What is process writing?

The process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work
The process approach treats all writing as a creative act which requires time and positive
feedback to be done well. In process writing, the teacher moves away from being someone who
sets students a writing topic and receives the finished product for correction without any
intervention in the writing process itself.

What stages are there in a process approach to writing?

Although there are many ways of approaching process writing, it can be broken down into three
stages:

Pre-writing
the teacher needs to stimulate (encourage) students' creativity, to get them thinking how to
approach a writing topic. In this stage, the most important thing is the flow of ideas, and it is not
always necessary that students actually produce much (if any) written work. If they do, then the
teacher can contribute with advice on how to improve their initial ideas.

Focusing ideas
during this stage, students write without much attention to the accuracy of their work or the
organization. The most important feature is meaning. Here, the teacher (or other students) should
concentrate on the content of the writing. Is it coherent? Is there anything missing? Anything
extra?

Evaluating, structuring and editing

now the writing is adapted to a readership. Students should focus more on form and on
producing a finished piece of work. The teacher can help with error correction and give
organizational advice.

Classroom activities
Here are some ideas for classroom activities related to the stages above:

Pre-writing

 Brainstorming
Getting started can be difficult, so students divided into groups quickly produce words and ideas
about the writing.

 Planning
Students make a plan of the writing before they start. These plans can be compared and
discussed in groups before writing takes place.
 Generating ideas
Discovery tasks such as cubing (students write quickly about the subject in six different ways -
they:
o 1. describe it
o 2. compare it
o 3. associate it
o 4. analyze it
o 5. apply it
o 6. Argue for or against it.

 Questioning
In groups, the idea is to generate lots of questions about the topic. This helps students focus upon
audience as they consider what the reader needs to know. The answers to these questions will
form the basis to the composition.

 Discussion and debate

the teacher helps students with topics, helping them develop ideas in a positive and encouraging
way.

Focusing ideas

 Fast writing
The students write quickly on a topic for five to ten minutes without worrying about correct
language or punctuation. Writing as quickly as possible, if they cannot think of a word they leave
a space or write it in their own language. The important thing is to keep writing. Later this text is
revised.

 Group compositions
working together in groups, sharing ideas. This collaborative writing is especially valuable as it
involves other skills (speaking in particular.)

 Changing viewpoints
a good writing activity to follow a role-play or storytelling activity. Different students choose
different points of view and think about /discuss what this character would write in a diary,
witness statement, etc.

 Varying form
Similar to the activity above, but instead of different viewpoints, different text types are selected.
How would the text be different if it were written as a letter, or a newspaper article, etc?
 Evaluating, Structuring and Editing

 Ordering
Students take the notes written in one of the pre-writing activities above and organise them.
What would come first? Why? Here it is good to tell them to start with information known to the
reader before moving onto what the reader does not know.

 Self-editing
a good writer must learn how to evaluate their own language - to improve through checking their
own text, looking for errors, structure. These way students will become better writers.

 Peer editing and proof-reading

here, the texts are interchanged and the evaluation is done by other students. In the real world, it
is common for writers to ask friends and colleagues to check texts for spelling, etc. You could
also ask the students to reduce the texts, to edit them, concentrating on the most important
information.

The importance of feedback

It takes a lot of time and effort to write, and so it is only fair that student writing is responded to
suitably. Positive comments can help build student confidence and create good feeling for the
next writing class. It also helps if the reader is more than just the teacher. Class magazines,
swapping letters with other classes, etc. can provide an easy solution to providing a real
audience.

The Product Approach which is a traditional approach to teaching writing in which students are
encouraged to mimic a model text, which is usually presented and analyzed at an early stage.

Stages of a product writing lesson:

Product writing focuses on the end product. Students are not required to generate and brainstorm
ideas as thoroughly as they do in process writing - instead, they spend more time analyzing and
practicing the main features of the text genre they are supposed to write. Product writing usually
follows the stages below:
Model text:
The first stage of product writing involves exposing students to a model text of the genre they are
supposed to produce. After reading the model text, learners analyse the main features of the
specific type of text. These features might be related to Content, Lexis, Organization, Grammar
and Style Teachers tend to privilege product writing when the genre being worked with has fixed
conventions - it is easier to draw students' attention to them, and producing the text requires less
creativity and more knowledge of generic features. Some genres which might be more conducive
to this approach are:
- E-mails;
- Formal letters;
- Reports;
- CVs and cover letters;
- Postcards;
- Recipes;
- Personal statements.
Although the main aim of this stage is to expose learners to the genre, it is important to give
them a task before they start reading to instill a motivation to read. For example, if learners are
going to read a CV, you may ask them to decide whether they would invite the candidate for an
interview or not; if they are reading an email, they may decide on the clarity of the message.
Controlled Practice:
After identifying the key generic features, students need to practice them to feel confident to
produce their texts. The practice stage might involve gap-fill activities, true or false, finding the
mistakes in a text, etc. This will depend on what aspect of the text learners need more practice
on.

Organising ideas:
Now it is time for students to start thinking about the text they are going to write. Learners can
work collaboratively during this phase to generate ideas and take notes on what they would like
to include in the text and language that might be useful for them to produce their work.
For example, if students are expected to write a CV, they can use this stage of the lesson to jot
down ideas related to their education, their work experience, any volunteering work they had
done, their skills and qualifications. The teacher's role is to provide support, give feedback, and
assist with emergent language. Peer support might also be very helpful during this stage.
Final product:
Finally, students produce their own texts. Product writing does not foresee the composition of
multiple drafts, but it is still essential that the teacher provide learners with feedback on their
production.

Some considerations when adopting a product approach to writing:

It helps learners develop analytical skills:
Analyzing the features of a text is not an easy job. By adopting a product approach to writing,
teachers can help learners develop awareness of not only writing itself, but of discourse,
grammar and lexis. These is a useful set of skills for real life, since many times we use models to
produce our texts, and being aware of how to identify generic conventions might help students
become more proficient and independent writers.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a pre writing techniques that helps gathers ideas in order to better organize and
speed up the wring process. There are several methods that can help you. One of them is to
“brainstorming”. Think of this as a “storm in the brain”. Focus on your audience and purpose and
list ideas as they come to mind, whether general or specific.

Do not pay attention to the form your brainstorm takes. You might list words, phrase
or sentence or combination of these. This is just a technique to help free up your mind so that
ideas can flow easily.

Outlining
An outline is a plan for the paper that will help you organize and structure your ideas in a way
that effectively communicates them to your reader and supports your thesis statement.

Outlining is more organized of prewriting than the other prewriting technique .it can be used
after you have generated ideas through brainstorming, free writing, or other prewriting
technique. It works well for structured type of writing such as essays. In an outline you do not
write complete sentences. You only write phrases or words to determine the structure of essay.

It is important step in planning your composition is to create an outline. An outline is a plan for a
written work, arranged in headings and subheadings. It shows the order of ideas in your
composition.

Look at the sample outline below.

Title: "The Benefits of Running"

1. Introduction
2. Running is popular sport
3. Running is a great form of exercise
4. It helps people control their weight, develop muscles, and improves
mental and physical performance.

1. Body
1. Weight control
1. Aids self-control
2. Burns calories
3. Encourages a healthy diet
4. Suppresses appetite
2. Muscular Development
 1. Improves tone
2. Enhances contours
3. Increases strength
4. Improves endurance
3. Psychological well-being
1. Aids sleep
2. Inhibits depression
3. Intensifies vitality
4. Cardiovascular Fitness
1. Strengthens heart
2. Lowers blood pressure
3. Changes blood lipids
4. Improves circulation
1. Conclusion
1. Benefits of running make it an excellent exercise.
2. People who want to improve their health should consider running.

Outline Template
: ______________________________
Title
1. Introduction
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
1. Body
1. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 4. ______________________________
1. Conclusion
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________

Proofreading
Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It is focusing
on errors such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation. What most people are
referring to when they use the word proofreading is the process of checking a document for any
kind of grammatical, typographical, or formatting errors. Proofreading should always be the last
step taken before a document is published online, handed in to a professor, submitted for a job
application, or otherwise shared with its intended audience.

Look at the sample proofreading below.

Definition of Essay
Essay is derived from the French word essayer, which means “to attempt,” or “to try.” An essay
is a short form of literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives the
personal opinion of the author.

1 Narrative Essays: Telling a Story

In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. While telling a story may
sound easy to do, the narrative essay challenges students to think and write about themselves.
When writing a narrative essay, writers should try to involve the reader by making the story as
vivid as possible. The fact that narrative essays are usually written in the first person helps
engage the reader. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted
narrative essay will also build towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal statement.

2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture

The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe something objects
person, place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the student’s ability to
create a written account of a particular experience. What is more, this genre allows for a great
deal of artistic freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and moving in the
mind of the reader).

3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts

Expository is derived from exposition, which is a noun of ‘expose.’ An expository essay is

a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate, clarify, or explicate something in a way that
it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it could be an investigation, evaluation, or even
argumentation about an idea for clarification. An expository essay exposes things in detail to
make readers understand without any complications. In such an essay a writer presents a balanced
study of a topic. To write such an essay, the writer must have real and extensive knowledge about
the subject. There is no scope for the writer’s feelings or emotions in an expository essay. It is
completely based on facts, statistics.

3. Persuasive Essays: Convince Me

While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of
the persuasive essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view
or recommendation. Here the purpose of the essay is to get the reader to your side
of the argument. A persuasive essay is not just a presentation of facts but an
attempt to convince the reader of the writer’s point of view.

Research proposal

Research proposal is importance part of the application process. It summarises the question you
want to answer through your research. It demonstrates your knowledge of the subject area and
shows the methods you want to use to complete your research.
Importance of research proposal

The research proposal is an important part of beginning your research in college or

university. If your supervisor does not approve it, you may not begin your research.

Importance of research proposal Helps examine what the researcher intends t o do.

Research proposal can serve as a document of contract for the project.

Research proposals can be effective starting places to discuss projects with your professors, too.

The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so that other people
understand the scope of the research, the significance of the research, as well as your proposed
methodology and chosen research method

Research question
A research question is 'a question that a research project sets out to answer'.

b. Choosing Research question for proposal

 Interest
The best approach is to choose a topic that you interested in, choose your interest area.
If you select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it could become extremely
difficult to sustain the required motivation and put in enough time and energy to
complete it.
 Clear
In other words, the question should clearly state what the writer needs to do.
 Not too broad and not too narrow
The question should have an appropriate scope. If the question is too broad it will not
be possible to answer it in depth thoroughly within the word limit. If it is too narrow
you will not have enough to write about and you will not struggle to develop a strong
argument.
 Not too easy to answer
For example, the question should require more than a simple yes or no answer.
 Not too difficult to answer
You must be able to answer the question thoroughly within the given timeframe and
word limit.
 Researchable
You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research materials, such as
academic books and referred journal articles.
 Analytical rather than descriptive.
In other words, your research question should allow you to produce an analysis of an
issue or problem rather than a simple description of it.
How to write a research proposal?
A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will
do the research.

A research proposal is also know as a” work plan” that tells us:

 What will be done?

 Why it will be done?
 How it will be done?
 Where it will be done?
 To whom it will be done?
 What is the benefit of doing this?

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals should contain at
least these elements:

 Title
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research Methodology
 Reference list

Parts of research proposal

Title
The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. It should be concise, descriptive
informative and catchy. Your title should be limited to 8 to 15 words. It should be very relevant
to the subject. It should have used correct grammar and proper capitalization. It should avoid the
abbreviation.

Abstract
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. • It should summarize all the central elements
of the protocol, for example the objectives, methods, populations, time frame, and expected
outcomes.

 Chapters of research proposal

 Chapter 1: Introduction

A) A formal brief discussion about the subject area or field to which the present study
belongs. B) Broad perspective of the related past studies
  What is your research area?
 How important is it for the industry practice/knowledge advancement?

Problem statement
 Problem statement provides a clear and concise description of the issue that needs
to be addressed.
 Provides the context for the research study and generates the questions which the
researcher aims to answer.

Objectives

 Objective provides a list of goals that will be achieved through the

proposed research.
 What are the benefits/impact that will be generated if the research
problem is answered?
 Why would we allow this research to be done?

Hypothesis
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to
your research question that has not yet been tested. Hypothesis can be proved or disproved.

Limitation
Limitation basically related to researcher. The things that he/she cannot do in their research study
for example it is not possible for male to collect data from female schools.

 Chapter2: Literature review

 The previous research conducted on your research area.

 Historical overview of your research topic.
 Major contribution to your research topic previously.

 Chapter 3 research methodology

 It tells us the whole procedure of study.

 The whole procedure of answering the research question.

Reference
a list of works cited in your research study.
Language, tense, and style

Future Tense
Use Future Tense: A research proposal is an outline of your proposed research which you will
undertake in future. Hence, use future tense for the actions being done in the research e.g. A
survey method will be employed in the research.

APA Research Proposal

The APA format itself can help you understand how to write a proposal for a research paper. The APA
guidelines require writing an abstract, an introduction, and a bibliography as part of the paper, not only in
the proposal. Here is a short breakdown of the APA proposal format:

 12-point font Times New Roman

 Double-spaced
 1-inch margins
 An APA running head (limited to 50 characters)
 A title page with the paper’s title (no more than 12 words in length), your name, and the name of your
institution
 An abstract (150-200 words)
 In-text citations (formatted accordingly to APA guidelines)
 References page (formatted accordingly to APA guidelines)
Clarity

Clarity is related to coherence, organization, and relevance. It means ensuring that

each paragraph and sentence in your paper is natural and easy to read and understand:
proper grammar, phrasing, and style are key to writing a paper that is readable and
comprehensible to both experts and possibly non-experts, depending on your target
audience.

Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex
and multi-dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous
language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to
follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise,
formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean.

Style APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology,

and Sciences

 MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities

 Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts

Presentation

A presentation is the process of communicating a topic to an audience. It is typically a

demonstration, introduction, lecture, or speech meant to inform, persuade, inspire,
motivate, or to build good will or to present a new idea or product.

Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging
presentations to a variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the
structure of your presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the
body language you convey.

Steps in Preparing a Presentation

Planning Your Presentation

Preparing a presentation can be an overwhelming experience if you allow it to be one. The

strategies and steps below are provided to help you break down what you might view as a large
job into smaller, more manageable tasks.
Step 1: Analyze your audience

The first step in preparing a presentation is to learn more about the audience to whom you'll be
speaking. It's a good idea to obtain some information on the backgrounds, values, and interests of
your audience so that you understand what the audience members might expect from your
presentation.

Step 2: Select a topic

Next, if possible select a topic that is of interest to the audience and to you. It will be much easier
to deliver a presentation that the audience finds relevant, and more enjoyable to research a topic
that is of interest to you.

Step 3: Define the objective of the presentation

Once you have selected a topic, write the objective of the presentation in a single concise
statement. The objective needs to specify exactly what you want your audience to learn from
your presentation. Base the objective and the level of the content on the amount of time you have
for the presentation and the background knowledge of the audience. Use this statement to help
keep you focused as you research and develop the presentation.

Preparing the Content of Your Presentation

Step 4: Prepare the body of the presentation

After defining the objective of your presentation, determine how much information you can
present in the amount of time allowed. Also, use your knowledge about the audience to prepare a
presentation with the right level of detail. You don't want to plan a presentation that is too basic
or too advanced.

The body of the presentation is where you present your ideas. To present your ideas
convincingly, you will need to illustrate and support them. Strategies to help you do this include
the following:

 Present data and facts

 Read quotes from experts
 Relate personal experiences
 Provide vivid descriptions
And remember, as you plan the body of your presentation it's important to provide variety.
Listeners may quickly become bored by lots of facts or they may tire of hearing story after story.

Step 5: Prepare the introduction and conclusion

Once you've prepared the body of the presentation, decide how you will begin and end the talk.
Make sure the introduction captures the attention of your audience and the conclusion
summarizes and reiterates your important points. In other words, "Tell them what you're going to
tell them. Tell them. Then, tell them what you told them."

During the opening of your presentation, it's important to attract the audience's attention and
build their interest. If you don't, listeners will turn their attention elsewhere and you'll have a
difficult time getting it back. Strategies that you can use include the following:

 Make the introduction relevant to the listeners' goals, values, and needs
 Ask questions to stimulate thinking
 Share a personal experience
 Begin with a joke or humorous story
 Project a cartoon or colorful visual
 Make a stimulating or inspirational statement
 Give a unique demonstration

During the opening you want to clearly present your topic and the purpose of your presentation.
Clearly articulating the topic and purpose will help the listeners focus on and easily follow your
main ideas.

During the conclusion of your presentation, reinforce the main ideas you communicated.
Remember that listeners won't remember your entire presentation, only the main ideas. By
reinforcing and reviewing the main ideas, you help the audience remember them.

Practicing and Delivering

Step 6: Practice delivering the presentation

Most people spend hours preparing a presentation but very little time practicing it. When you
practice your presentation, you can reduce the number of times you utter words and phrases like,
"um," "well," and "you know." These habits can easily diminish a speaker's credibility. You can
also fine-tune your content to be sure you make your most important points in the time allotted.

In addition to planning the content of your presentation, you need to give advanced thought to
how you want to deliver it. Do you want to commit your presentation to memory, use cards to
guide you, or read from a script? Or, you might want to use a combination of methods. To help
you decide, read the advantages and disadvantages of the four delivery methods described below.

Strategies for preparing an effective Preparing an Effective presentation

In Oder to prepare for an effective oral presentation the following seven steps are essential.

1. Determine the purpose

2. Analyze the audience and occasion
3. Select the main idea
4. Research the topic
5. Organize the data and write the draft.
6. Create visual aids
7. Rehearse the talk

1 Determine the purpose

The first step that the presenter should do for preparing an oral presentation is to ask
himself/herself. Why I am giving this presentation. In a macro level there are three goals of any
presentation. A) To inform and instruct: (goal is to clarify, explain or give a better
comprehension of an idea, process, procedure or an issue. b) to persuade: (goal is to make the
listener accept a proposal). To Entertain: (social occasions such as promotion parties,
retirement, birthday or anniversaries are characteristics of this kind of speaking).

2) Analyze the audience and identify their needs.

Before making a presentation, the presenter must know the audience. The presenter should adopt
his message according to nature, need and level of understanding of his audience.

3) Select the main idea for message:

Selecting the main theme or main idea is an importance step in preparing for a presentation.

4) Research the topic:

After choosing the topic of presentation the next step is that the presenter needs to do is to gather
all fact, data and information related to the topic.

5) Organize the Data and write the draft

In order to prepare an effective presentation the presenter should organize all the collected data
in a proper beginning, discussion and conclusion format. A good presentation has three parts:
introduction, discussion or body and conclusion or summary.

Introduction: there are three major parts of introduction are: porch, aim and layout

1) Porch: a porch is the opening remark. It is a preface,

preamble or greeting. It can be begin with
quotation, question, reference, humorous story etc.
2) Aim: the presenter states his purpose, aim or intend
for delivering the presentation.
3) Layout: the presenter tells the audience his agenda
or the main parts of his presentation.

Body: After giving the introduction, the presenter comes to the main body or the discussion of
the topic. The body is the heart of the talk; here the presenter presents all the data, evidence and
main purpose of presentation.
Conclusion: In the end of the presentation the presenter gives a brief review or summary of the
all main ideas covered in the body of the presentation and gives an ending or closing remark.

6) Create visual Aids

A presentation can be made more vivid by the use of visual aids, like charts, graphs, diagrams,
pictures etc. the presenter makes use of visual aids where needed.

7) Rehearse the presentation

The presenter should rehearse his presentation at least three times before delivering it.

Report writing
A report is a clear (clarity of expression) and concise document which is written for a particular purpose (provide
certain important information it may be regarding event and incident) and audience (made for particular audience).
The report may be written for a school magazine or journals or newspaper.