Phân tích và Thiết kế

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Presented by: TS. Nguyễn Đỗ Dũng

 Fundamental: wireless communication

Essential Concepts in Wireless Communication

Wireless Channel

Challenges in Wireless Communication

Communication Transmission

Channel Capacity

Signal Transmission

Multiplexing Techniques

Error Control Coding

Essential Concepts in
Communication and Network
 Communication and Networking

• Data Communication : transmission of information in a

reliable and efficient manner from origin endpoint to
destination endpoint.
• Networking : Interconnecting communicating devices.
• To the context of the class, interconnection between
communicating devices takes place wirelessly using radio-
wave
 Block Diagram of Communication Process

• Tasks during communication process

Noise

Source Channel Destination

Information Encoding Transmission Receiving Decoding Information

 Communication Task
• Information : Meaningful stream of data
• Encoding : Transform the information into another
format that would be needed :
• To comply with subsequent process of information
• To enhance the feature of the information
• Error checking and correction
• To reduce the size of the information
• To security purpose
• Decoding : Reverse process of encoding
• Transmission : Putting the information into channel
• Receiving : Capturing the information from the channel
 Communication Network

• Based on its geographic extent and

scope, communication network can
be seen as, local, metropolitan, and
wide area network (abbreviated as
LAN, MAN, and WAN respectively)

• When a transmission of data is

needed beyond the scope of local
area, data would traverse through a
network of intermediate switching
devices
• Switching devices are not
concerned with the content of
the data
• These devices in
communication are also
referred to as nodes
• Collection of nodes forms a
network
Wireless Channel
 Wireless Media : Electromagnetic Wave

• The most viable, widely use media for wireless transmission

in this world. Also commonly being called as radio wave

• Electric field+ Magnetic Field = Electromagnetic wave

• Not an invention or investigation by a single person/scientist
• Some of them are : Michael Faraday, H.C Oersted, Joseph Henry,
Ampere
• Magnetic field and electric field have strong correlation in
nature.

• However, J.C Maxwell is the profound scientist who built

theoretical basis for electromagnetic wave on 1873
• Known as Maxwell equations
Radio Frequency Spectrum
 Radio Frequency Spectrum
• For the purpose of this class, electromagnetic wave can
be illustrated as an oscillating magnitude of electric and
magnetic field radiated from the source
• Oscillating  Cycles per unit time, or Hz
• General Range Classification :
• Microwave frequency range
• 1 GHz to 40 GHz
• Directional beams possible
• Suitable for point-to-point transmission
• Used for satellite communications
• Radio frequency range
• 30 MHz to 1 GHz
• Suitable for omnidirectional applications
• Infrared frequency range
• Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
• Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined areas
 Challenges in Wireless Communication

• Wireless is convenient and less expensive, but not

perfect
• Limitations and political and technical difficulties
inhibit wireless technologies
• Wireless channel
- Line-of-sight is best but not required
- Signals can still be received
• Transmission through objects
• Reflections off of objects
• Scattering of signals
• Diffraction around edges of objects
 Challenges in Wireless Communication

• Wireless channel Impairment

• Reflections can cause multiple copies of the signal to arrive
• At different times and attenuations
• Creates the problem of multipath fading
• Signals add together to degrade the final signal
• Noise
• Signals and noise also add together to degrade the final
signal
• Doppler spread caused by movement
• Movement can cause frequency shift at receiver
• Now, as wireless network become highly dense, frequency
spectrum allocation turns out to be an issue
Communication Transmission
 Communication Transmission
Learning Objectives :
• Distinguish between digital and analog information source
• Discuss the characteristics of analog and digital waveforms
• Roles of frequency and frequency component in a signal
• Identify the factors that affect channel capacity
 Signal
• Signal : Physical properties of transmission media as representation
of data.
• Data – a value that convey meaning, or information
• Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
and may be propagated over a variety of media,
• No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
• Examples of media:
• Electric current through copper wire media (twisted pair and
coaxial cable)
• Light over fiber optic cable
• Radio wave in atmosphere or space
• In nature, electromagnetic wave is an analog signal

• Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for

some period of time and then changes to another constant level
• Transmission - communication of data by the propagation and
processing of signals
 Signal

• Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant

level for some period of time and then changes to
another constant level
• Less susceptible to noise interference
• Suffer more from attenuation

• Transmission - communication of data by the

propagation and processing of signals
 Signal
• Is it digital or analog signal?

Magnitude

time
• This is a multilevel digital signal
• Unless otherwise mentioned, digital signal in this course refers
to two level (binary) digital signal
 Data
• Analog data
• Continuous values of a physical quantity in some interval of time :
voice, video
• Digital data
• Discrete values of a physical quantity over some interval of time

Data (Analog/Digital) Signal Signal

processing
Voltage
Electrical Signal over time

Time
Human voice waveform
 Data

● Human heart pulse wave form : Analog or digital data?

Data
● Human heart pulse wave form : Analog or digital data?
 Signal and Data Combination

• Digital data, digital signal

• Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-
analog equipment
• Analog data, digital signal
• Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
• Digital data, analog signal
• Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
• Examples include optical fiber and satellite
• Analog data, analog signal
• Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Signal and Data Combination
 Signal Representation : Time domain

• Can be expressed as function of time

• Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
repeats over time
s(t +T) = s(t) -∞ < t < +∞
• S() is the intensity or magnitude of the signal.
• Period (T) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the
signal
• Rate or frequency, f, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at
which the signal repeats
• T = 1/f
• Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that doesn't repeat over time
Example of Periodic Signal :
 Periodic Signal : Sine wave signal

• General sine wave

• s(θ) = A sin(θ) (or sometime is also expressed in cosine)
• θ denotes angle in radian, and A is the amplitude of sine wave
• Angle : 2π radians = 360°
• Sinewave is periodic every 2π radians
• If angle varies with time, then
• s(t ) = A sin(ωt + ϕ) ; where ω= 2πf
• ω= 2πf  denotes angular velocity, f is frequency
• t denotes time, and ϕ denotes phase
• The figures in following slide show the effect of varying each of
those three parameters
• (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, ϕ = 0; thus T = 1 s
• (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
• (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
• (d) Phase shift; ϕ = π/4 radians (45 degrees)
Sinewave

s(t) = A sin (2πft + ϕ)

 Propagation of Periodic Signal

• In this class context, signal also propagates in space

• With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a
signal at a given point in time as a function of distance
• At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal varies as a
function of distance from the source
• Wavelength (λ) - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal
A

Distance

λ
• The time duration for a signal to traverse as far as λ also imposes
the period of signal T=1/ Hence:
• , where is signal propagation speed. For electromagnetic
wave, equals to the speed of light in empty space: 8 m/s
 Signal : Frequency Domain

• Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band of

frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is contained in
• If B denotes bandwidth, then it can be expressed as follows
high low

• Any form of periodic signal can be constructed by using a

collection of sine waves at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases
• Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a
signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as the
fundamental frequency
• Mathematically, a Fourier series can be used to decompose any
periodic signal using set of sine waves.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the
fundamental frequency
Sum of sine waves : Square Wave Signal
Sum of sine waves : Square Wave Signal

1 1
4/𝜋[sin 2𝜋ft + sin 2𝜋 3𝑓 𝑡 + sin 2𝜋 5𝑓 𝑡 ]
3 5

1 1 1
4/𝜋[sin 2𝜋ft + sin 2𝜋 3𝑓 𝑡 + sin 2𝜋 5𝑓 𝑡 + sin(2𝜋 7𝑓 𝑡)]
3 5 7
 Signal : Square Wave

• For square wave with amplitudes

∞
of A and –A

k odd,k=1
Where f is the fundamental frequency in Hz
10 6 cycles 6Hz. If the
• Example : A square wave with
s
signal in figure 2.5a is sufficient to represent square wave, then
bandwidth of signal is:
6 6 6
= Hz=4 MHz

If square wave with this period is used to represent string of bit 1s

and 0s, which means one bit occurs every 0.5us, then data rate, R,
would be 6 bit per second or 2 Mbps
 Signal : Square Wave

• If the same shape of signal is expected, but with higher data

rate, R= 4 Mbps
Duration of one bit = 1/R = second
Fundamental frequency f = Hz
3 rd frequency f = Hz
Bandwidth = Hz

• If the signal bandwidth is 4 MHz, transmitting data rate of 4

Mbps is still possible,
• It results in higher signal distortion.
• Vulnerable to signal impairment due to noise.
 Data Rate and Bandwidth

• The greater the bandwidth, the higher the

information- carrying capacity
• Conclusions
• Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
• BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that
can be transmitted
• AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
• HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
 Domain of Signal Analysis : Time or Frequency

• A signal can be analyzed from two different perspectives:

time domain and frequency domain
• Signal(t) 🡰  Signal(f)
• Sometime it is easier to do analysis in frequency domain than time
domain
• Mathematically, a Fourier Transform is used in order to transform
signal representation in time into signal representation in frequency

S(t)
𝑆(𝑓)
A A
T
F {S(t)}
1
t 0 f=T frequency
-A
 Signal Analysis : Time or Frequency

• Fourier transform of a DC or constant level signal

S(t)
𝑆(𝑓)
A A
F {S(t)}
t 0 frequency
-A

● Fourier transform of square wave

S(t)

1 F {S(t)}

t
 Fourier Transform in Real World

• Spectrum Analyzer

• Audio Equalizer
 Data to Signal : Analog to Analog

Intermediate Data
Analog Data Signal Analog Signal
Processing

Amplitude modulation
Signal Processing

Carrier wave
modulation

Frequency modulation

time time
 Data to Signal : Analog to Analog

Intermediate Data
Analog Data Signal Analog Signal
Processing

• Why do we need modulation ?

• To fit channel characteristic
• To multiplex different context of analog input data that
occupies the same bandwidth into different channel
• In wireless communication case, antenna size is
dictated by electromagnetic wave length
• Lower frequency needs bigger antenna, since wave length also
changes.
 Data to Signal : Analog to Digital

Intermediate Data
Analog Data Signal Digital Signal
Processing

Sampled and quantized

t t t
𝑇S : Sampling interval (in second)
Sampling : 1
S = /TS : Sampling frequency (unit samples/second).
Sampling frequency must be at least twice as the highest frequency component in the signal

Quantizer : Each sampled signal would be represented by a stream of bits

 Data to Signal : Digital to Analaog

Intermediate Data
Signal
Digital Data Processing
Analog Signal

Amplitude Shift Keying

Frequency Shift Keying

Binary Phase Shift Keying

 Data to Signal : Digital to Digital

Intermediate Data
Signal
Digital Data Processing
Digital Signal

Digital Data 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

NRZI

Bipolar AMI (most recent

preceding 1 bit has
negative voltage)

Manchester
 Signal Transmission

• Analog Transmission
• Transmit analog signals without regard to content
• Attenuation limits length of transmission link
• Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer distances but cause
distortion
• Analog data can tolerate distortion
• Introduces errors in digital data
• Digital Transmission
• It doesn’t always mean transmitting a digital signal
• Concerned with the content of the signal
• Digital Signal
• Repeaters achieve greater distance
• Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
• Analog signal carrying digital data
• Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog signal
• Generates new, clean analog signal
Channel Capacity
 Channel Capacity
Noise

Source Channel Destination

Information Encoding Transmission Receiving Decoding Information

• Channel Capacity : the maximum rate at which data can be

transmitted over a given communication path, or channel,
under given conditions
 Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

• Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)

• Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission medium (Hertz)
• Noise - average level of noise over the communications
path
• Error rate - rate at which errors occur
• Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
• Implying the probability of one bit error
• Example : Bit error rate of 10 –3 means probability of a single bit flipped,
or in other words, in every 1000 bit, one bit error is found
 Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

• Channel Capacity
• Channel can be thought as a pipe, which certain maximum
water (bit) can flow (propagate) through
• Channel capacity infer the maximum number of bit per unit
time that can transmitted through a channel with a very
small bit error rate.
• Wireless channel capacity
• Transmitting digital data using analog signal
• Shannon Channel Capacity
• Upper bound channel capacity, with present of noise regardless
channel coding scheme,
• Never being reached in practice
2
Where C is the channel capacity (in bit/second), B is the channel
bandwidth (Hz), and SNR is signal to noise ratio quantity (It is in linear
scale)
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

• Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in

the noise that’s present at a particular point in the
transmission
• Typically measured at a receiver
• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)

signal power
(SNR)dB =10 log10
or noise power
signal power
SNR =
noise power
• SNR is a essential parameter that shows signal quality
• A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number of required
intermediate repeaters
• A low SNR means low quality signal, may require further signal
processing to recover original signal
 Channel Noise

• Noise power is also expressed in Watt

• Type of noise
• Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons, Present in all electronic devices
and transmission media
• Cannot be eliminated, function of temperature
• Particularly significant for satellite communication
• Intermodulation noise
• Occurs if signals with different frequencies share the same medium
• Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is the sum or
difference of original frequencies
• Crosstalk
• Unwanted coupling between signal paths
• Impulse Noise
• Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
• Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and flaws in the
communications system
 Additive Gaussian White Noise

• Since noise is a random signal in nature, noise signal is

described as random process
• It is usually modelled based on particular probability distribution
function (abbr: pdf)
• The very common yet simple model is Additive Gaussian White
Noise
• It is additive because the received signal is the sum of original signal
and the noise signal
• The noise signal uses Gaussian (or Normal) distribution
• The spectral density is flat : i.e. the signal power for every frequency
is flat (remember about Fourier transformation)
• However, the use of this model sometime doesn’t fit to represent
real-valued noise signal in practice
Channel Capacity

• Impact due to noise

 Signal Power

• Power
• Commonly denoted as P
• Amount of energy spent per unit time
• Measurement standard unit is Watt (w)
Variant :
• Kilowatt (kW) = 1000 times of 1 Watt
• Megawatt (MW) = 1,000,000 times of 1 Watt
• Milliwatt (mW) = 10 –3 times of 1 Watt
• Microwatt (uW) = 10 –6 times of 1 Watt

• Sometime it is also expressed in decibel scale, which is denoted as decibel-

Watt (dBW)
• Formulated as follows:

(W)
(dBW) = 10 log10
1

• Another common unit is decibel-milliWatt (dBm)

(mW)
(dBm) = 10 log10
1
 Basic of Logarithm : Revisit

• for any x > 0

• example : 2 then
10
• Do you know the outcome of x =?
•
• example : If ; then 2 2 + 2
• Do you know the outcome of 2 ?

•
• example : If ; then 2 2 - 2
• Do you know the outcome of 2 ?
•
 Signal Power

• Power expressions examples

• Linear scale
• 1W = mW
• 100 W = kW
• 0.5 kW = W
• 75 mW = W
• 15 W = mW
• 0.5 mW = uW
• In decibel
• 1W = dBW
• 0.5 W = dBW
• 1 mW = dBm
• 0.25 mW = dBm
• 50 mW = dBm = dBW
• 1 kW = dBW= dBm
 Channel Bandwidth

• Channel bandwidth in Shannon capacity formulation

• In most cases, it is defined as the highest frequency that a
wireless channel can support, which is imposing a low-pass filter
• Low pass filter : If the supported highest frequency is c, then any
frequency higher than c will be rejected.

channel

t
t

Power Gain Power

𝑓c 𝑓h F 0 𝑓c 𝑓c F
Input signal Low pass filter Output signal
spectrum spectrum
 Example: Shannon’s Channel Capacity

• Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4 MHz ; SNRdB

= 24 dB

B = 4 MHz – 3 MHz =1MHz

SNRdB = 24 dB =10 log10 (SNR )
SNR = 251

• Using Shannon’s formula

C =106 ×log (1+ 251) ≈ 106 ×8 = 8Mbps

2
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
 Transmission Media

• Transmission Medium
• Physical path between transmitter and receiver
• Guided Media
• Waves are guided along a solid medium
• E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
• Unguided Media
• Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
• Usually referred to as wireless transmission
• E.g., atmosphere, outer space
• Transmission and reception in wireless transmission are achieved
by means of an antenna
 Antenna in Wireless Communication

• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors
• Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
• Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be
used for transmission and reception.
• Radiation pattern
• Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna
• Depicted as two-dimensional cross section, however, it is a 3D
description
• The patterns shows the amount and direction of power radiated
with respect to relative distance from antenna position
• The radiation pattern also describes the direction from which
antenna can receive the signal in the best manner.
 Antenna Radiation Pattern

• Sphere pattern : Isotropic antenna z

x y

x
2D x-y plane

● Omni-directional pattern : Dipole antenna z

z
Dipole antenna

x
 Antenna Radiation Pattern

• Directional antenna
 SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

 Antenna Radiation Pattern

 Directional antenna
 Wireless Transmission : Impairments

• Transmission loss
• Mainly by signal attenuation
• Noise
• Unwanted external signal that can impair original signal
• Multipath
• caused by reflection, refraction, and scattering
• Doppler spread
• Signal distortion that is caused by the movement of mobile unit
 Transmission Loss

• Main source of wireless transmission loss is

attenuation
• For a microwave (and radio frequencies), transmitted from a source,
with wave length λ (in meter) , and travels with distance d (in meter)
from source, then the attenuation L is formulated as the ratio between
transmitted power and received power, which in simplified case, it is
assumed as free space loss, which can be expressed as
P tx 4πd 2
λ or
PRx

P tx 4πd 2
in dB (decibel)
dB 10 P rx 10 λ

rx
tx
 Transmission Loss

• In decibel, it can be re written as follows

• In real practice, following formula can be used to approximate

wireless channel path loss

LdB = 20log( f )+10nlog(d )–147.56 dB

 Transmission Loss

Path Loss Exponents for Different Environments [RAPP02]

Environment Path Loss Exponent, n

Free space 2

Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5

Shadowed cellular radio 3 to 5

In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8

Obstructed in building 4 to 6

Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
 Transmission Loss

• Example 1 :
• If transmission power of a radio wave is =100 Watt and
the received power is =0.5 Watt.
• Transmission and receiving power in dBW
P t x( W) 100 W
tx(dBW) 10 1W 10 1W
20 dBW
P r x( W) 0.5 W
rx(dBW) 10 1W 10 1W
= -3 dBW
• Attenuation L, in decibel
P tx(w) 100
dB 10 10 = 23 dB
P rx(w) 0.5
 Transmission Loss

• Example 2
• Using the same values as given in example 1, find the
distance that the radio wave would have traveled, if :
P tx 100 4πd 2
• λ => d = m
P rx 0.5 4
P tx 100 4πd 2
• λ => d = m
P rx 0.5 1
P tx 100 4π 2
• λ => d= m
P rx 0.5 0.25
 Impairments: Multipath

• Can be caused by reflection, diffraction, and scattering

• Reflection occurs when radio wave encounters a surface that is large
relative to the wave length of signal
• Diffraction occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large
compared to the wave length
• Scattering occurs when the size of obstruction is on the order of the
wave length
• Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases
• If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines,
making detection more difficult
• Inter-symbol interference (ISI)
• One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the
primary pulse for a subsequent bit
• Rapid signal fluctuations
• Over a few centimeters can cause multipath fading
Impairments: Multipath
Impairments: Multipath
 Multiplexing

• Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds capacity

required for transmission of a single signal
• Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single medium
• More efficient use of transmission medium
• Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with an increase in the
data rate
• Cost of transmission and receiving equipment declines with increased
data rate
• Most individual data communicating devices require relatively modest
data rate support
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing Techniques

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of the medium exceeds the
required bandwidth of a given signal
• Orthogonal FDM is a special case of FDM technique
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing Techniques

 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

• Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate of the medium exceeds the
required data rate of a digital signa
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing Techniques

 Code Division Multiplexing(CDM)

In Code Division Multiplexing, every channel is allotted with a unique code so that
each of these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously at same time.
 Spread Spectrum
• Spread spectrum technique spreads the information signal over a wider
bandwidth
• This technique makes jamming and interception more difficult, since the
receiver will see the modulated signal like a noise
• This technique was initially developed for military and intelligence
requirement

General model of spread spectrum in Digital Communication System

• Analogy : speaking with different language within a crowd that also speak
different language
• Two important known spectrum techniques : Frequency hopping and direct
sequence
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

• Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the

transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band
• Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• One technique combines digital information stream with the spreading
code (called as Pseudonoise (PN) bit stream using exclusive-OR
Spectrum of DSSS

• Pseudonoise code : It is not truly

random, it is generated in such
way that the bit in this code are
uncorrelated stochastically
• When AWGN noise is applied to
this code, the power spectral
density of the noise remain
unchanged
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

• Signal is broadcast over a seemingly random series of radio frequencies,

hopping from frequency to frequency at fixed interval
• Receiver should be synchronized with transmitter
• Eaves dropping only hears a random blips, jamming in one frequency only
knocks out a few of bits
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1) uses FHSS for its signal transmission, number of
frequencies C=80
 Multiplexing
 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
• Space Division can be called as the combination of concepts of Frequency Division
Multiplexing and Time Division Multiplexing.
• In SDM, the goal is to pass messages or data parallelly with the use of specific frequency at
certain interval of time.
• It means, a particular channel for some amount of time will be used against a certain
frequency band.
 Advantages of SDM
• High Data transmission rate.
• Optimal Use of Time and Frequency bands.
 Disadvantages of SDM
• Inference Problems.
• High inference losses
 Space Diversity

Wireless
Transmitter Channel Receiver
input output

Noise, Multipath, Fading

• Space diversity – techniques involving physical

transmission path, spacing antennas
• Based on the illustration above, we may have SISO (Single
Input Single Output), MISO(Multiple Input Single Output),
SIMO(Single Input Multiple Output), and MIMO(Multiple
Input Multiple Output)
• Multiple input multiple output (MIMO)
• If being treated properly, signal diversity due to multipath can
be advantageous.
2x2 MIMO
• MIMO can be also used to increase the reliability of the link
• Each antenna can be seen as independent channel. Each
transmitter’s antenna emits different stream of data
 Frequency Diversity

• Frequency diversity – techniques where the signal is spread

out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on
multiple frequency carriers (Actually, we have talked about
this in previous slide!)
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), orthogonal FDM (OFDM)
• OFDM
• Also called multicarrier modulation
• Start with a data stream of R bps
• Could be sent with bandwidth Nfb
• With bit duration 1/R
• OFDM splits into N parallel data streams
• Called subcarriers
• Each with center frequency fb
• And data rate R/N (bit time N/R)
OFDM : Diagram Block
1

0 t t
10110 Serial to
OFDM
1 “modulator” Σ
+ Cyclic
Parallel Prefix
(IFFT)
1

10110 OFDM
Parallel 1 Equalizer/ - Cyclic
to Serial “demodulator”
Filter Prefix
(FFT)
1

0
Orthogonality on OFDM
 OFDM
• The spacing of the fb frequencies allows tight packing of
signals
• Actually with overlap between the signals
• Signals at spacing of fb ,2fb, 3fb ,etc.
• The choice of fb is related to the bit rate to make the signals
orthogonal
• Traditional FDM makes signals completely avoid frequency
overlap
• Because of tight packing of signals, overlap in OFDM greatly
increases capacity.
• Although these frequencies overlap, orthogonal properties of the
frequencies prevents interference
 O FDM : Pros and Cons
• Frequency selective fading only affects some subcarriers
• More importantly, OFDM overcomes inter-symbol interference
(ISI)
• ISI is a caused by multipath signals arriving in later bits
• OFDM bit times are much, much longer (by a factor of N)
• ISI is dramatically reduced
• OFDM’s long bit times eliminate most of the ISI
• OFDM also uses a cyclic prefix (CP) to overcome the residual ISI
• Adds additional time to the OFDM symbol before the real data is sent
• Acted like guard interval . Instead of an empty guard interval, a copy of the last
OFDM symbol is put in front of the symbol
• ISI diminishes before the data starts
• Cons
• Poor performance under time selective fading and doppler spread
• Sensitive to non-linear distortion
Error Control Coding
 Addressing Channel Impairment

• Adaptive Modulation
• Can be performed adaptively according to channel condition
• Data Encoding :
• Error Control Coding
• Adding extra bit into the data so that error can be detected or
corrected
• Equalization
• Counteract the multipath effect of the channel
• Multiple input – multiple output (MIMO)
• The use of multiple antenna either for transmitting and receiving
• Direct sequence spread spectrum
• Signal occupies large bandwidth, so that problems in parts of it are
overcome
 Error Control Coding

• Coding and Error Control

• Applied to digital data
• Data would be a sequence of bits with certain length, called as frame
• There are two approaches:
• Error Detection Codes
• Error Correction Codes
• Error Detection Codes
• Simply detect the presence of error bit
• Transmitter
• For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is calculated from data bits
• Check bits are appended to data bits
• Receiver
• Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
• Calculates check bits from received data bits
• Compares calculated check bits against received check bits
• Detected error occurs if mismatch
• Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
• Block of data with error is discarded
• Transmitter retransmits that block of data
 Error Control Coding

• Forward error correction

• Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data block
• Block code
• Convolutional Code
• Turbo codes
• Code is a function of the data bits
• Receiver calculates error-correcting code from incoming data
bits
• If calculated code matches incoming code, no error occurred
• If error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver attempts to
determine bits in error and correct
Error Control Coding
• Forward error correction
• Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data block
• Block code
• Convolutional Code
• Turbo codes
• Code is a function of the data bits
• Receiver calculates error-correcting code from incoming data
bits
• If calculated code matches incoming code, no error occurred
• If error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver attempts to
determine bits in error and correct
Error Detection Techniques
 Error Control Coding
• Parity Check
• Parity bit appended to a block of data
• Even parity
• Added bit ensures an even number of 1s
• Odd parity
• Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s
• Example, 7-bit character [1110001]
• Even parity [11100010]
• Odd parity [11100011]
• Cyclic Redundancy Check
• Transmitter
• For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an (n-k)-bit frame check sequence (FCS)
• Resulting frame of n bits is exactly divisible by predetermined number
• Receiver
• Divides incoming frame by predetermined number
• If no remainder, assumes no error
 Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)
• Modulo 2 arithmetic
• Since it is a digital data, where only two values are involved in
each bit (‘0’ or ‘1’)
• Use operation of addition, division, multiplication with no
carrier bit
• In computer logic, implementation of these operations uses XOR
gates and shift register
• Example : 1111
0110 +
1001 (NOT 10101)
The idea is following: A result of division operation between two integer
numbers can be expressed as them summation of quotient and
remainder. In general, it can be written as follows
T
, where T and P are integer numbers, Q is
P
quotient and R is remainder.
Any change on T would change the remainder
 Generating CRC
• Append CRC bit into data bit
• Suppose following bit sequence represent data, whose value is
denoted by D, and pattern (or polynomial generator in CRC
context), whose value is denoted by P respectively
• D= 1010001101 (width equals to k=10 bits) and P=110101 (width
equals to p=6 bits)
• Number of bits to be added : (n-k)=p-1, thus total number of bits is
n=k+p-1
• Find remainder R as follows
• Multiply D with (n–k) , yielding 101000110100000
• Divided the product with P, which then yielding R (illustration is given
in the next slide)
• Append R to D (thus total frame length, n, equals to n=k+p-1=15)
 Modulo 2 Division Illustrated
1101010110 Q

𝑃 = 110101 1010001101 00000 𝑇 = 25. 𝐷 = (25). 1010001101

110101 = 1010001101 00000
111011 𝑇
110101 = 𝑄+ 𝑅
𝑃
11101
0 Append (n-k) bits of R to D. If number of bits of R is less
111010 than (n-k), then add prefix ‘0’s as necessary to it. Thus
110101 the frame to be transmitted would be 1010001101
11111 01110 (add prefix ‘0’ to R)
0
11111 0
11010 1
101 10
0
101 100
110 101
11 0010
11 0101
1110 𝑅
 Modulo 2 Division Illustrated
11010101100 Q
If received frame is T’= 1010001101 01110
𝑃 = 110101 1010001101 01110 (which means no error occurs), then find
110101
111011 𝑇′
110101 = 𝑄′ + 𝑅
𝑃
11101
0 If R = 0 means no error occurs
111010
110101
11111 Check R again if any of one bit is flipped !
0
11111 0
11010 1
101 11
0
101 111
110 101
11 0101
11 0101
00 𝑅
 CRC : Polynomial Format
• The data bits, pattern are written in polynomial format
• D 1010001101 9 7 3 2

• T= 5 14 12 8 7 5
5+ 4 2
• P=110101

• Widely used versions of P(x)

• CRC–12
• X12 + X11 + X3 + X2 + X + 1
• CRC–16
• X16 + X15 + X2 + 1
• CRC – CCITT
• X16 + X12 + X5 + 1
• CRC – 32
• X32 + X26 + X23 + X22 + X16 + X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X5 + X4 + X2 + X + 1
 CRC : Application Notes
• With suitably chosen of P(x), following pattern of error
is detectable
• All single bit errors, if P(x) has more than one nonzero term
• All double bit errors, as long as P(x) has a factor with at least three terms
• Any odd number of errors, as long as P(x) contains a factor (x+1)
• Any burst error for which the length of the burst is less than or equal to (n- k)
• If an error were detected, then data needs to
be retransmitted
• Channel with low error probability and short propagation delay may
benefit from this technique.
• However, a channel with high error rate or having a long propagation delay, such
as wireless link and satellite link. Frequent retransmission may cause inefficient
system
• Forward Error Correction code is exploited
 Automatic Repeat Request
• Applied with conjunction with error detection schemes
• Sender needs to retransmit the data when the data being received
by received suffers from error ARQ error control
• Although it works with error detection scheme, ARQ schemes can
be viewed from data link layer OR transport layer point of view
• In multi-hop links, retransmission can be done on per hop basis (which
is relevant to data link layer) or end to end retransmission (which is
relevant to transport layer)
• Regardless of these two layers, basic mechanism of ARQ schemes
remain the same
• Work closely with flow control
• Technique for assuring that a transmitting entity does not overwhelm a
receiving entity with data.
 Stop & Wait Protocol
• Stop and Wait protocol is a
simple example used for
ARQ
• Sender sends one packet
and waits for
acknowledgement from Time out to
receiver. It would not wait ACK-2
ACK-2 is lost
transmit subsequent packet Expired,
unless getting resend P-2

acknowledgement packet
from receiver
P-3 is received, but
• If sender did not get heavily distorted
acknowledgement or Upon receipt NAK, If flow control
implements negative
experience time out, sender sender immediately
retransmit ACK, receiver may send
may retransmit the packet it to sender
 Flow Control
• Assures that transmitting entity does not overwhelm a
receiving entity with data
• Protocols with flow control mechanism allow multiple
information packet in transit at the same time
• Generic name for block of bits that represents data to exchanged at
any protocol or communication layer
• Packets arrive in same order they’re sent
• Sliding-window flow control
• Transmitter maintains list (window) of sequence numbers allowed
to send
• Receiver maintains list allowed to receive
 Sliding Window Illustrated
Source system A Destination system B
• Reasons for breaking up a
block of data before 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

transmitting:
• Limited buffer size of
receiver 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
• Retransmission of packets
due to error requires 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
smaller amounts of data
to be retransmitted 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• On shared medium, larger

packets occupy medium
for extended period, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

causing delays at other

sending stations 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7