Characters

Character representation refers to the way non-numeric data, such as a

letter of the alphabet or a punctuation mark is represented by a series of
bits. Character representation code, simply referredto as code is a series of
bits that represents a letter, symbol or numerical.
The three character representation codes most widely used are ASCII,
ANSI and EBCDIC. A fourth code Unicode has been proposed for future
46
world wide use.

ASCII - American standard code for information interchange code.

This coding system is used in many mini computers to represent 27 (=128)
symbols including uppercase and lowercase letters, special control codes,
numerals and punctuation symbols. There is one additional parity bit.

ANSI - American National Standards Institute Code

This code uses 8 bits to represent each character. They can convey up to 28
(= 256) units of information so it can be used to code 256 letters and
symbols. It is used in Microsoft windows to store documents.

EBCDIC - Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

This is an 8 -bit character representation code developed by IBM for its
mainframe computers. It does not use the same code as ASCII or ANSI for
the initial 128 character.

Unicode: is a 16 -bit code that can represent 65000 different characters. It

can represent anycharacter in every language used today.

COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that

communicate to share data, hardware and software.

LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a local area, like
a home, office or small group of buildings such as a college. LANs are
distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics: (1) their
size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.

MAN
Metropolitan Area Networks or MANs are large computer networks usually
spanning a campus or a city. They typically use wireless infrastructure or
optical fiber connections to link their sites.
For instance a university may have a MAN that joins together many of their
campus local area networks (LANs) around a city.

WAN
A wide area network or WAN is a computer network covering a wide
geographical area, involving a vast array of computers. The best example of a
WAN is the Internet. WANs are used to connect local area networks (LANs)
together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with
users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one
particular organizationand are private.

We can have two types of networks (configurations).

 Client/server network where we have one server and many clients.
47
 Peer-to-peer network – all computers have the same capability and
can communicate witheach other.

Network Hardware for LAN

1. Network interface card (NIC)

This is the key hardware component for connecting a computer to a LAN. It
is a small circuit board designed to plug into an expansion slot on a computer
main-board. The NIC sends data from your workstation out over the network
and collects incoming data for your workstation. Most recent computers have
them integrated onto the motherboard.

2. Connecting cables:-
The cables commonly used for interconnecting PCs are the twisted pair
copper wires, either Category 5 (CAT 5) or Category 6 (CAT 6) cables. Or
fiber optic conections.

Instead of using cables, some wireless networks use radio or infrared signals
to transmit data from one network device to another. The NIC on a wireless
network contain the transmitting device necessary to send data to other
devices on the LAN.

3. Network Servers
These are different kinds of network servers.
A dedicated file server is devoted only to the task of delivering programs and
data files to workstations. It does not process data or run programs for the
Workstations. Instead programs run using the memory and processor of the
workstation.

Non-dedicated server (peer-to-peer capability) here a network computer

performs a dual role as both file server and workstation.

4. Print server – stores files in a print queue and sends each queued file to
the network printer. Aprint job is a file that has been sent to the printer.

Application server is a computer that runs application software and forwards

the results of processing to workstations as requested. It makes it possible to
use the processing power of boththe server and the workstation.

5. Modem - These are devices that modulate and demodulate data.

Modulation is the process of conversion of the computer data into analog
signals before being transferred over a standard telephone line.

Demodulation refers to converting back the data to digital form. The quality
of a modem is determined by its transmission speed. It can be either internal
or external.

Software for Network

48
 Network operating system
A network requires network software or network operating system to control
the flow of data, maintain security, and keep track of user accounts.

Examples:
Network Operating Systems such as Novell Network, Banyan lines, and
LANtastic are software packages designed to control data flow.

Network software is sometimes included as a component of popular

computer Operating systems such as windows for workgroup, windows 9x,
UNIX, OS. A network OS has both the server and client software.

Standalone Applications
Most applications designed for standalone computers can be installed on a
network server, which sends them to individual workstations as requested.

GroupWare
A workgroup is basically two or more people who work on the same project.
GroupWare is application software that support collaborative work, usually
on a LAN.

Network permits use of application programs by multiple people on a network.

Network Topologies

This refers to how devices on LAN are connected to each other.

Bus-topology
Here the new nodes are easily added to a bus and all nodes may directly
communicate with eachother, we use the coaxial cable to connect the
workstations:

PC PC PC PC

Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Typically the cheapest topology to implement
 Failure of one station does not affect others

Disadvantages
 Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 A cable break can disable the entire network
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added

Ring topology 49
 Here every node is connected to two other nodes. Movement of data on the
ring is normally in one direction to prevent signals from interfering with each
other.

PC

PC PC
PC

Advantages
 Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance
 All stations have equal access
 Each node on the ring acts as a repeater, allowing ring networks to
span greater distances than other physical topologies.
 Because data travels in one direction high speeds of transmission of data are
possible

Disadvantages
 Often the most expensive topology
 Failure of one computer may impact others

Star topology
Here all the messages pass through a central switch/hub. It allows any node
to communicate withevery other node by sending messages to the hub.

HUB

PC PC PC

Advantages
 Easy to implement and extend, even in large networks
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 The failure of a non central node will not have major effects on the functionality
of the network.

Disadvantages
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Failure of the central node can disable the entire network.

Network Protocols:
A communication protocols is a set of rules that ensures the orderly and
accurate transmission and reception of data. The most widely used network
communications protocol are:
50
TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) which is used on
minicomputer, micro computer and mainframe networks. It is frequently
used in UNIX and Win. NT systems and is the basis for a communication on
the network.

IPx (Internet-work packet exchange) is the protocol used by Novell NetWare, the
most popular microcomputer network software.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a program that has the ability to reproduce/replicate

itself without the user’s knowledge. For example, it may attach itself to
the DOS program FORMAT and run every time you format a diskette.
There are other types of software that can cause problems in a PC. However,
no other software can replicate and it is this characteristic that makes a
program a virus.

Effects of Viruses

 A virus can destroy/delete or corrupt data e.g. those on specific

applications such as all Excel files or all word files e.g. Sircam worm
deletes data.
 Display irritating message, or otherwise disrupt computer operations.
Most viruses stay in your PC’s memory where they can cause
problems by interfering with other software you are trying to run.
 Disable hardware, making the computer unusable.
 It can perform dangerous operations like formatting the hard disk.
 It consumes the disk space, memory and wastes the processor time.
 Once you have a virus, it is very likely that you will pass it on to a
colleague or a customer, who may well lose confidence in you and
your company.

Types of Viruses

File viruses:
A file virus infects the executable program files on your computer system.
These usually, but not always, have COM or EXE file extensions. When you
run an infected program, your computer also runs the attached virus
instructions to replicate or to deliver its payload. The term payload refers to
the ultimate mission of a virus. For example, the payload of the “stoned”
virus is the message,” your Pc is now stoned”.

Only a few viruses such as Cinderella and Frodo, are designed to infect data
files. Because a virus needs to be executed to spread, a data file can only be a
carrier, it cannot deliver the payload.

Boot Sector Viruses

These infect the system files your computer uses every time you turn it on.
The boot sector is the part of every hard disk and diskette, which is read by
51
the computer every time you start it up. The partition sector, also called the
Master Boot Record (MBR), is the first part of the hard disk to be read after
the system has started up. It contains information such as the number of
sectors in eachpartition and the location of all the partitions.

If your booting disk is infected and you try to boot your computer with it
then the following message is likely to be displayed.

 Non-system disk or disk error

 Replace and press any key when ready.

By this time the virus has already run and your PC may already be infected.
In most cases, the virus loads itself into memory and infects the partition
sector of the hard disk. It replaces the original partition sector with its own
code. If this partition sector is infected, when the PC is rebooted from the
hard disk, the virus is loaded into memory. Any diskette subsequently
accessed is infected.
Companion Viruses

If you have a COM file and an EXE file of the same name, Dos always runs
the COM file in preference to the EXE file is not file extension is given.
Companion viruses make use of this fact by creating COM files
with the same name as the legitimate EXE files, thus ensuring they are
executed. They then pass control to the original EXE file which runs
normally.

Symptoms of the Viruses

The symptoms of a virus infection depend on the virus. The following
symptoms might indicatethat your computer has contracted a virus.
However, some of these symptoms can have other causes.

 Your computer displays annoying messages such as “Gotcha! Arf

Arf! “You are stoned”
 Your computer develops unusual visual or sound effects. For
example, characters begin to disappear from your screen or the sound
of a flushing toilet comes for your computer’s speakers.
 You have difficulty saving files.
 Your computer suddenly seems to work very slowly.
 Files are mysteriously missing.
 Your computer reboots unexpectedly.
 Your executable files unaccountably increases in size.

Viruses are just one type of program in a large category of software

designed by hackers to disrupt or damage the data on computers.

Other Potential Problems

Trojan Horse
A Trojan horse is a computer program that appears to perform one function
52
while actually doing something else. They are less widespread than viruses
because they do not replicate, but they can represent a threat when copied. A
Trojan horse sometimes, but not always, harbors a virus.

For example, a hacker may write a program to format hard disk drives and
embeds this program in a file called sched.exe. He then distributes the disk
containing this Trojan and posts it to computer bulletin boards where other
users are likely to assume that it is a free scheduling program, just to realize
that it has deleted all the files upon execution. This Trojan horse does not
harbor a virus because it does not replicate itself.

Another popular Trojan horse looks like the login screen on a network.
However, as a user logs in, the Trojan horse collects the user’s ID and
password. These are stored in a file that hackers can access later. Armed
with a valid user ID and password, the hackers can access the data stored on
the network.

Time Bombs and Logic Bombs

A time bomb is a computer program that stays in your system undetected
until it is triggered by a certain event in time, such as when a computer
system clock reaches a certain date. It is usually carried by a Trojan horse or
a virus.
A notorious time bomb appeared in December 1989. Many hospitals and
medical clinics received in innocent looking package containing “ADS
information” software from a company called PC Cyborg. The process of
installing the software also installed a time bomb. After the computer was
booted a certain number of times, the time bomb scrambled the data on the
hard disk. Next, the bomb displayed an invoice demanding payment before
the method for unscrambling the hard disk was revealed.

A logic bomb is a computer program that is triggered by a specific set of

conditions, such as the number of files in a disk, or a certain sequence of
characters being entered. It can be carried by a virus or a Trojan horse. But it
could also be a stand alone program.

Worms
A software worm is a program designed to enter a computer system –
usually a network through security holes. Like a virus, a worm reproduces
itself. Unlike a virus, a worm does not need to be attached to an executables
program to reproduce. These security holes may be electronic mail system.

Spread
 Through data transfer; either through auxiliary storage devices, or
from one computer to the other through networking. It is spread when
an infected program is executed or the computer is booted from
infected diskette. Through electronic communication devices/times
as attached to emails.
Control/Avoidance and Detection
 Avoid using high-risk disks programs e.g. disks containing public
53
 domain software or shareware and on disks containing illegal copies
of computer programs downloaded form bulletin boards. You must
use a virus detection program to check for viruses before you run any
programs from such disks.
 Use of virus detection program/anti-virus programs which
examines the files stored on a disk to determine if they are
infected with a virus, then disinfects the disk, if necessary.
 Backups – make regular backups of your system.

54