WATER

Sources of Water
Water can be found everywhere as rains, springs, seas, rivers, streams, wells, bore holes, etc.
Note: Rainwater is the purest form of water in nature.
Sea water contains a lot of dissolved impurities and is the most impure. Distilled and de-ionized
water is not good for drinking as it does not contain certain essential elements that are required
for growth.
Physical Properties of Water
1. It is colourless, odourles and tasteless.
2. It is a liquid at room temperature.
3. It boils at 100℃ (373𝐾) and freezes at 0℃ (273𝐾) at 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒).
4. Its density is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 𝑎𝑡 4℃ (277𝐾).
5. It is neutral to litmus and it is a universal solvent.
Chemical Properties of Water
1. Reaction with Metals:
(a) Water reacts with metals to liberate hydrogen gas.

(b) Magnesium reacts with steam to liberate hydrogen gas.

(c) Mercury (Hg), Silver (Ag), and gold (Au) do not react with water.
2. Reaction with Non-metals
(a) When heated to white hot, carbon reacts with water to give carbon(II)oxide and
hydrogen (water gas).

(b) Chlorine reacts with water to form a mixture of two acids.

(c) Red hot silicon reacts with water to give the oxide and liberate hydrogen.

3. It dissolves oxides of metals and non-metals to form alkalis and acids respectively.
(a) Reaction with metallic oxides:
 (b) Reaction with non-metallic oxides:

Test for Water

1. Water turns white anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) (𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ) blue.
2. Water turns blue cobalt (II) chloride (𝐶𝑜𝐶𝑙2 ) pink.
Types of water
1. Soft water: Water with little or no dissolved minerals is called soft water.
2. Hard water: Water with high concentration of dissolved minerals, particularly calcium and
magnesium salts is hard water.
Types of Hardness of Water
A. Temporary hardness
B. Permanent hardness
A. Temporary Hardness: This is the hardness that occur due to the presence of calcium or
magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV). It can be removed by boiling.
Removal of Temporary Hardness
1. Boiling: When temporary hard water is heated, the soluble 𝐶𝑎𝐻(𝐶𝑂3 )2 decomposes to
give insoluble 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3.

2. Addition of slaked lime: Adding calculated amount of slaked lime can also remove
temporary hardness from water.

3. Distillation
Effects of Temporary Hardness
i. Furring of kettles and boilers: When kettles and boilers are used to boil temporarily hard
water, their inner surface becomes stained or coated with a layer of calcium
trioxocarbonate (IV) resulting from the decomposition of calcium hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (IV).
 ii. Stalagmites and stalactites: Pillars of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) are formed under
roofs and on the floors of hot caves as a result of temporarily hard water dripping
through holes in these caves. The pillars growing upward, are known as stalagmites
while those growing downwards from roof are known as stalactites.
B. Permanent hardness: This is the hardness caused by the presence of tetraoxosulphate
(VI) or chlorides of calcium, magnesium or iron. It cannot be removed by boiling.
Removal of Permanent Hardness
1. Addition of washing Soda: Hydrated sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) removes permanent
hardness from water by precipitating the calcium or magnesium ions present as
insoluble salts.

2. Reaction with Caustic soda: Addition of caustic soda can also remove hardness of water
by precipitating the calcium and magnesium as insoluble compounds.

3. Ion-exchange resin: This is also known as permutit method. It is a complex compound of

sodium which is commonly known as sodium zeolite. The sodium ions present in the
resin displace the calcium and magnesium ions as the hard water passes through the
resin.

4. Distillation: This method can be used to remove any one of the two types of hardness of
water, since the ions causing the hardness are left behind as water evaporates to steam.
Advantages of Hard Water
1. It tastes better than soft water due to the presence of dissolved salts.
2. It helps aquatic animals to make their shells.
3. It helps to build strong bones and teeth when taken by man and animals.
4. It does not affect lead pipes (i.e. it does not dissolve lead) and hence can be supplied via
lead pipes.
Disadvantages of Hard Water
1. It causes wastage of soap (since it does not lather readily with soap).
2. It causes furring of kettles and boilers.
3. It cannot be used for tanning and dyeing (because the ions present can react with the
chemicals present in the dye).
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF WATER

Water is prepared from its constituent elements, i.e. hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is
generated by the action of fairly concentrated hydrochloric acid on zinc. The gas then passed
through a U-tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride gas, the hydrogen is burnt at a jet and
the vapours are ‘cooled’ when they come in contact with a clean can kept cool by water. A test
tube is placed over the jet to collect hydrogen gas by displacement of air. When the test tube is
full of gas, it burns on the application of to it, light the jet and allow the flame to burn very close
to the can. Moisture will condense on the can and will drop into a dish which is placed below the
liquid.
The liquid can be shown as water using:
• Action of the liquid on anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) and cobalt
(II) chloride salt.
• Boiling point of the water.

EVALUATION
1. What are the pollutants that can be present in water
2. (a) Give four uses of water. (b) How can water be prepared in the laboratory?
3. Distinguish distilled water from treated water.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. One of these is not a water pollutant: A. petroleum B. industrial effluents C. biodegradable
chemicals D. domestic liquid and solid water
2. Temporal hardness of water is removed by the use of the following except: A. boiling B. use
of Na2CO3 C. use of Ca (OH)2 D. MgSO4
3. Water is temporarily hard because it contains A. CaSO4 B. MgSO4 C. Chlorine D. Ca (HCO3)2
4. Natural water collected from rivers and ponds contain oxygen, CO2 and A. hydrogen B.
nitrogen C. SO2 D. Chlorine
5. A sample of water which has passed through a de-ionizer may contain A. temporal hardness B.
permanent hardness C. Heavy metal ions D. organic impurities.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1(a). Mention two types of hardness of water
(b). List two salts that cause each of them.
2. Describe an experiment to show that contains hydrogen and oxygen only
3. What term is used to describe water sample that: (a) produce lather with soap (b) does not
produce lather with soap.
4. State two advantages of soft water over hard water. (b) List two advantages of hard water.
5. Enumerate three water pollutants you know.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:

Read New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio; pages 298 - 302

PRE–READING ASSIGNMENT:

Read about carbon and its compounds.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

(a)Describe the structure of carbon atom and its properties. (b) What are the allotropes of
carbon.
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CONTENT:

1. CARBON, ALLOTROPES AND THEIR STRUCTURES,

2. PROPERTIES, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

4. COAL AND TYPES OF COAL

CARBON, ALLOTROPES AND THEIR STRUCTURES

Carbon is a non -metal found in group 4 of the periodic table. It occurs naturally as diamond and
graphite. These physically different forms of the same chemical element are known as allotropes.
Other elements that exist in different forms in their free states include tin, Sulphur and
phosphorus. Also, it occurs in an impure form as coal and in the combine state as petroleum,
wood and natural gases.

Atomic structure of carbon

Carbon is the sixth element in the periodic table. the nucleus its atom it composed of six proton
and six neutron and surrounded by six electrons; 2 in the first energy level (k-shell) and four in
the 2nd energy level (L-shell). its orbital configuration is 1S22S22P2.Carbonatom has four valency
electrons. Carbon atoms are able to catenate, i.e. join to one another by covalent bonds in a
continuous fashion. The phenomenon is called catenation.

Allotropes of carbon

Allotropy is the existence of an element in the same physical state but indifferent forms. The
various forms are called allotropes. Carbon exhibits allotropy. Other elements that also exhibit
allotropy are Sulphur, Tin, Oxygen and Phosphorus. The two crystalline allotropes of carbon are:
Diamond and graphite. Charcoal is amorphous. allotrope of carbon.
Diamond

Structure and Bonding

In diamond, each carbon atom is at the center of a regular tetrahedron and covalently bonded
to four other atoms in a strong compact fashion. The covalent linking between the atoms is
continuous to produce a single infinite tightly locked 3-dimensional giant (macro) molecule,
which has a network octahedral structure see the diagram below:

The rigidity of the structure is responsible for the hardness of diamond; it is the hardest known
substance. Since the covalent bonds are strong and the molecule is compact, the melting point
of diamond is very high.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND

1. Pure diamond is hard, colourless and transparent.

2. Forms octahedral crystals with high refractive index.

3. It is very hard; it has a density of 3.5gcm-3, and melting point of 36000C.

4. It does not conduct electricity, because all the four valence electrons per carbon atom are used
in bonding i.e.no mobile electrons.

5. It is insoluble in any solvent.

USES OF DIAMOND

1. Because of its high refractive index and amazing metallic luster when cut, it is used in jewelries.

2. Because of its hardness, diamond is used in cutting glasses, in drilling rocks; in boring of holes;
in making bearings in engines; and as an abrasive, i.e.to smoothen rough surfaces.

GRAPHITE

Structure and Bonding

In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other atoms to produce an infinite
two-dimensional flat hexagonal layer structure, which is strong and hard. See the diagram above.
The flat hexagonal layers in graphite are held together by the weak van der Waals attractive
forces, which allow movement of the planes parallel to each other, and make the graphite to be
soft and slippery. The fourth electron in the valence shell of each carbon atom in graphite is
mobile, because it is not used in bonding, and account for its electrical conductivity.

EVALUATION

1. Define the term allotropy.

2. What is the structure of? (a) diamond (b) graphite.

3. Give the reason why diamond is hard, while graphite is soft.

PROPERTIES, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAMON AND GRAPHITE

Physical properties of graphite

1. Graphite form soft, black and opaque hexagonal crystals, which are greasy to feel. The
softness is due to the ability of the adjacent layers to slide over one another.
2. It is hard. Its density is 2.3gcm-3, and melts at about 35000c.
3. It is good conductor of heat and electricity-due to the presence of a mobile electron per
carbon atom.
4. It is soluble in any solvent. Graphite is an example of a non –metallic conductor.it is a
metalloid.

USES OF GRAPHITE

1. Graphite is used as a lubricant, because of its flat hexagonal layer which can slide over one
another.

2. Used as inert electrodes during electrolysis and for brushes of electric motors been a good
conductor of electric current.

3. When mixed with clay, graphite forms lead, which is used in making lead pencils. The hardness
of a pencil depends on the amount of clay in the mixture. Soft pencils contain more of graphite,
while hard pencils contain more of clay.

4. Used in making crucible, because of its high melting point.

5. Used in nuclear reactors; being soft and with a high melting point.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

DIAMOND PROPERTIES GRAPHITE PROPERTIES

1. Diamond is a transparent solid that Graphite is an opaque solid, with a metallic

sparkles when cut and polished luster

2. It is octahedral in shape It is hexagonal in shape

3. Its density is 3.53.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 Its density is 2.33.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3

4. It is a poor conductor of electricity It is a good conductor of electricity

 5. It is an inert substance but at 9000c, It is a more reactive substance burns in air
it burns in air to form carbon(iv) to form carbon (iv) oxide at 7000c, it also
oxide and combines with fluorine reacts with oxidizing agents to form oxides,
it also reacts with fluorine and
tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid

6. It is the hardest substance known It is one of the softest minerals known.

EVALUTION

1. List 3 uses of graphite with reasons.

2. Give four differences between diamond and graphite.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON AND TYPES OF COAL

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

1. Combustion reaction

Carbon burns in limited supply of air to form carbon (II) oxide equation for the reaction is
given as

In excess air, complete combustion takes place and carbon (IV) oxide is formed. Equation for
the reaction is given as:

When charcoal is used as fuel, it burns released is used for cooking (exothermic reaction)

NOTE: Carbon occurs most abundantly both naturally as diamond and graphite and in
numerous compounds including petroleum coal, natural gas among others.
2. Combination reaction:

Carbon combines directly with certain elements such as Sulphur, hydrogen, calcium and
aluminium at a very high temperature.

3. As a reducing agent.

Carbon is a strong reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of a fewer active metals.

4. Reaction with strong oxidizing agent. Trioxonitrate (v) acid oxidizes carbon to carbon (iv) oxide

COAL AND TYPES OF COAL

COAL: This is one the two most principal sources of fuel and energy, the other being petroleum.
Coal was found as a result of complex chemical and physical changes when the remains of forest
were buried under the earth millions of years ago under great pressure in the absence of air.
Coal is found in great abundance in very many parts of the world including Nigeria. Coal is a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and other organic and
inorganic compounds containing small amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus as
impurities.
Types of Coal
Coal is derived from wood; it naturally contains a lot of carbon. There are four main types of
coal, arising from the progressive variation in their carbon content. They are:

1. Peat-like coal: contains about 60% of carbon.

2. Lignite coal: contains about 70% of carbon.
3. Bituminous coal: contains about 85% of carbon. This is the type that is mostly used for our
everyday domestic application.
4. Anthracite coal: contains about 94% of carbon.
The carbon content of each type of coal reflects its rank or degree of classification. Based on
carbon content, the different types of coals are put into ranks as follows:

Peak → Lignite → Bituminous → Anthracite

Coal is used mainly as a fuel to generate power for station engines, factories and electric parts. It
is also used for making various chemicals.

EVALUATION

1. Carbon occurs most abundantly both naturally as _________ and ______

2. With two equations only, describe the combustion of carbon allotropes.

3. Mention four types of coal

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL AND GASIFICATION OF COAL

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL
Destructive distillation of coal involves heating of coal to a very high temperature (600---1200o
C) in the absence of air. During the process, coal decomposes to give coal gas, coal tar,
ammoniacal liquor and coke as the main products.

Coal + heat → coal gas + coal tar + ammoniacal liquor + coke

The process is also known as industrial distillation of coal. The destructive distillation of coal can
be carried in the laboratory using the set up below.
Uses of product of destructive distillation of coal

1. Coal gas: Coal gas is a gaseous mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon (ii) oxide and small
amount of ethane, hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur (iv) oxide. The main use of coal gas is as fuel.
It is cleaner and more efficient than coal and solid or liquid fuel.
2. Coal tar: Coal tar, a thick brownish-black liquid, is a mixture of many organic chemicals
including benzene, toluene, phenol, naphthalene and anthracene. The components can be
separated by fractional distillation and are used for the manufacture of commercial products
including drugs, dye, paints, insecticides, explosives, etc.
3. Ammoniacal liquor: This an aqueous solution containing mainly ammonia and is used in the
manufacture of ammonium tetraoxosulphate(iv), (NH4)2SO4.
4. Coke: Coke is non-volatile residue which contains about 90% of amorphous carbon and is
chemically similar to hard coal. Coke is used in the manufacture of carbide, as a fuel and as a
reducing agent in the extracting of metals. Coke is used to make producer gas and water gas
through a process called gasification.
Uses of Coke
1. It is used as fuel both industrially and domestically
2. It is used to manufacture carbide used in production of ethyne.
3. It is a reducing agent in the extraction of metals from their ores.
4. It is used in the production of graphite.
GASIFICATION OF COKE:
Gasification of gas is the conversion of coke to combustible gases by incomplete oxidation with
steam and air at 1000oC. Partial oxidation of coke with air and steam gives producer gas and
water gas respectively.

GASIFICATION OF COKE
Producer gas: This is a mixture of one-third of carbon (II)oxide and two-thirds nitrogen by volume.
It is obtained by heating coke in a furnace in a limited. This is achieved by passing air through red
hot coke. During the process, coke is oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide which is subsequently reduced
by the hot coke to carbon (II) oxide, a combustible gas. The process can be represented by the
following equations.

Uses of producer gas

1. Producer gas is used as fuel in furnaces, retorts and limekilns.
2. It is used as a source of nitrogen for the manufacture of ammonia.
Water gas
Water gas is produced by passing steam through hot coke at 1000oC. This results in reduction of
the steam; carbon (II) oxide and hydrogen are formed. Water gas is mixture containing hydrogen
and carbon (II) oxide in equal volume.

Water gas has a high calorific value because both carbon (II) 0xide and hydrogen are
combustible, whereas the calorific value of producer gas is low because nitrogen which is one of
its constituents is not combustible

Uses

1. Water gas is used as a fuel.

2. It is used as a source of hydrogen and other organic compounds.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between water gas and producer gas.
2. What is gasification of coke?
3. Highlight 4 main products of destructive distillation of coal. State their uses.
4. Explain briefly, how destructive distillation of coal is obtained.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. Carbon is often deposited in the exhaust pipes of cars because of the (a) Presence of carbon
(b) Incomplete combustion of petrol (c) excessive use of petrol. (d) use of impure fuel.

2. Destructive distillation of coal means --------- (a) heating coal in plentiful supply of air (b)
heating coal in the absence of air. (c) conversion of coal to gas (d) destroying coal to produce gas.

3. An aqueous sodium trioxocarbonate(vi) solution is alkaline because the salt is __________(a)

soluble in water (b) a basic salt (c) fully ionized in water (d) hydrolyzed in water
4. The following statements about graphite are correct except that it ____________. (a) has
octahedral structure (b) is soft (c) is used as a lubricant (d) has a network structure

5. The following can be obtained directly from the destructive distillation of coal except. (a)
ammoniacal liquor (b) producer gas(c) coal gas (d) tar

6. Water gas is a mixture of A. CO2 and H2 B. CO2 and H2O C. CO2 D. CO and H2
7. The liquid product from the destructive distillation of coal is A. ammoniacal liquor B. Coal
fume C. Dyestuff D. coal plasma
8. Producer gas is with a low heating power because it contains more A. CO2 than O2 B. nitrogen
than carbon (II) oxide C. CO2 than nitrogen D. nitrogen than CO

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term allotropy?

2. Mention two main types of allotropes of carbon.

3. Differentiate the two main types of allotropes of carbon with their diagrams only

4. In a tabular form, differentiate between the two main types of allotropes of carbon.

5. Mention three amorphous or non-crystalline forms of carbon

6. What do you understand by the term gasification of coke?

7. Give the products of gasification of coke.
TOPIC: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUND

CONTENT:

1. CARBON(IV) OXIDE (CO2): PREPARATIONS, PROPERTIES AND USES.

2. CARBON(II) OXIDE, CO: PREPARATIONS, PROPERTIES AND USES. SYNTHETIC GASES

3. METALLIC TRIOXOCARBONATES; OCCURRENCES, PREPARATION AND USES.

4. TEST FOR CARBON ION

CARBON(IV) OXIDE: PREPARATION AND USES

FORMATION / PREPARATION OF CARBON(IV) OXIDE (CO2)

In excess air, there is complete combustion; carbon (iv) oxide is produced but in the limited
supply of air carbon normally reacts with oxygen to produce carbon(ii) oxide. The equation of
reaction is given below for the two reactions.
Other methods of preparation of CO2 are:

1.

2. The decomposition of trioxocarbonates (IV) salts [except those of Sodium and Potassium] or
hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV) salts, by strong heat e.g.
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O +CO2(g)

3. Action of dilute mineral acid on trioxocarbonate (IV) or hydrogentrioxocarbonate(IV)salt e.g.

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

KHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

(iv) The fermentation of glucose by enzyme (zymase)

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CO2 GAS

The equation for the reaction is given as shown below

CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

Pure and dry CO2 is obtained by passing the gas through a solution of potassium
hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV) [KHCO3] to remove the acid impurities, hydrogen chloride and
then, through conc.𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (or fused CaCl2 to dry the gas. It is then collected by downwards
delivery, being denser than air as in the diagram above.

PHYSICAL PROPERPIES OF CO2(g)

1. It is a colourless and odourless gas.

2. It does not support combustion
3. It is heavier or denser than air.
4. It is easily liquefied at low temperature with pressure higher than 5 atmospheres.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CO2(g)

1. It dissolves in water to give trioxocarbonate(IV) acid, H2CO3(aq)

∴ CO2 is an acid anhydride of H2CO3

2. It turns damp blue litmus paper red
3. It neutralizes the base [NaOH, KOH] to give salt and water only.
CO2 + 2NaOH(aq) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂
When a large excess of the gas is used an acid salt is formed as shown in the equation
above;
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + H2O + CO2(ag) → 2NaHCO3(aq)
4. It acts as an oxidizing agent as shown in the reaction below.
(a) C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO2(g)
(b) 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
In this reaction, magnesium is oxidized to its oxide while CO2 is reduced to carbon.
5. It reacts with lime water to form Ca(OH)2, the equation is
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
When it lasted for long inside lime water Ca(OH)2, the equation is
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq) (colourless)
These equations above are the laboratory chemical test for the presence of CO 2 gas.

Uses of CO2

1. It is used in fire extinguishers because it is heavier than air and it does not support
combustion.
2. It is used in the production of aerated drinks such as Coca-Cola, 7-Up and Pepsi-Cola.
3. It is used as effervescence in certain health salts such as Andrew Liver salt or Epson salt.
4. It is mixed with tartaric acid and corn starch to form baking powder (NaHCO 3); causing
bread to rise.
5. It is used in the production of Na2CO3 by Solvay process.
6. It is necessary for photosynthesis. The dissolved CO2 gas in sea-water provides sea plants
with food for photosynthesis.
7. Solid CO2 is called Dry ice. It is used as a refrigerant in preserving food stuff. It is used as
a coolant in nuclear reactor. It is called dry ice because it sublimes readily, without
forming a liquid.
Dry ice: Advantages over popular ice
Dry ice produces a greater cooling effect than equal mass of the common ice [ice block], because
dry ice can provide a temperature of -790C [194k].

Again, dry ice on warming sublimes [changes from solid to gas] without leaving any liquid; unlike
ice which melts to produce water.

CAUTION: Never handle solid CO2, dry ice, with bare hands; it causes painful blisters similar to
those caused by hot objects.

EVALUATION

1. List the two reactants for the laboratory preparation of carbon (IV) oxide
2. Draw a labelled diagram for the laboratory preparation of dry sample of Carbon (IV) oxide.
3. Describe the laboratory test for CO2
4. Describe what will happen when CO2 is passed into water Ca (OH)2(aq) for a while then in excess
CARBON(II) OXIDE

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CO [in the fume cupboard]

Three methods can be used to prepare CO in the lab and they are as follows;

1. Ethanedioc acid crystals, [H2C2O4.2H2O]

The equation for the reaction is given as shown below;

H2C2O4.2H2O(s) decomposed 3H2O(l) + CO(g) + CO2(g)

Note: That conc. H2SO4 is a drying agent, it is there to remove the elements of water while KOH
removes CO2(g)

CO2(g) + 2KOH(aq) → K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2 (a) Sodium Methanoate crystals

 2HCOONa(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O + 2CO(g)

b. Methannoic acid

𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
HCOOH(l) −𝐻2 𝑂 CO(g)

𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
Show that −𝐻2 𝑂 removes water, a dehydrating agent

3. Reduction of CO2(g) to CO as shown below

CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CO

1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.

2. It is slightly lighter than air.
3. It is only slightly soluble in water, but insoluble in alkalis.
4. It is soluble in ammoniacal solution of copper(I) chloride.
5. It is a poisonous gas, hence, prepared in fume cupboard.
6. It is a neutral gas therefore it does not have any action on the litmus paper.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND USES OF CO

1. It is used as fuel because it supports combustion.

2. It is a useful reducing agent because it is readily reduced to CO2(g) e.g.
(i) CO(g) + H2O → CO2(g) + H2(g)
(ii) CO(g) + CuO(s) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(iii) 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)
(iv) CO(g) + PbO(s) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Note: The product of combustion or oxidation of CO is CO2; confirmed by its ability to turn lime
water milky.

3. Ni(s) + 4CO(g) → Ni(CO)4(s)

At 1800C, nickel carbonyl decomposes to give carbon (II) oxide
 Ni(CO)4(s) → Ni(s) + 4CO(g)
Ni(CO)4(s) nickel carbonyl
4. It combines with chlorine, using finely divided carbon as catalyst to form carbonyl
chloride, COCl2[Phosgene]; a poisonous liquid. CO(g) + Cl2(g) → COCl2

SYNTHETIC GAS

Like water gas, synthetic gas is a mixture of CO and hydrogen. It is obtained by passing natural
gas [Methane] over steam or air in the presence of Nickels as the catalysts to give a mixture of
CO and hydrogen

𝑁𝑖.900𝑜 𝐶
CH2(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)

𝑁𝑖.900𝑜 𝐶
2CH4(g) + O2(g) → 2Co(g) + 4H2(g)

SEPARATION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF PRODUCER GAS AND WATER

Producer gas is a mixture of CO and Nitrogen, while water gas is a mixture of CO and hydrogen.

Note: A fuel is any substance that burns in air or oxygen to produce heat and light. Producer gas
and water gas are examples of gaseous fuels. Examples of solid fuels are wood, coal and coke

1. Liquid fuels e.g. producer gas, kerosene, alcohol or methylated spirit.

2. Gaseous fuels- e.g. producer gas, water gas, coal gas, natural gas paraffin gas and
synthetic gas.
3. Human fuels e.g. food items in the form of fat and oil, protein, starch and sugar
4. Atomic fuel e.g. uranium

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Describe 2 methods of laboratory preparation of CO(g)

2. What is meant by fuel?

3. State the components of each of the following (a) water gas (b) Producer gas (c) coal gas (d)
synthesis gas.

METALLIC TRIOXOCARBONATES, OCCURRENCES, PREPARATION AND USES METALLIC

All trioxocarbonate(IV) salts are insoluble in water except soluble. Hence, they are prepared by
double decomposition method, using aqueous Na2CO3 e.g.

Na2CO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq)( → CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Na2CO3(aq)+ ZnCl2(aq) → ZnCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq

White

METHOD 2: Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

PROPERTIES OF SALTS

1. All trioxocarbonate(IV) salts are insoluble in water, except those of Na, K and NH4 which
are soluble.
2. They dissolve in water to produce alkaline solutions. This is because they are salts of
strong bases and weak acid, hence, they hydrolysed in water to produce alkaline
Solutions’
e.g K2CO3(s) + 2H2O → 2KOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

3. All trioxocarbonate(IV) salts except those of potassium and Sodium, decompose on heating,
to liberate CO2(g).

e.g. ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(NH4)2CO3(s) → 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Note: Na2CO3 and K2CO3 are not affected by heating, to liberate carbon(IV) oxide e.g.

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Ionically: CO3(s)2-+ 2H+(aq → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

TRIOXOCARBONATE(IV) ACID

Trioxocarbonate(IV) [carbonic acid], H2 CO3 is a very weak diabasic acid. It is obtained when
carbon (IV) oxide dissolves in water. It is unsuitable; hence never isolated.

CO2(g) + H2O⇌ H2CO3(aq ⇌ 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

The acid forms both the normal and acid salts; i.e the acid ionizes into two stages;

1. H2CO3(aq) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + HCO-3(aq)

2. HCO-3(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CO2-3(aq)

Uses of Trioxocarbonate (IV) salts

1. Na2CO3 is used in softening hard water, in making soap and glass, and as an alkali in acid-
base titration.
2. CaCO3 is used in making quick lime, cement and glass; in agriculture [in liming the soil –
to reduce acidity]

CHEMICAL TESTS FOR CO32- SALTS

Test on liquid on Solid (dry test) ---------(a)

Small solid sample of salt is put in a test tube and few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid was added-
--- effervescence occur, then an odourless colourless gas was given off which in turn moist blue
litmus paper slightly red and turns lime water. Gas is CO2(g)

Test (wet test) --------(b)

Barium chloride solution was added to few drops of solution of salt in test tube. A white
precipitate was formed

CO2-3(ag) + BaCl2(aq) → BaCO3(s) + 2Cl-(aq)

The precipitate is soluble in dilute HCl, to give a colourless solution.

BaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq)+ H2CO3(aq)

EVALUATION

1. Describe the laboratory preparation of metallic trioxocarbonate (IV) salts

2. List two properties of trioxocarbonate (IV) salts
3. Give one method for preparation of trioxocarbonate (IV) acid

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Where else is CO2 found in free State apart from the atmosphere. A. carbonated trees B.
dissolved form in water C. in corals D. in limestone region
2. All are decomposed by heat except A. BaCO3 B. CuCO3 C. AgCO3 D. ZnCO3
3. Which of the following trioxocarbonates (IV) are not decomposed by heat A. Calcium
and Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) C. Potassium and Zinc trioxocarbonate(IV) D. Sodium
and potassium trioxocarbonate (IV)
4. It is dangerous to stay in a badly ventilated room which has a charcoal fire because of the
presence of A.CO2 B. CO C. Hydrogen D. Sulpur
5. One of these gases is heavier than air and do not support combustion. A. CO B. CO2 C.
H2O D. N2O
ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Name one process which. (i) removes carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere (ii) fixes
atmospheric nitrogen as trioxonitrate (III) oxide in the soil.
2. Describe one of the methods of laboratory preparation of Carbon (II) oxide
3. Describe one method for the laboratory preparation of Carbon (IV) oxide
4. Explain fully how CO2(g) can be detected in the laboratory.
5. Explain the laboratory test for trioxocarbonate (IV) ion.
PRE READING-ASSIGNMENT

Read hydrocarbon and its main classes, crude oil and natural gas; and importance of
hydrocarbons.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY:

Explain in detail, the laboratory preparation of (i) CO(g) (ii) CO2(g) (iii) CO32- salts (iv)H2CO3
respectively.

TOPIC: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CONTENTS:

1. HYDROCARBON AND ITS MAIN CLASSES

2. CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS- FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL AND USES OF
PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

3. CRACKING OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS, REFORMING, OCTANE NUMBER AND KNOCKING

4. IMPORTANCE OF CRUDE OIL AND PETROCHEMICALS

HYDROCARBON AND ITS MAIN CLASSES

Hydrocarbons, as the name implies, are compounds of only two elements; hydrogen and carbon.
There are many such organic compounds.

Hydrocarbons are usually classified into two main groups namely, saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
1. Saturated hydrocarbons (Alkanes). The alkanes have the general molecular formula C nH2n+2.
Members of this group include Methane, CH4, ethane, C2H6, propane, C3H8, butane, C4H10. The
structure of butane is given below.

2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (Alkenes and alkynes). The alkenes have the general formula is
CnH2n. Members of this group include ethene, C2H4 propene, C3H6 butene, C4H8 etc.

Hydrocarbons can be classified into:

1. Aliphatic compounds

2. Aromatic compounds

Aliphatic compounds are classified into two sub-classes: 1. Acyclic compounds 2. Cyclic
compounds

In acyclic compounds the molecules are made up of straight chain carbon atoms or branch chain
e.g. Butane (a straight chain compound)

2 methyl butane (a branched chain compound)

In cyclic compounds the end carbon atoms of an open aliphatic chain can also join together to
form a closed system or ring e.g.
Cyclopropane

AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Aromatic compounds are Benzene or derivative of benzene (that is compounds whose structures
are based on the structure of benzene)

Due to resonance exhibit by the structures of benzene, i.e.

(i) (ii)

The structure of benzene would be (i) or (ii)

Conventionally the structure of benzene is now a hexagon with a ring within it.

Examples of other derivatives of benzene,

(a) OH (b) CH3 (c) CH3

Phenol Toluene Xylene

EVALUATION:

Name the following aliphatic compounds.

 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS, REFINING OF CRUDE OIL AND USES OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

Another name for crude oil is petroleum. It is the chief source of hydrocarbons. Crude oil occurs
as a dark, sticky, viscous liquid. It is believed that crude oil is formed by the gradual
decomposition of the remains of marine plants and animals that became incorporated in the
sediment and rocks formed at the bottom of the sea.
 Crude oil is a mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons
etc.

Natural gas; Natural gas is usually found together with crude oil; and water in traps or reservoirs
in between some layers of rocks at the bottom of the sea. Natural gas consists mainly of methane.
It is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.

In Nigeria crude oil is found in Oloibiri in 1956. In Niger Delta, Calabar and in Burutu in Delta state.

REFINING OF CRUDE OIL AND USES OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

Crude oil must be refined to make useful fuels and chemicals. The crude petroleum taken from
the oil fields to refineries is processed in three stages: separation, conversion and purification.

Fractional Distillation of oil

Petroleum products are the fractions obtained directly from the fractionating tower where the
crude oil has been refined by fractional distillation. The separation of petroleum fractions is based
on the differences in their boiling points. The amin products or fractions are shown in the table
below:

Fraction No. of Carbon atoms Boiling points Uses

1. Petroleum gas C 1- C 4 Below 40Oc Fuel and manufacture of other

organic compounds

2. Petrol or gasoline C5-C10 40 - 200OC Used as fuel in motor cars and

generators

3. Kerosene or C11- C15 200 – 250OC Used as aviation fuels in aircraft

Paraffin oil and also as fuel for lantern
4. Diesel or light gas C16 – C20 250 -350OC Used as fuels in engines or buses,
oil trains, boats, tractors etc.

5. Lubricating oil C20 –C30 350 – 500OC Used in candle making, creams,
hair care products.

6. Bitumen or >C30 Above 500oC For road surfacing

Asphalt
FRACTIONAL DISTILATION OF CRUDE OIL

EVALUATION:

1. Explain the formation of crude oil.

2. Mention four fractions of petroleum and their uses

CRACKING OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS, REFORMING, OCTANE NUMBER AND KNOCKING

CRACKING AND REFORMING

The quality of petrol obtained from the Fractional distillation of crude oil is about 20% by volume.
Cracking is therefore employed so as to provide more petrol, since its demand is high and as a
source of alkenes.

CRACKING: cracking is the process whereby large molecules of heavy oils are broken into smaller
molecules (light oils) at high temperature, pressure and in the presence of a catalyst. Usually
petroleum fractions with more than eleven carbon atoms in their molecules can be cracked.

During cracking, ethene, C2H4 is produced; it is the major raw material in the petrochemical
industry.

CRACKING TECHNIQUES

The two main cracking processes are: thermal cracking and catalyst cracking.

There is also a less common cracking known as hydro cracking.

1. THERMAL CRACKING: Thermal cracking involves heating heavy oils, such as lubricating oil,
diesel oil and kerosene to about 6000C under pressure; it leads to the decomposition and
formation of a mixture of more volatile alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen. The mixture is then
separated by fractional distillation. e.g.

2. CATALYTIC CRACKING: in catalytic cracking, the heavy oil is heated to about 5000C under
reduced pressure and in the presence of natural clay (a mixture of silicon (iv) oxide and aluminium
oxide) as the catalyst. Under these conditions, a mixture of alkanes and alkenes, which can be
separated by fractional distillation, is obtained e.g.

C18H38 → C6H14 + C8H16 +2C2H4

Note: note that the products of cracking depend on the starting material and the reaction
conditions, such as temperature, pressure and the nature of the catalyst used.

In hydro cracking, hydrogen is passed into the reaction mixture during the cracking process.
Under this condition, only the lower saturated alkanes are obtained.
REFORMING: In reforming the molecules do not crack but are reformed or reshaped. In
reforming straight chain alkanes are converted catalytically into branched chain isomers,
cycloalkanes and benzene, the purpose is to convert low grade petrol to higher grades, i.e.
improve the quality. Reforming techniques includes: ISOMERISATION, CYCLIZATION AND
AROMATIZATION

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CRACKING AND REFORMING

1. Cracking involves breaking large molecules of petrol fractions into smaller molecule, while
reforming involves rearrangement of atoms in the molecules of petroleum fraction to obtain
branched and cyclic hydrocarbons.
2. Cracking can be achieved thermally or catalytically, while reforming is in the presence of a
catalyst.
3. Cracking occurs at a temperature higher than that of reforming.
4. Cracking is employed to increase the quantity of petrol, while reforming is to improve its
quality.

OCTANE NUMBER OR RATING

Each grade of gasoline (petrol) is rated according to the term octane number. The octane rating
or number is based on the proportions of the straight chain heptane, C7H16 and the branched-
chain 2,2,4 –Trimethylpentane, an isomer of C8H18 called iso-octane in petrol. When petrol with
a high proportion of straight chain, heptane is used in the engine of a vehicle, the combustion
will not be smooth, and can knock the engine, i.e. damage the engine, while petrol with a high
proportion of the branched chain 2,2,4- Trimethylpentane burns smoothly and does not cause
knocking in engines. The higher the octane number of petrol, the lower the knocking tendency.

EVALUATION:

1. What is the advantage of catalytic cracking over thermal cracking.

2. Mention the methods of reforming gasoline.

3. Mention two ways of improving the octane number of petrol.

IMPORTANCE OF CRUDE OIL AND PETROCHEMICALS

In Nigeria, natural gas is used as fuel for heavy duty vehicles and engines. The gas power stations
Ughelli and Sapele use natural gas to generate electricity.

Economic importance: Nigeria proposes to set up a liquefied natural gas plant. This will enable
Nigeria not only to increase its natural gas consumption at home, but also to express the gas.

Petroleum and natural gas are now used in increasing amounts to produce many organic
compounds e.g. Ethanol, ethane, propane 1,2,3-triol, benzene, toluene. These are in turn used
to make large- molecule organic compounds like plastics, synthetic rubber, insecticides,
detergents, synthetic fibers like nylon and Dacron. The oil industry has provided employment in
various aspects at the industry.

EVALUATION:

1. Name some places in the Niger Delta in Nigeria where crude oil is found.

2. Write short not on this: IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. Oil deposits in Nigeria are (a) on land and offshore (b) only offshore (c) mainly imported (d)
downstream

2. Fractional distillation involves the following process (a) boiling (b) boiling and condensation (c)
boiling, evaporation and condensation (d) condensation and collection

3. Which is the odd- one out of? (a) petroleum ether, petroleum gases, kerosene (b) gas oil and
diesel lubricating oil (c) petroleum ether and bitumen (d) Hematite and asphalt

4. Which of the following is a source of hydrocarbons? (a) Hematite (b) marble (c) coal (d) slag
5. Crude oil can be obtained in Nigeria in the following places except. (a) Afam (b) Abata (c) Owaza
(d) Kano

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Describe how you would show that crude oil is not a single compound.

2. (a) What are hydrocarbons? (b) Give three examples and their main sources in nature.

3. With the help of a diagram, briefly describe the industrial fractionation of petroleum.

4. Write short notes on (a) crude oil (b) Natural gas

5. Name four fractions of petroleum stating their uses.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:

Read the topic ‘Fractional distillation of crude oil’

WEEKEND ACTIVITY:

On a cardboard sheet draw how crude oil and natural gases are formed.

PRE READING-ASSIGNMENT:

Read all the notes for this third term.

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Volumetric analysis is an aspect of quantitative analysis which involves the measurement of the
volume of reacting solutions in order to find the masses of substances dissolved in them.in other
words, two solutions are given; one is a solution of an acid and other a solution of a base .one of
them is a standard solution and you are required, by titration to standardize the other.
The other aspect of quantitative analysis is gravimetric analysis, which involves weighing and
determining the masses of reactants and products of a chemical reaction.

The most popular aspect of Volumetric analysis is the acid – base (neutralization) reactions. The
technique of determination is by titration. Other aspects are redox and precipitation reaction.

APPARATUS USED IN VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS ARE:

The burette, pipette, beaker, flasks, funnel, wash bottle, chemical balance, dropping pipette and
retort stand.

Basic definitions in volumetric analysis

I.TITRATION: It is the technique for carrying out volumetric analysis.

II.CONCENTRATION: The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given volume of

the solution.

III.STANDARD SOLUTION: It is a solution containing a known amount of solute in a known volume

of solution. An example of a standard solution is a molar solution.

IV.MOLAR SOLUTION: It is a solution which contains one mole of solute in 1dm3solution.

V.BUFFER SOLUTION: It is a solution which resists a change in pH or upon further addition of acid
or alkali. Buffers are usually made of solutions of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak
base and its conjugate acid. The weak acid usually has a pH value lower than 7 and is therefore
used to buffer systems in the basic region. Examples of buffers solution and their p H ranges over
which they are effective are given below:

BUFFER SYSTEM PH RANGE

Ethanoic acid/Sodium ethanoate (CH3COOH/CH3COONA) 4.25-5.25
Trioxocarbonate(iv)(carbonic) acid/Sodium 5.87-6.87
hydrogentrioxocarbonate
Ammonia/Ammonium chloride (NH3/NH4Cl) 8.75-9.75
Sodiumtrioxocarbonate/sodiumhydrogentrioxocabonate 9.75-10.75
MOLAR MASS: This is the mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams. Its unit is gram
per mole.

END POINT: This is the point at which the chemical reaction is complete during titration. The end
point is detected with the help of an indicator.

INDICATORS: These are weak organic acids or bases whose colors change with pH of the solution.
Indicators are widely used in monitoring titration involving colorless solutions of acids and bases.

DIFFERENT INDICATORS AND THEIR COLOURS IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

INDICATOR COLOUR IN COLOUR IN COLOUR AT

ACIDIC ALKALINE END POINT
MEDIUM MEDIUM
Methyl Orange Pinkish red yellow Orange

Phenolphthalein Colorless red colorless

Litmus Red blue Pink/purple

Methyl red Pink yellow orange

Screened methyl orange Purple(violet) green grey

Bromothymol blue Yellow blue green

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR: This is a mixture of indicators used either as solution on a test paper to
test the pH value of a solution. The pH scale is shown below:

Red pink yellow green blue indigo (deep blue) violet (bluish purple)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14
 Acidity increases Alkalinity
decreases

EFFECT OF WRONG USE OF INDICATOR

The success of a titration exercises depends on the use of the correct indicator. Wrong use of
indicator will definitely give wrong result. For instance, let’s consider a case of the titration of a
solution of a wrong acid say HCl with that of a weak base say Na2CO3, methyl orange is the
suitable indicator, but if phenolphthalein indicator is used instead, the end point will appear
when only half of the weak base has been used up. This can then be represented with the
following equation.

HCl + Na2CO3phenolphthalein NaHCO3 + NaCl

Indicator

This happened because the phenolphthalein is sensitive to a weak acid such as Na2CO3.

TITRATION EXAMPLE PH RANGE SUITABLE INDICATOR

1.Strongacid vs. strong H2SO4(aq) and KOH(aq) 3.5 – 9.5 Any indicator is
base(3-11) suitable.
2.Weak acid vs. strong H2C2O4and NaOH 7.0-9.5 phenolphthalein
base(7-11)
 3.strong acid vs. Weak HCl(aq)andNH3(aq) or 3.5-7.0 Methyl orange or
base(3-7) K2CO3(aq) or Na2CO3(aq) or screened Methyl
Ca(OH)2(aq) orange
4 Weak acid vs. Weak CH3COOH(aq) and NH3(aq) No sharp change No suitable indicator.
base Or phenol red.

IMPORTANCE OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

I. Standardize unknown solution

II. Calculate molar mass, water of crystallization and solubility.
III. Determine the purity of substances.
IV. Determine the masses of substances dissolved.
V. Faster and more convenient

GENERAL PROCEDURES AND PRECUTIONS DURING ACID –BASE TITRATION

A) STEPS INVOLVES IN FILLING THE BURETTE WITH DILUTE ACIDES

STEP1. Clamp the burette in a vertical position to avoid error due to parallax while taking
reading. Rinse it with the given acid solution, alloing part of the acid to pass through the
tap and the jet. Then cloe the tap.
STEP2.With the funnel at the top of the burrette, fill the burettewith acid to a desired
level ensure that the jet is filled with acid to avoid air bubbles inside it.tightly close the
 buette tap to avoid leakages. Remove the funnel toavoid droplets of acid from it.Hold a
piece of white paper behind the burette so that the acid level is clearly shown and note
the reading of the burette.
B) STEPS INVOLVES IN MEASURING 25.00Cm3 (20.00Cm3) of standard base solution.
STEP1.Collect four conical flasks and wash with distiled water only. Make sure that none
of the flasks contain any acid or alkali.
STEP2.Rinse the pipette with the given base solution.
STEP3.suck the base solution into the pipette until the level is about 1cm 3 or2cm3above
the forefinger. Gently release the pressure until the bottom of the concave meniscus is at
the graduation mark,with the eye level aligned.
STEP4.While filing the pipette ensure that the jet lies well inside the base solution to aviod
air bubbles in the pipette.

STEP5.Run the base solution into one of the conical flasks.the sides of the flask should not
be splased with the solution as the splasings may not be neutralised by acid later in the
experiment. To removethe little alikali retained at the tip of the pipette after delivery,do
not blow out thepipette or shake out the last drop of the solution but allow the pipette
to drain for about 15 seconds and then allowthe tip of the pipette to touch bottom of the
flask.
STEP6.Fill the remaing conical flasks as stated above.
(C )STEPS IN INVOLVES IN TITRATION OF THE ALIKALI SOLUTION WITH DILUTED ACID
SOLUTION.
STEP1.Add 2 drops of the given indicator to each conical flask to obtain a shape end-point.
STEP2.Place one of the conical flasks on a piece of white paper or white tile beneath the
burette to aideasy recognition of colour change at the end point.Run in the acid from the
burette addingabout 1.00cm3 at a time.
Shake the conical flask gently during titration to ensure homogeneity of the two solutions
but aviod spillage of the reacting solutiopns. Note the level of the acid when the colour
of the indicator changes.this first titration is the trial or roug titration.

STEP3.Repeat the above procedures for the base in other three conical flasks.Take
burette readings at the lowest concave meniscus for each titration.
 These should be taken at the eyes levels to avoid error of parallax.the volmes of the acids
used in the second,third and fourth accurate titrations should agree within ±0.20cm3 and
should always be recorded to two places of decimals. These make a concordant
orconcurrent results to be obtained.Record all your readings as they are taken and do not
try to remember them or write on scripts of papers.

TITRATION PRECUTIONS

1. The burette must be clamped vertically or not tilted.

2. Wash the burette and pipette with water andrinse with distiled water.
3. Rinse the burette with acid,the pipette with base (alkali)before putting these solutions
into them.
4. Ensure no air bubbles in the burette or pipette.
5. Remove the funnel after putting the acid into the burette(if a funnel is used).
6. The content of the pipette should be allowed to run into the conical flask without
blowing air into it.
7. Use a drop or two (small amount)of indicators.
8. Read the lower meniscus.
9. Ensure the tap of the burette is not leaking.
NOTE:Most examination bodies have different ways of assessing students practical
skills and report writing procedures. For instance, the following are some of the
penalities.
i)use of pencil; -2marks
ii)Alteration(cancillation) on table of titrevalues; -2marks foreach,maximum of -
4marks.
iii)No unit or wrong unit on table; -1mark.
iv)Non concordant values(i.e.difference greater than pluse or minus 0.2)for average
titre value; -1mark.

STEPS IN RECORDING OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING ACID- BASE TITRATION

EXPERIMENT
i.Construct the specimen table:Example
Burette Readings in cm3 Trial or Rough 1st 2nd
Final Burette reading 24.80 24.00 24.00
Initial Burette reading 0.00 0.00 0.00
Volume of Acid used 24.80 24.00 24.00
 ii.Determine the average volume of acid used (i.e. average titer value).
Thus:Average Titre:- 24.00 + 24.00 = 24.00cm3
2
Depending on the differences in readings of the titre values. All your readings must have
their units, i.e.cm3.
NOTE:This value and that of the table should be recorded to two places of decimal.
Iii. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Sudent should learn to round off their calculation numbers to three significant
figures,since they are using foure figure table for their calculations.
Significant figures start from non-zero digit and all other digits that follow including zero
are considered Significant. As usual the digits, 5,6,7,8,9 are rounded up while 1,2,3,4,are
round off.

Examples:
Numbers Rounded off
299.30 299 to 3 S.f
0.0128 0.0128 to 3 S.f
6.0246 6.02 to 3 S.f
NOTE : for the sake of the examination,prepere your table on a sheet of paper and then
neatly transfer it in INK to the answer sheet.

EXAMPLE 1

A is a solution of tetraoxosulphate {vi} acid.

B is a solution containing 0.0500 mole of anhydrous Na2CO3 per dm3.

(a)Put A in the burette and titrate 20.00 or 25.00 cm3 portions of B using methyl orange as the
indicator. Record the size of your pipette. Tabulate the burette readings, and calculate the
average volume of the acid used.
(b) From your result and data provided, calculate the

I amount of Na2CO3 IN 25.00 CM3 OF B used

Ii concentration of A in moldm-3

Iii concentration of A in gdm-3

Iv number of hydrogen ions in 1.00dm3 of A. {Avogadro number = 6.02x1023 mol1}

The equation of reaction is: H2SO4{aq} +Na2CO3{aq] Na2SO4 {aq} + H2O +CO2

{H =1,O=16, S=32}

SOLUTION

A Volume of pipette: 25cm-3

Titration results {Hypothetical data}

Burette reading 1cm3 II cm3 IIIcm3

Final 24.75 49.15 25.70

 Initial 0.00 24.75 1.35

Volume of acid 24.75 24.40 24.35

used

Average volume of acid used from titrations II and III:

24.40+24.35 48.75
= = 24.38cm3
2 2

NOTES: Only the titre values from titrations I and II can be used in averaging, since they are
within ± 0.20cm3 of each other. …Rough of first titre can also be used in averaging, if it is
within ± 0.20cm3 of any other titre value, and is not crossed.-----Do not round up 24.38cm3 to
24.40cm3

(b )To calculate the amount of Na2CO3IN 25.00CM3 Given: conc of B = 0.050moldm3 :Volume
= 25/1000dm3

Amount = Conc {moldm3 x Volume {dm3} = 0.050x25/1000 = 0.00125mol

To calculate the concentration of A in moldm3: The various titration variables are:

CA = xmoldm3; VA = 24.38CM3; Na = 1, CB = 0.050moldm3 VB = 25CM3: nB =1

Method 1: proportion method {from the first principle}

From the balanced equation of reaction:

1mol of Na2CO3 = 1 mol of H2SO4

. ∴ 0.00125mol Na2CO = 0.00125molH2so4

i.e. 24.38cm3 of A contained 0.00125 mol H2SO4

 ∴ 1000𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 A contained {0.00125 x 1000} /24.38 mol = 0.0513mol.Hence, concentration
of A is 0.0513mol moldm3.

Method 2:

Mathematic formula method

From the data above, it is safe to use the mole ratio expression, in order to calculate the
concentration CA of A, which the required variable.

Using CAVA/CBVB = nA/nB

Substituting; CA X 24.38/0.050 X25 =1/1

Making CA the subject of the formula

∴ CA =1 X0.050X25 /24.38 X1 = 0.0513 moldm-3

(iii) To calculate the concentration of A in gdm-3:

Using conc. {gdm-3} x Molar mass {gmol-1}

Concentration of H2SO4, moldm-3 =0.0513moldm-

Molar mass H2SO4, = 2 {1.0} + 32.0 + 4{16.0

= 2.0 +32.0 +64.0 = 98.0gmol-1

Substituting; Mass conc = 0.0513 x98 = 5.0274gdm-3.

=5.03gdm-3 {3 sig fig.}

(Iv).Number of hydrogen ions in 1.00dm3 of A

1 dm3 of A contained 0.0513mol of H2SO4.

H2SO4 ionizes in water completely thus:

H2SO4 (a q) 2H+SO42-(a q)

1mol 2mol
From the equation;

1 mole of H2SO4 produces2 x 0.0513 moles of H+ = 0.103 mol 0f H+

But 1 mole of H+ contains 6.02 x 1023 ions;

Therefore, 0.103 x 6.02 x 1023 ions =6.02 x10 23 ions.{3 sig fig.]

2. DETERMINE OF RELATIVE MOLAR MASS

In the determination of relative molar mass of an acid or bases by titration, the concentration
of both acid and base, at least in gram per dm3, will be provided together with the balanced
equation of reaction so as to establish the mole ratio

EXAMPLE 1.

A contains 1.6g of HNO3 in 250cm3 of solution

B contains 10gdm-3 of XHCO3

25cm3 portion of B requires an average of 24.90cm3 of A for complete neutralization.

Calculatethe

(i) Concentration of acid in moldm-3

(ii) Concentration of XHCO3 in B in moldm-3
(iii) Mass of XHCO3
(iv) Value of X
Equation of the reaction

𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑋𝐻𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑋𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(𝐻 = 1; 𝐶 = 12; 𝑂 = 16

Solution
 Ca =? Mole per dm3 Va = 24.90cm3; na =1

Cb =? Mole per dm3; Vb = 25cm3; nb = 1

(a) To calculate the molar concentration of A.

The given mass concentration of A is
1.6g of HNO3 in 250cm3
i.e. 250cm3 of the solution contained 1.6g of acid
Therefore, 1000cm3 of A contained
1.0 × 1000
= 6.40𝑔𝑑𝑚−3
250
i.e. the mass concentration of A = 6.40gdm-3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
But 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

Molar mass of HNO3 = (1x1) + (14x1) + (16x3) = 1+14+48 =63gmol-1

6.4
Molar conc 𝐶𝑎 = = 0.102𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3
63

(b) To calculate the molar concentration of B

Mass conc. Of XHCO3 in B = 10.0gdm-3 (given)
Since the value of X in the base XHCO3 is not known, the mole ratio expression must be
used in order to find its molar concentration,

𝐶𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝐶𝑏 𝑉𝑏
=
𝑛𝑎 𝑛𝑏
Substituting

0.102 × 24.9 𝐶𝑏 × 25
=
1 1

Making Cb the subject of the formula

0.102 × 24.9
𝐶𝑏 = = 0.102𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3
25

(c) To find the mass of X in XHCO3

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 10.0𝑔𝑑𝑚−3
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = = 98.0𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 0.102𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3
 (d) To find the value of X in XHCO3
Molar mass of XHCO3 =98.0gmol-1
i.e X +1 + 12 + (16 x 3 ) = 98
X + 1 + 12 + 48 = 98
X + 61 = 98
X = 98-61
Relative atomic mass of X is X = 37 (no unit)
2. DETERMINATION OF MOLE RATIO

In order to determine the mole ratio of acid to base (or base to acid) by titration, the solution
of the acid and the base provided for the titration must be known concentrations (standard
solution). However, the equation of reaction will not be provided.

SOLVED PROBLEM 1

A is a solution of 0.0500moldm-3 hydrochloric acid

B is 0.0250moldm-3 of a trioxocarbonate (iv) solution

25.00cm 3 portions of B required an average of 24.60cm3 of A for complete neutralization, using

methyl orange as the indicator

a. calculate:
i. amount of acid in the average volume of A used
ii. amount of trioxocarbonate (IV) in the volume of B used
iii. mole ratio of the acid to trioxocarbonate (IV) solution in the reaction, express your
answer as a whole number ratio of one
b. state whether the PH of the following would be equal to 7, greater than 7 or less than 7
i. solution A
ii. solution B
iii. titration mixture of A and B before end point
SOLUTION

a. (i) To calculate the amount of acid in A used

 Amount of the acid = molar conc of A x volume in dm3.
= 0.050 x 24.60/1000 mol
= 0.00123mol
(ii) To calculate the amount of trioxocarbonate (iV) in B used
Amount of Base = molar conc. Of B x volume in dm3
= 0.025 x 25/1000 mol.
= 0.000625 mol
(iii) Mole ratio of acid to trioxocarbonate (iV)
Mole ratio of acid to base, A: B = 0.00123: 0.000625
0.00123 0.000625
A: B = 0.000625 ∶ 0.000625

A: B = 2 : 1
b. (i) PH of A is less than 7
(ii) PH of B is greater than 7
(iii) PH is titration mixture before end point is greater than 7
SOLVED PROBLEM 2

In an acid – base titration, 24.80cm3 of 0.05000moldm-3 of a mineral acid Y neutralized

25.00cm3 of a solution containing 5.83g of Na2 CO3per dm3.

a. From the information given above calculate:

i. Amount (in moles) of acid Y used
ii. Amount in moles of Na2CO3 used
iii. Mole ratio of the acid to Na2CO3 I the titration
b. i. What is the basicity of Y?
ii. Suggest what Y could be. Give reason for your answer.
iv. From your answer, write a balance equation of the reaction
Solution

a. i. amount ny = conc (moldm-3) x volume (dm3)

24.80
= 0.0500 x 1000 = 0.00124𝑚𝑜𝑙

ii. Amount in mole of Na2CO3 used

 first, calculate the concentration of Na2CO3 in moldm-3
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 2 (23.0) + 12 + 3 (16)
= 46 + 12 + 48 = 106gmol-1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5.83
Conc of Na2CO3 = = = 0.0550𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 106
25
Amount of Na2CO3 , nz = 0.0550 × 1000 = 0.00138𝑚𝑜𝑙

v. mole ratio of the acid to Na2CO3 in the titration

Mole ratio of the acid to Na2CO3 = ny : nz = 0.00124: 0.00138
0.00124 0.00138
𝑛𝑦 : 𝑛𝑧 = :
0.00124 0.00124
ny: nz = 1: 1

b. The basicity of Y is Y since one mole of Y requires one mole of Na2CO3 .

ii. Y is H2SO4. Reason: one mole of the acid Y produces two mole of H+.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶 = 12.0. 𝑂 = 16.0, 𝑁𝑎 = 23.0