Understand Central Processing Unit functions

Introduction

Definition of key terms

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out

the instructions of a computer program. It is the primary component of a computer system

responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. It serves as the "brain" of the

computer and is responsible for interpreting and carrying out instructions from computer

programs. The CPU typically consists of several key components, including the Arithmetic

Logic Unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the Control Unit,

which manages the execution of instructions and the flow of data within the CPU and between

other components of the computer system. The CPU also includes registers, which are small,

high-speed storage locations used to store data temporarily during processing. The CPU fetches

instructions from memory, decodes them to determine the operation to be performed, fetches the

required data from memory or registers, executes the operation, and then stores the result back in

memory or a register. This process is carried out repeatedly to execute the instructions of a

computer program.

Registers

It is a memory location within the actual processor that works at very fast speeds. It stores

instructions which are waiting to be decoded or executed. It is small, high-speed storage location

within the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer system. Registers are used to store
temporary data, addresses, and control information that the CPU needs to perform calculations

and execute instructions. Registers are often directly accessible by the CPU and are much faster

than accessing data from system memory. Registers are used to hold data that is being processed

by the CPU during computation, as well as to store intermediate results and memory addresses.

They are an important component of the CPU's operation, as they enable the CPU to quickly

access and manipulate data while performing calculations and executing instructions.

Processor

It is also known as a microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU), is a key electronic

component of a computer system that carries out instructions and performs arithmetic, logic, and

control tasks. There are 2 different types of processors. These include:

 Complex instruction set computers (CISC)

 Reduced instruction set computers (RISC)

Complex instruction set computers (CISC)

Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) processors are a type of processor architecture that

emphasizes the completion of complex instructions in as few cycles as possible. CISC processors

are designed to handle a large number of complex, multi-step instructions that can be executed

efficiently on the processor itself. These processors can do complex operations, which can be

carried out in just one instruction. They have many different addressing modes and a wide range

of instructions that can be used. For example, a CISC processor might have a 'complicated'

instruction designed into the hardware called 'POWER'. This can take one number from a

register, find the power of that number, held in a different register, and then store the result in yet

a third register. So, 2 to the power 4 would be calculated as 16 and this would be stored in a third
register. This would all be done using one complex instruction, which might take about 3 or 4

CPU clock cycles to complete.

Reduced instruction set computers (RISC)

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) processors are a type of processor architecture that

emphasizes simplicity and efficiency in instruction execution. RISC processors are designed to

use a smaller and more streamlined set of instructions, each of which performs a single, basic

operation. This approach allows RISC processors to execute instructions quickly and efficiently,

making them ideal for high-performance computing tasks. There are also CPUs that are known

as RISC (pronounced „risk‟), or Reduced Instruction Set Computers. RISC processors such as

ultra-SPARC and ALPHA use a much smaller, simpler set of instructions than CISC processors

and so to carry out any particular programming task may take many “fetch decode execute”

cycles. RISC processors, however, are much more efficient at processing huge blocks of data

than CISC.

Standard CPU specification factors

There are four key factors about CPU architecture that affect its performance:

1. Cores

A CPU can contain one or more processing units. Each unit is called a core. A core contains an

ALU, control unit and registers. It is common for computers to have two (dual), four (quad) or

even more cores. CPUs with multiple cores have more power to run multiple programs at the

same time.

2. Clock speed
The clock speed - also known as clock rate - indicates how fast the CPU can run. This is

measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) and corresponds with how many instruction

cycles the CPU can deal with in a second.

3. Cache size

Cache is a small amount of memory which is a part of the CPU - closer to the CPU than RAM. It

is used to temporarily hold instructions and data that the CPU is likely to reuse.

4. Processor type

Processor type can be either RISC or CISK

CPU ARCHITECTURE

CPU itself has the following three components.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 Control Unit

 Memory Unit (Registers)

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual

data processing operations. Functions of this unit are −

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of

a computer.

 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of

the computer.

 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
  Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of the arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the

above operations.

Logic Section

Function of the logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

matching, and merging of data.

Registers

Processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a digital processor's central

processing unit. The registers are an integral part of the CPU. They are a type of memory that

can be accessed very quickly compared to other types of memory. The pieces of information they

hold are needed by the CPU to run each program instruction during a 'fetch-decode-execute

cycle' or can be used to hold values that are generated as part of the ALU working on data. There

are a number of very special registers that do very specific jobs.

Buses

A BUS is a data connection between two or more devices connected to the computer. For

example, a bus enables a computer processor to communicate with the memory or a video card

to with the memory. These buses carry different types of signals. The same types of buses carry

only one type of signal. These buses help to increase the efficiency and accuracy of working. A

computer consists of many components such as motherboard, memory, input/output devices.

These devices work with the help of buses. PC motherboards have buses for expansion and

external devices, all computers have three basic buses.

We have three different types of buses. These are:

 DATA BUS: The datal bus controls the traffic of data. It helps to send data, according to

the request of the user and PC.

 ADDRESS BUS: Data bus helps to connect the Microprocessor (CPU) and Memory

(RAM).
  CONTROL BUS: The address bus carries the address of the location of memory.

Instruction representation and execution

Fetch Execute Cycle

This is the basic operation (instruction) cycle of a computer (also known as the fetch decode

execute cycle). During the fetch execute cycle; the computer retrieves a program instruction from

its memory. It then establishes and carries out the actions that are required for that instruction.

The cycle of fetching, decoding, and executing an instruction is continually repeated by the CPU

whilst the computer is turned on.

1. Fetch

The first step the CPU carries out is to fetch some data and instructions (program) from main

memory then store them in its own internal temporary memory areas. These memory areas are

called 'registers'. For this to happen, the CPU makes use of a vital hardware path called the
'address bus'. The CPU places the address of the next item to be fetched on to the address bus.

Data from this address then move from main memory into the CPU by travelling along another

hardware path called the 'data bus'.

2. Decode

The next step is for the CPU to make sense of the instruction it has just fetched. This process is

called 'decode'. The CPU is designed to understand a specific set of commands. These are called

the 'instruction set' of the CPU. Each make of CPU has a different instruction set. The CPU

decodes the instruction and prepares various areas within the chip in readiness of the next step.

3. Execute

This is the part of the cycle when data processing actually takes place. The instruction is carried

out upon the data (executed). The result of this processing is stored in yet another register. Once

the execute stage is complete, the CPU sets itself up to begin another cycle once more.

Instruction Set

Instruction sets are instruction codes to perform some task. It is classified into five categories.

The instruction set, also called ISA (instruction set architecture) is part of a computer that

pertains to programming, which is basically machine language. The instruction set provides

commands to the processor, to tell it what it needs to do. The instruction set consists of

addressing modes, instructions, native data types, registers, memory architecture, interrupt, and

exception handling, and external I/O.

An example of an instruction set is the x86 instruction set, which is common to find on

computers today. Different computer processors can use almost the same instruction set while

still having very different internal design.

Both the Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon processors use nearly the same x86 instruction set. An

instruction set can be built into the hardware of the processor, or it can be emulated in software,

using an interpreter. The hardware design is more efficient and faster for running programs than

the emulated software version. Examples of instruction set:

 ADD - Add two numbers together.

 COMPARE - Compare numbers.

 IN - Input information from a device, e.g., keyboard.

 JUMP - Jump to designated RAM address.

 JUMP IF - Conditional statement that jumps to a designated RAM address.

 LOAD - Load information from RAM to the CPU.

 OUT - Output information to device, e.g., monitor.

 STORE - Store information to RAM.

Practical Exercise

1. Identify the following CPU specifications from your computer

 Clock Speed

 Manufacturer

 Generation
 2. Case Study: Verification of CPU Specifications for a Computer Build

Scenario: A company is planning to build a high-performance workstation for graphic design and

video editing tasks. The IT department is tasked with selecting the appropriate CPU based on

specific requirements and verifying that the chosen CPU meets the desired specifications for the

computer build.

Highlight the specifications needed to achieve this scenario and document the steps taken.
Understand Computer Memory Organization

This learning outcome covers explaining memory organisation, various storage technologies,

cache and virtual memory, prescribing memory specifications for a user and verifying memory

specifications for a given computer.

Definition of key terms

 Memory : It is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily, or

permanently. Memory devices utilize integrated circuits and are used by operating

systems, software, and hardware. ○ is the storage space in the computer, where data is to

be processed and instructions required for processing are stored

 Memory unit: It is the collection of storage units or devices together.

 Memory hierarchy: It is an organizational structure in which memory units are ranked

according to levels of importance. The computer memory hierarchy ranks components in

terms of response times, with processor registers at the top of the pyramid structure and

tape backup at the bottom.

 Virtual memory: Is a memory management capability of an operating system (OS) that

uses hardware and software to allow a computer to compensate for physical memory

shortages by temporarily transferring data from random access memory (RAM) to disk

storage.

 Cached memory: a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-

speed data access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs,

applications and data.

 Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.
  Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data when

power is switched off.

Memory Organization in Computer Architecture

Generally, memory/storage is classified into 2 categories:

 Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.

 Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data when

power is switched off.

The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized by hierarchy of components. The

memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices contained in a computer system from

the slow Auxiliary Memory to fast Main Memory and to smaller Cache memory.

Memory is primarily of three types;

 Cache Memory

 Primary Memory/Main Memory

  Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts

as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and

program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are

transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can

access them.

Operations of the cache memory

Requests regarding the contents of memory location are done by CPU.

 Check cache for this data

 If present, get from cache (fast)

 If not present, read required block from main memory to cache

 Then deliver from cache to CPU

Cache deals with the tags so as to identify which block of main memory is present in each cache

slot

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows;

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows;

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently

working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. (Volatile) It is

generally made up of semiconductor devices. These memories are not as fast as registers. The

data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two

subcategories RAM and ROM.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is

considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the

row and column that intersect at that cell.

Types of RAM:-

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of random-access memory that uses latching circuits (flip-flops)

to store data bits. It is faster and more expensive than Dynamic RAM (DRAM) but does not

require refreshing like DRAM does. SRAM is commonly used in cache memory and other

applications where high speed and low power consumption are important.

 Stores data using the flip-flop state

 Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered.

 Mostly used to create cache memory of CPU.

 Faster and more expensive than DRAM.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a

separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. DRAM needs to be refreshed to maintain the

stored data as the capacitors leak charge over time. DRAM is slower and less expensive than
SRAM, but it is more commonly used in computers and other devices for main memory due to

its higher density and lower cost per bit.

 Each cell stores a bit with a capacitor and transistor.

 Large storage capacity

 Needs to be refreshed frequently.

 Used to create main memory.

 Slower and cheaper than SRAM.

Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NVRAM)

It is a type of memory that retains data even when power is turned off. This is achieved by using

a combination of volatile and non-volatile memory technologies. NVRAM typically stores data

using either battery-backed SRAM or flash memory. NVRAM is often used in applications

where it is essential to retain certain data even in the event of a power failure or system

shutdown. Examples of such applications include storing BIOS settings in a computer, storing

configuration data in networking devices, and storing critical data in industrial control systems.

 It is a category of Random Access Memory (RAM) that retains stored data even if the

power is switched off.

 NVRAM uses a tiny 24-pin dual inline package (DIP) integrated circuit chip, which helps

it to gain the power required to function from the CMOS battery on the motherboard.

 NVRAM monitors several system parameters, such as Ethernet the MAC address, serial

number, date of manufacture, HOSTID, etc.

 NVRAM is a non-volatile memory type that provides the random access facility.

Primary Memory
ROM (Read Only Memory)

It is the memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is

non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. ROM

stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as

bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like

washing machine and microwave oven.

There are five basic ROM types:

ROM - Read Only Memory : is a type of non-volatile memory that stores data permanently and

cannot be electronically modified after manufacture. The data in ROM is typically programmed

by the manufacturer and is maintained even when the power is turned off

PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory: Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) is a

type of read-only memory (ROM) that allows users or manufacturers to program custom data

onto the memory chip after manufacture. PROM can be programmed by blowing fuses on the

chip to set the desired data pattern. Once the data has been programmed onto a PROM chip, it

cannot be changed or erased. This makes PROM similar to Mask ROM, as the data programmed

onto PROM is permanent. However, the advantage of PROM is that it allows for customization

of data by the user or manufacturer without requiring specialized manufacturing processes.

PROM was widely used in early computer systems and embedded systems to store firmware,

boot loaders, configuration data, and other essential data that needed to be permanently stored

and not easily modified. With the development of more advanced types of programmable ROM,

such as EEPROM and flash memory, PROM has become less common in modern electronic

devices.
EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory (EPROM) is a type of read-only memory (ROM) that can be rewritten and

reprogrammed multiple times. EPROM chips are programmed by selectively applying an

electrical charge to specific memory cells, which changes the stored data. The unique feature of

EPROM is that it can be erased by exposing the memory chip to ultraviolet (UV) light, typically

using a special UV eraser device. This erases the previously stored data, allowing the chip to be

reprogrammed with new data. EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times, making

it a versatile memory option for applications that require frequent updates or changes to the

stored data. EPROM was commonly used in early computer systems, embedded systems, and

electronic devices where the firmware or software needed to be updated periodically. It played a

crucial role in the development of technology by providing a flexible and reprogrammable

memory solution. However, EPROM has been largely replaced by Electrically Erasable

Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) and flash memory in modern electronic devices

due to their faster erase and reprogram times and lower power consumption.

EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: Electrically Erasable

Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) is a type of non-volatile memory that can be

electrically erased and reprogrammed multiple times. EEPROM does not require ultraviolet light

for erasing, making it more convenient to use than EPROM. It can be programmed and erased in-

circuit, which means that the chip does not need to be removed from the circuit board for these

operations. EEPROM works by storing data in memory cells that can be individually erased and

reprogrammed using electrical signals. This allows for easy and flexible updates to the stored

data without the need for specialized equipment or UV light. EEPROM is commonly used in

electronic devices where small amounts of data need to be stored and updated, such as in
firmware, system configurations, and calibration data. It is particularly useful in applications that

require regular updates or changes to the stored information, as it allows for easy reprogramming

without the need for physical removal of the memory chip. EEPROM has largely replaced

EPROM in modern electronic devices due to its faster erase and reprogram times, lower power

consumption, and ease of use. It is widely used in consumer electronics, automotive systems,

industrial automation, and other applications that require reliable and flexible non-volatile

memory solutions.

Flash EEPROM memory: Flash EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory) is a type of non-volatile memory that combines the features of EEPROM and flash

memory. Flash EEPROM is electrically erasable like EEPROM, but it allows for bulk erasing of

entire blocks of memory at once, making it more efficient for updating and reprogramming large

amounts of data. Flash EEPROM memory is commonly used in electronic devices for storing

system firmware, operating system code, application software, and other types of data that need

to be retained even when power is turned off. It is widely used in USB drives, solid-state drives

(SSDs), memory cards, and embedded systems. Flash EEPROM memory allows for fast read and

write operations, and it can be updated more easily and quickly compared to traditional

EEPROM memory. It is also more cost-effective than EEPROM due to its larger storage

capacity and faster erase/write times.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.

  Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is the working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without the primary memory

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the

main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. The CPU does not

directly access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents

of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.

For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.

 It is a non-volatile memory.
  Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

 Computers may run without the secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types of

secondary memory – fixed and removable.

Differences between primary and secondary memory

Storage Devices

SSD Solid State Drive

It is a storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies as memory to store data. SSD are

also known as solid-state disks although SSDs do not have physical disks. Form-factors and

protocols such as SATA and SAS of traditional hard disk drive (HDD) may be used by SSD,

greatly simplifying usage of SSDs in computers. New form factors such as the M.2 form factor,

and new I/O protocols such as NVM Express have been developed to address specific

requirements of the Flash memory technology used in SSDs.

Characteristics
  There are no moving mechanical components in SSD. This makes them different from

conventional electromechanical drives such as hard disk drives (HDDs) or floppy disks,

which contain movable read/write heads and spinning disks.

 SSDs are typically more resistant to physical shock.

 Run silently, have quicker access time and lower latency compared to electromechanical

devices.

Optical storage devices

This is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read from using a low

powered laser beam. Optical storage devices save data as patterns of dots that can be read using

light. A laser beam is the usual light source. The data on the storage medium is read by bouncing

the laser beam off the surface of the medium. Dots can be created using the laser beam (for

media that is writable such as CD-Rs). The beam is used in a high-power mode to actually mark

the surface of the medium, making a dot. This process is known as „burning‟ data onto a disc.
Magnetic Storage Device

A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite and access

data. It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots and

sectors. Hard disks and zip disks are common examples of magnetic disks.

Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory is a technique to increase the main memory capacity. It uses data swap

technology and hard disk area is used as virtual memory. It is a technique that is implemented

using both hardware and software. It maps memory addresses used by a program, called virtual

addresses, into physical addresses in computer memory.

Benefits of having Virtual Memory

 Large programs can be written, as virtual space available is huge compared to physical

memory.

 Less I/O required, leads to faster and easy swapping of processes.

  More physical memory available, as programs are stored on virtual memory, so they

occupy very less space on actual physical memory.

Differences between Cache Memory and Virtual Memory

Key RAM specifications to consider

Physical Size RAM: modules vary in physical size based on the type of computer they're used

for and the number of pins on the module. Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) with 168 pins

are 5.25 inches long. DIMMs with fewer pins are typically smaller, with more pins meaning a

physically larger module. DIMMs are commonly used in desktop computers, whereas laptops
typically use Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Modules (SODIMMs). SODIMMs use the same

technology but they're physically smaller, allowing them to fit in laptops.

Amount of memory: The amount is another important specification to remember. Your

computer can only hold so much RAM and while going over the specified limit won't harm your

computer, your PC will only use as much of it as it was designed to use. Amount is commonly

measured in gigabytes (GB), though older or low-end computers may measure maximum RAM

in megabytes (MB). Some computers have two slots to install memory, others have four and

some have even more.

Type of memory: The memory type is important because this is where the majority of RAM's

compatibility issues lie. Multiple variations of Double Data Rate (DDR) memory technology are

used in various computers. 1 Objective Cache memory increases CPU access speed. Virtual

memory increases the main memory capacity. 2 Memory Unit Cache memory is a memory unit

and is very fast to access. Virtual memory is a technique and involves hard disk and is slower to

access. 3 Management CPU and related hardware manages cache memory. Operating System

manages virtual memory. 4 Size Cache memory is small in size. Size of virtual memory is much

larger than cache memory. 5 Operation Cache memory keeps recently used data. Virtual memory

keeps the programs which are not getting accommodated in main memory. DDR2 is faster than

DDR memory, while DDR3 memory is faster than both. If your computer requires DDR3

memory, DDR2 memory won't work.

Memory Speed: Memory speed is frequently denoted by "PC-" followed by a number that

denotes the peak transfer rate and bandwidth of that type of memory. For example, PC-2400's

peak transfer rate is around 2,400 megabytes per second (MB/s). The peak transfer rate basically
denotes the best performance possible for that memory. "PC2" and "PC3" simply refer to DDR2

and DDR3 memory, respectively. The specifications may list the memory under a name known

as the "friendly name," which looks something like "DDR3-1066." In this case, 1066 represents

the data transfer rate in millions per second. All together, the memory specification may read

something like "2 GB PC3-6400 DDR3 SODIMM."

Element 4: Understand input-output functions

Introduction

Definition of terms

In computer organization, INPUT-OUTPUT (I/O) refers to the process of exchanging data

between the computer system and external devices. Input devices allow users to input data or

commands into the computer, while output devices display or provide results to the user. The

input-output operation involves transferring data between the computer's memory and

input/output devices.

Peripheral: A peripheral device is an internal or external device that connects to a computer but

does not contribute to the computer's primary function, such as computing. It helps end users

access and use the functionalities of a computer.

Bus: A bus is a subsystem that transfers data between computer components inside a computer

or between computers.

Overview of peripheral devices

A peripheral is a device that can be attached to the computer processor. Peripheral devices can be

external, such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor or scanner. Peripheral devices can also be

internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, DVD-R drive or modem.

Categories of peripheral devices

We have different categories. These include;

 Input devices
  Output devices

 Storage devices

Input Devices

A device that feeds data into a computer processor is called an input device. Input can take a

variety of forms, from commands you enter from the keyboard to data from another computer or

device.

Examples of input devices

Output Devices

A device that shows data from a computer processor is an output device. Output can also appear

in a variety of forms - text, video, graphics, and so on. Examples of common output devices;
Backing Storage Devices

Backing storage is a device which holds and retains data. These devices allow the user to save

data in a more permanent way than RAM so that data is not lost and may be used at a later time.
Peripheral specifications

These specifications should match the user’s needs. If the user needs to save/store data, they will

need storage, a device categorized as storage will be ideal. The user specification may entail a

very long list of devices depending on the special purpose at hand.

I/O Processing

I/O processor is a processor separate from the CPU designed to handle only input/output

processes for a device or the computer. The I/O processor is capable of performing actions

without interruption or intervention from the CPU. The CPU only needs to initiate the I/O

processor by telling it what activity to perform. Once the necessary actions are performed, the

I/O processor then provides the results to the CPU.

Doing these actions allow the I/O processor to act as a bus to the CPU, carrying out activities by

directly interacting with memory and other devices in the computer. A more advanced I/O

processor may also have memory built into it, allowing it to perform actions and activities more

quickly.

Bus Interface unit (BIU)

BIU takes care of all data and addresses transfers on the buses for the EU (Execution Unit) like

sending addresses, fetching instructions from the memory, reading data from the ports and the

memory as well as writing data to the ports and the memory. EU has no direct connection with

System Buses so this is possible with the BIU. EU and BIU are connected with the Internal Bus.
BUS: is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or

between computers

Interface: is a hardware circuitry between the microcomputer and the I/O devices. It provides all

the input/output transfer. They connect/interface the computer and the peripherals.

Types of buses

Each bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards or cables together. There

are two types of buses: internal and external. Internal buses are connections to various internal

components. External buses are connections to various external components. There are different

kinds of slots that internal and external devices can connect to.

Internal

Types of Slots

There are many different kinds of internal buses, but only a handful of popular ones. Different

computers come with different kinds and number of slots. It is important to know what kind and

number of slots you have on your computer before you go out and by a card that matches up to a

slot you don’t have.

PCI

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is common in modern PCs. This kind of bus is being

succeeded by PCI Express. Typical PCI cards used in PCs include: network cards, sound cards,

modems, extra ports such as USB or serial, TV tuner cards and disk controllers. Video cards

have outgrown the capabilities of PCI because of their higher bandwidth requirements.

PCI Express

PCI Express was introduced by Intel in 2004. It was designed to replace the general-purpose PCI

expansion bus and the AGP graphics card interface. PCI express is not a bus but instead a point-

to-point connection of serial links called lanes. PCI Express cards have faster bandwidth then

PCI cards which make them more ideal for high-end video cards.

PCMCIA

PCMCIA (also referred to as PC Card) is the type of bus used for laptop computers. The name

PCMCIA comes from the group who developed the standard: Personal Computer Memory Card

International Association. PCMCIA was originally designed for computer memory expansion,

but the existence of a usable general standard for notebook peripherals led to many kinds of
devices being made available in this form. Typical devices include network cards, modems, and

hard disks.

AGP

AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a graphics

card to a computer’s motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer

graphics. AGP has been replaced over the past couple years by PCI Express. AGP cards and

motherboards are still available to buy, but they are becoming less common.

Types of Cards

Video Card

A video card (also known as graphics card) is an expansion card whose function is to generate

and output images to a display. Some video cards offer added functions, such as video capture,

TV tuner adapter, ability to connect multiple monitors, and others. Most video cards all share

similar components.

They include a graphics processing unit (GPU) which is a dedicated microprocessor optimized

for 3D graphics rendering. It also includes video BIOS that contains the basic program that

governs the video card’s operations and provides the instructions that allow the computer and
software to interface with the card. If the video card is integrated in the motherboard, it may use

the computer RAM memory. If not, it will have its own video memory called Video RAM.

This kind of memory can range from 128MB to 2GB. A video card also has a RAMDAC

(Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter) which takes responsibility for turning

the digital signals produced by the computer processor into an analog signal which can be

understood by the computer display. Lastly, they all have outputs such as an HD-15 connector

(standard monitor cable), DVI connector, S-Video, composite video or component video.

Sound Card

A sound card is an expansion card that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to/from a

computer under control of computer programs. Typical uses for sound cards include providing

the audio component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or

audio, presentation/education, and entertainment. Many computers have sound capabilities built

in, while others require additional expansion cards to provide for audio capability.

Network Card

A network card is an expansion card that allows computers to communicate over a computer

network. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly. Although
other network technologies exist, Ethernet has achieved near-ubiquity for a while now. Every

Ethernet network card has a unique 48-bit serial number called a MAC address, which is stored

in ROM carried on the card.

External

Types of Connections

USB

USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a serial bus standard to interface devices. USB was designed to

allow many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket and to

improve the plug-and-play capabilities by allowing devices to be connected and disconnected

without rebooting the computer.

Other convenient features include providing power to low-consumption devices without the need

for an external power supply and allowing many devices to be used without requiring

manufacturer specific, individual device drivers to be installed. USB is by far the dominating bus

for connecting external devices to your computer.

Firewire

Firewire (technically known as IEEE 1394 and also known as i.LINK for Sony) is a serial bus

interface standard for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer,

frequently used in a personal computer. Firewire has replaced Parallel ports in many

applications. It has been adopted as the High Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA)

standard connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component communication and control.

Almost all modern digital camcorders have included this connection.

PS/2

The PS/2 connector is used for connecting some keyboards and mice to a PC compatible

computer system. The keyboard and mouse interfaces are electrically similar with the main

difference being that open collector outputs are required on both ends of the keyboard interface

to allow bidirectional communication. If a PS/2 mouse is connected to a PS/2 keyboard port, the

mouse may not be recognized by the computer depending on configuration.

Modes of Data Transfer

There are different modes of data transfer. We are going to have a look at the following:

 Programmed I/O

 Interrupt initiated I/O

 Direct memory access(DMA)

a. Programmed I/O

Programmable I/O is one of the I/O techniques other than the interrupt-driven I/O and direct

memory access (DMA). The programmed I/O is the simplest type of I/O technique for the

exchanges of data or any types of communication between the processor and the external

devices. With programmed I/O, data is exchanged between the processor and the I/O module.

The processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O operation, including

sensing device status, sending a read or write command, and transferring the data. When the

processor issues a command to the I/O module, it must wait until the I/O operation is complete.

If the processor is faster than the I/O module, this is wasteful of processor time. The overall

operation of the programmed I/O can be summarized as follows:

 The processor is executing a program and encounters an instruction relating to I/O

operation.
  The processor then executes that instruction by issuing a command to the appropriate I/O

module.

 The I/O module will perform the requested action based on the I/O command issued by

the processor (READ/WRITE) and set the appropriate bits in the I/O status register.

 The processor will periodically check the status of the I/O module until it finds that the

operation is complete.

To execute an I/O-related instruction, the processor issues an address, specifying the particular

I/O module and external device, and an I/O command. There are four types of I/O commands

that an I/O module may receive when it is addressed by a processor:

  Control: Used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do. For example, a magnetic tape

unit may be instructed to rewind or to move forward one record. These commands are

tailored to the particular type of peripheral device.

 Test: Used to test various status conditions associated with an I/O module and its

peripherals. The processor will want to know that the peripheral of interest is powered on

and available for use. It will also want to know if the most recent I/O operation is

completed and if any errors occurred.

 Read: Causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from the peripheral and place it in

an internal buffer. The processor can then obtain the data item by requesting that the I/O

module place it on the data bus.

 Write: Causes the I/O module to take an item of data (byte or word) from the data bus

and subsequently transmit that data item to the peripheral.

Advantages and disadvantages of programmed I/O

b. Interrupt- initiated I/O

Interrupt I/O is a way of controlling input/output activity whereby a peripheral or terminal that

needs to make or receive a data transfer sends a signal. This will cause a program interrupt to be

set at a time appropriate to the priority level of the I/O interrupt. Relative to the total interrupt

system, the processors enter an interrupt service routine. The function of the routine will depend

upon the system of interrupt levels and priorities that is implemented in the processor. The

interrupt technique requires more complex hardware and software, but makes far more efficient

use of the computer’s time and capacities.

For input, the device interrupts the CPU when new data has arrived and is ready to be retrieved

by the system processor. The actual actions to perform depend on whether the device uses I/O

ports or memory mapping.

For output, the device delivers an interrupt either when it is ready to accept new data or to

acknowledge a successful data transfer. Memory-mapped and DMA-capable devices usually

generate interrupts to tell the system they are done with the buffer. Here the CPU works on its

given tasks continuously. When an input is available, such as when someone types a key on the

keyboard, then the CPU is interrupted from its work to take care of the input data. The CPU can

work continuously on a task without checking the input devices, allowing the devices themselves

to interrupt it as necessary.

Basic Operations of Interrupt

1. CPU issues read command.

2. I/O module gets data from peripheral whilst CPU does other work.

3. I/O module interrupts CPU.

4. CPU requests data.

5. I/O module transfers data.

Interrupt Processing
 A device driver initiates an I/O request on behalf of a process.

 The device driver signals the I/O controller for the proper device, which initiates the

requested I/O.

 The device signals the I/O controller that is ready to retrieve input, the output is complete

or that an error has been generated.

 The CPU receives the interrupt signal on the interrupt-request line and transfer control

over the interrupt handler routine.

 The interrupt handler determines the cause of the interrupt performs the necessary

processing and executes a “return from” interrupt instruction.

 The CPU returns to the execution state prior to the interrupt being signaled.

 The CPU continues processing until the cycle begins again.

 c. Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Different from Programmed I/O and Interrupt-Driven I/O, Direct Memory Access is a technique

for transferring data within main memory and external device without passing it through the

CPU.

It is a way to improve processor activity and I/O transfer rate by taking-over the job of

transferring data from the processor, and letting the processor do other tasks. This technique

overcomes the drawbacks of other two I/O techniques which are the time consuming process

when issuing command for data transfer and tie-up the processor in data transfer while the data

processing is neglected. It is more efficient to use the DMA method when a large volume of data

has to be transferred.

For DMA to be implemented, the processor has to share its‟ system bus with the DMA module.

Therefore, the DMA module must use the bus only when the processor does not need it, or it

must force the processor to suspend operation temporarily. The latter technique is more common

to be used and it is referred to as cycle stealing.

Basic Operation of DMA

When the processor wishes to read or send a block of data, it issues a command to the DMA

module by sending some information to the module. The information includes:

 Read or write command, sending through read and write control lines.

 Number of words to be read or written, communicated on the data lines and stored in the

data count register.

 Starting location in memory to read from or write to, communicated on data lines and

stored in the address register.

 Address of the I/O device involved, communicated on the data lines.

After the information is sent, the processor continues with other work. The DMA module then

transfers the entire block of data directly to or from memory without going through the

processor. When the transfer is complete, the DMA module sends an interrupt signal to the

processor to inform that it has finished using the system bus.

Advantages & Disadvantages of DMA

Key I/O Specifications for a computer

 Keyboard – Layout, Language and ease of use.

 Mouse – Type (Wireless, wired)

 Monitor – Resolution, Size

 Printer – Speed (Pages per minutes), Colour or non-colour, resolution (dpi), type (impact

vs. non impact)