Unit – V

Application
of
Geological Investigations
 Remote sensing
Definition:
Remote sensing is the accurate of information about an
object or phenomenon without making physical contact with
the object and thus in contrast to on site observation.
or
Remote sensing is the science of collection of data (for getting
information about the object or material on the earth's surface
using sensor at a distance without being in contact with out
object

Remote sensing is used in numerous fields,

including geography and most Earth Science disciplines (for
example, hydrology, ecology, oceanography, glaciology,
geology)
 Remote Sensing methods

Photo graphic Satellite sensing

sensing method method

Camera, film recorder

proof for getting Electro magnetic
information sensors recorded
systematically
 Photo graphic sensing
method

Aerial
Photogrammetry photogrammetry

Equipment like n aero plane an aerial

Similar to table surveying, the camera are used. The stages of surveying
difference is results are interpreted in includes flying, photo graphic, ground
the office. control plotting.
Satellite remote sensing
 Application of remote sensing
1. Resource exploration
2. Environmental study
3. Land use
4. Site investigation
5. Archaeological investigation and
6. Natural hazards study.
1. Resource Exploration:
Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation of
sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals,
detect oil fields and identify underground storage of water.
Remote sensing is used for identifying potential fishing zone,
coral reef mapping and to find other wealth from ocean.

2. Environmental Study:
Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and predict
rains. With satellite data it is possible to study water discharge
from various industries to find out dispersion and harmful
effects, if any, on living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can
be studied using remote sensing.

3. Land Use:
By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in
short time. Forest area, agricultural area, residential and
industrial area can be measured regularly and monitored. It is
possible to find out areas of different crops.
4. Site Investigation:
Remote sensing is used extensively in site
investigations for dams, bridges, pipelines. It can be used
to locate construction materials like sand and gravel for
the new projects.
5. Archaeological Investigation:
Many structures of old era are now buried under the
ground and are not known. But by studying changes in
moisture content and other characteristics of the buried
objects and upper new layer, remote sensors are able to
recognise the buried structure's of archaeological
importance.
6. Natural Hazard Study:
Using remote sensing the following natural hazards
can be predicted to some extent and hazards minimised:
1. Earthquake 2. Volcanoes
3. Landslides 4. Floods and
5. Hurricane and cyclones.
 What is a dam?
Dams are massive barriers built across rivers
and streams to confine and utilize the flow of
water for human purposes such as irrigation and
generation of hydroelectricity. This confinement
of water creates lakes or reservoirs.
 Types of dams
• Arch dams.
• Gravity dams.
• Arch – Gravity dams.
• Barrages dams.
• Embankments dams.
• Buttress dams.
 Arch dams
The arch dam is
designed so that the
force of the water
against it, known as
hydrostatic pressure,
presses against the
arch, compressing and
strengthening the
structure as it pushes
into its foundation or
abutments.
 Gravity dams
A gravity dam is
a dam constructed from
concrete or stone masonry
and designed to hold back
water by primarily utilizing
the weight of the material
alone to resist the horizontal
pressure of water pushing
against it.
 Arch gravity dams
An arch-gravity
dam or arched dam is
a dam with the characteristics
of both an arch dam and
a gravity dam. It is a dam that
curves upstream in a
narrowing curve that directs
most of the water against
the canyon rock walls,
providing the force
to compress the dam.
 Barrages dams
A barrage is a weir
that has adjustable gates
installed over top of it, to
allow different water surface
heights at different times.
The water level is adjusted
by operating the adjustable
gates. A dam is a high
impervious barrier
constructed across a river
valley to form a deep storage
reservoir.
 Embankment dams
An embankment
dam is a massive
artificial dam. It is
typically created by the
placement and compaction
of a complex semi-plastic
mound of various
compositions of soil, sand,
clay and/or rock. It has a
semi-pervious waterproof
natural covering for its
surface and a dense,
impervious core.
 Buttress dams
A buttress dam or
hollow dam is a dam with a
solid, water-tight upstream side
that is supported at intervals on
the downstream side by a series
of buttresses or supports.
The dam wall may be straight or
curved. Most buttress dams are
made of reinforced concrete and
are heavy, pushing the dam into
the ground.
 Selection of site for dam
construction

Topographically Environmentally

Technically Construction ally Economically

• Not affect the ecological

• Enough disorder.
catchment area • Life cycle of animals
• Easily stored a and vegetation and man.
calculated • An acceptable element
volume of water of the ecological set up

• Site- Strong, • Materials should not • Land irrigation

impermeable, stable be far off from site. • Power generation
• Site- resist Slips, slides, • Require millions of • Water stored
slope failure, and shock cubic meters of • Analysis of cost benefit
during an earthquake natural materials. aspects.
 Tunneling
Definition :
Tunnels may be defined as the under –
ground routes or passages, excavated through the
rocks or soft ground, without disturbing the
overlying rocks or soil covers.
 Types of tunnels
• Traffic tunnels.
A traffic tunnel, thus, provides a direct transportation
link between two places, separated by obstacles such as a
mountain, a hill, a water body like river or sea, or even densely
populated land. Traffic tunnels may vary in length from a few
meters to many kilometers.
• Hydropower tunnels.
The tunnels which are excavated through rocks for the
purpose of conveying water from one point to another, in
connection with hydro – power generation, are called hydro –
power tunnels.
• Public utility tunnels
All other tunnels excavated for other public uses, such as for
carrying sewage, cables, oil supplies, drinking water etc., are
classified under this category.
Traffic tunnels
Hydropower tunnels
Public utility tunnels
 Shapes of tunnels
• D- shapes tunnel is usually adopted in rocks.
• Circular section is usually offers strong
resistance to external pressures from water
bearing soils or soft grounds.
• Horse – shoe section is usually adopted in
traffic tunnels
Tunnel boring Equipment
Tunnel boring Equipment
Objects of Geological Investigation

• Selection of Tunnel Route.

• Selection of Excavation method.

• Selection of design for the tunnel.

• Assessment of cost and stability.

• Assessment of Environmental Hazards.

Selection of Tunnel Route.
• Many alternative alignments are conducted on two points through a
tunnel.
• Dependent on the geological constitutions.
Selection of Excavation method.
• Tunneling is a complicated process involves huge costs.
• Excavation is the huge process it contains million cubic of materials
are excavated and transported.
• Excavation is easy to ground and soft soil, its difficult to rock region.
• We need to choose right methods.
Selection of design for the tunnel.
• Geological condition.
• Identify the shape of the tunnel.
• D shape
• Circular shape
• Horse – shoe shaped.
• Also created combination of one or more shape.
Assessment of cost and stability.
• In this analysis above three consideration are interlinked.
• Geological investigation determines.
• Actual excavation, method excavation and dimension of
excavation.
• System of lining of tunnel
• Check the tunnel stability.
• It is involved huge cost, also analysis cost benefit aspects.
Assessment of Environmental Hazards.
• Tunneling process involves disturbing the environment of an area in
more than one ways.
• Creating vibration during blasting, ground cutting, drilling, producing
abnormal quantities of dust that may affect the surrounding
environment.
• Proper planning and implementing plans aimed at minimizing the
environmental hazards in a successful manner.
 Geological consideration in
tunneling

• Litho logy

• Geological structures

• Ground water condition.

 litho logy

the study of •Structure

Already we •Texture
studied rock
•composition

Tunnel •Blasting
excavation •Boring

blasting Predetermined Ready for trigged

quantities of explosive process
carefully selected
Igneous,
sedimentary,
metamorphic

Any of the rock Faulting, folding, fracture during tunneling

stressed process in these rocks proves greatly
hazardous

In tunneling process
excavation cost is lower then This is the study of litho logy study.
construction cost
 Geological structures.
Horizontal Strata:
• Case 1:The horizontally layered rock might to consider quite
favorable.
• The situation is favorable thickness of layer act as beam.
• Case 2:The individual layer are very thick the tunnel diameter not
very large.
• The layer are thin could not act as beam.
• The roof of the tunnel has to be modified to an arch type.
 Geological structures.
Moderately Inclined Strata:

Tunnel axis parallel to Dip Tunnel axis parallel to Strike

•The pressure distributed over the roof in

asymmetrical.
•The layer offers UDL.
•There are discontinuities which may lead
•Rocks at the roof act as arches.
to sliding.
•Favorable condition.
•Hence Unfavorable.
 Geological structures
Folded rocks:
– They have bends and stored a lot of strain energy.

– When excavation are made, they may fall/burst.

– Depending upon the fold type, the tunnels may develop different
stresses.

– Crest of anticline folds and trough of folds are greater strained.

 Geological structures
Faulting:
• This discussion leads to a general conclusion:
As passing through fault plane is most unsafe
situations.
• Hence providing maximum support and
drainage facilities.
Joint Systems:
• Joints are plane weakness.
• Even originally closed joints may become
reactive and open up in the immediate of
tunnel excavation.
• In joints presence and orientation, has to be
investigated.
Ground Water Conditions:
In ground water condition affects the tunnel rocks in
two ways.

• In first Physic – chemical action alter the original

properties constantly with passage of time.

• In second the rock strength parameter affected by

static & dynamic water heads.

• To rectify tunnel rocks away from corrosion

periodically inspect are conducted.
 Geological conditions Necessary for
condition of Roads construction
• Planning, designing, construction and maintenance are among
the major duties of civil engineers the world over.
• Geological investigations play important role in the design,
stability and economical construction and maintenance of the
roads.
• Topography.
• Geological Structures.
• Weathering.
• Ground water condition.
Topography:
• Land form of a region – major factor of the road project.
• Topographic maps – to identify already exist of land form.
• Knowledge of all such features , essential for right alignment.
• Preliminary and detailed survey are conducted.
• litho logical character – divided into.
• Consolidated, massive hard rock.
• Soft , unconsolidated soil type.
Geological Structure:
The structural features of rocks, include dip and strike, joints, fault planes and
shear zones.
Dip and Strike:
There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the inclined beds: it
can be made parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip direction.
Joints:
In major road construction programs, therefore, jointed rocks have
to be provided artificial support by breast walls and retaining walls
for ensuring stability.
Faults:
Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault
planes and shear zones. Such a condition is, of course, very unfavorable
for a cut when it happens to form upper or lower slope or even base of
the cut.
Weathering:
when the strata along or under a cut is composed of layers of
rocks of different hardness, the softer layers get weathered at a faster
rate than the overlying or underlying harder rocks.
Ground water condition:
• It is always- necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water
table of the area.

• Specific care and design would be required for these natural water
conduits. These are always to be taken as weak and hazardous zones in
the road
• Sometimes there is a condition of free flow of ground-water through
the soil. This is quite dangerous for the stability of the road surface laid
above such soil.
 Reservoir
Definition:
A reservoir usually means an enlarged natural or
artificial lake, storage pond or created using a dam or
lock to store water.
A successful reservoir must fulfill

• water – tight.

• Adequate capacity

• Long life

• Not produce harmful effect after land slides, earthquakes, etc.

Factors Affecting the Water– tightness of a Dam Reservoir:

• The extent of the submerged valley area;

• The presence of the buried river channels;

• The types of the rocks, forming the reservoir basin;

• Silting reservoir.
The extent of the submerged valley area
The presence of the buried river channels
Bed Rocks at the Reservoir Site
Silting reservoir
 Coastal production
Seawalls:
Back waters
 Groynes
A groyne (groin in the United States) is a rigid hydraulic
structure built from an ocean shore (in coastal engineering) or from
a bank (in rivers) that interrupts water flow and limits the movement
of sediment.
 Gabions
A cage, cylinder, or box filled with rocks, concrete, or sometimes
sand and soil for use in civil engineering, road building, military
applications and landscaping. For erosion control, caged riprap is used.
 Land slides

A natural slope is unstable and unable to

Land slides
support it own weight .

Slipping material below

Example soil + rain water = land
slide

Movement of land
slides downwards
or outwards
 Natural Factor Manmade Factor
Rain fall or deposition of snow rise the Construction work without proper survey of
ground water table, affect the strength of the site
the soil.
Rapid melting of snow adds water to soil without designing and engineering inputs.
mass
Erosion caused by continuous runoff over Irrational farming technologies
slope to affect the soil mass.
Removal of a soil mass by flow of water example, plugging in a lengthwise direction
down the slope, accelerate loss of substances
on the slopes that are eroded by weathering.
Weathering and decomposition of rocks Removal of vegetation cover and
deforestation
Ground vibrations created during Burning of vegetation to clear the land is a
earthquakes. normal practice in hilly areas adopted by
farmers this makes the land more prone to
landslides.
Deposition of loose sediments in certain
areas.
 Types of Land slides

• Creep
• Debris fall
• Debris
flow
• Rock fall
• Rock Slide
• Slump
 Effects of landslides
• Landslides may affect directly or indirectly to animals
and natural resources of whole area.
• agricultural land to modify less productive or
unproductive land.
• May block roads, supply lines (telecommunication,
electricity, water, etc.) and waterways.
• In the downstream area indirectly landslides may affect
safety dam in the area.
• It may cause flood surges by movements of large masses
of soil into the reservoir.
• Increased sedimentation in the reservoir results in the
loss of water storage.
 Measure to reduce landslides:
• Protects the vegetation cover on landslide areas.
• The maximum trees should be planted on slopes that will
prevent soil erosion and corrosions.
• During the construction of buildings on slope areas, the
design should be resist the slope and proper plan will be
executed.
• Vegetation and large tree should not be removed by
construction.
• The surface water should be diverted towards natural
gallery.
 Precaution measure to be following
landslides areas:
1. Listen to weather forecast on radio, tv etc., about rain.

2. During night, residence should remain awake of heavy continuous

rain and ready to move immediately to safe location.

3. Abnormal sounds like soil and rock movement or breaking of trees

must be listened attentively and considered seriously.

4. If residents have to evacuate place it should be done immediately

without wasting time to collect belongings.

5. Special attention should be paid for very small children, very old
people and sick or disabled people.
 Precautions during landslide:
1. Preferable one should stay where people are available
around.

2. During disaster children need special attention and comfort

tham normal situation.

3. Attentively all their questions should be answered up to

maximum possible extent even if they ask the same
question again and again.

4. One should talk children and assure them that they are safe.
 Precautions needed after landslide:
1. After landslide one should not enter the area without permission
from the authorities.
2. No one enter area like damaged building, damaged area until the
authority declared the area are safe.
3. Authority engaged some persons or gangs in the removal of
buried bodies in the mass of soil should do their rocks in an
organizing manner.
4. First and all water paths should diverted away from the landslide
area.
5. Damaged area should be replanted on priority during next season
of planning to avoid erosion.