Computer Full Notes
Computer Full Notes
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.1. A computer;
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory,
that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful information (output), and store it in
a secondary storage device (store) for safekeeping or future use.
Or
It is an electronic device that converts raw data into meaningful information.
1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS
1. Speed
Computers are quite fast in their operation in that their speed is measured in Millions of
Instructions Per Second (MIPS) or Megahertz (MHz)
Inside the computer's system unit, the processing occurs through electronic circuits.
Data and program instructions travel through these circuits at speeds close to the speed of light.
Many computers process billions or trillions of operations in a single second.
NB: Processing involves computing (adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing), sorting,
organizing, formatting, checking spelling and grammar, charting, displaying pictures,
recording audio clips, playing music, and showing a movie.
2. Accuracy
Computers are known to be accurate. They can process large amounts of data and generate error-
free results, provided the data entered is correct.
They hardly make any mistake. They are capable of detecting and correcting any mistakes made.
It follows therefore, that if wrong data is fed into the computer, the resulting output will be
incorrect.
Hence the saying; Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO)
3. Storage
For a computer to be able to work, it must have a work space where data is stored before being
processed or where information is stored before being output to particular devices.
This storage space is known as Memory.
4. Automation
Computers work automatically.
They do not need any supervision in order to perform programmed routines.
This is because of the instructions (programs) installed in them.
5. Diligence (Consistency)
Computers have the ability to perform the same task over and over for a long time without getting
bored and with nor mistakes (errors).
6. Artificial intelligence
Computers are artificially intelligent.
They can respond to requests given to them and provide solutions. This is because of the programs
installed in them.
Evidence is seen in industrial Robots.
7. Versatility / Flexibility
Computers are capable of performing different kinds of tasks provided the specified task is
followed in a proper order.
a) Repetitive Strain Injury Typing on a computer for Take breaks to rest your
(RSI) too long. hands.
RSI causes painful swelling of Using a mouse for long Use an ergonomic
the wrist and fingers. periods. keyboard/mouse.
Holding the mouse Arrange your workspace
Sufferers with really bad RSI are incorrectly. so you are not cramped.
unable to use their hands at all. Working in a cramped Use a wrist rest.
RSI is caused by doing the same workspace.
small movements over and over
again across a long period of
time. For example, clicking a
mouse button repeatedly.
NOTE!
The key to reducing wrist, finger, neck and back pains is ergonomics.
Ergonomics focuses on creating comfortable environments for people. Adjustable chairs, Wrist
rests etc are examples of ergonomics.
Safety Issues
There are a number of safety issues that can arise from using ICT devices.
Some of these safety issues include:
Electrocution
Tripping over wires
Heavy equipment falling on you
Fire risks
Fire extinguisher
It is a portable device that discharges a jet of liquid, foam or gas to
extinguish (put off) fire.
It is normally filled with carbon dioxide gas which is used to
extinguish fire.
It is essential to always refill the fire extinguishers after a stipulated period of time.
It is also essential that all computer users are taught how to use fire extinguishers.
Air conditioning
Air conditioning is the removal of heat from indoor air for thermal comfort.
In another sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation, or disinfection that
modifies the condition of air.
An air conditioner (often referred to as AC or air con.) is an appliance, system, or machine
designed to change the air temperature and humidity within an area.
It is used for cooling as well as heating depending on the air properties at a given time, typically
using a refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation, commonly for comfort cooling in
buildings and motor vehicles.
Wool carpets
These help to trap / absorb dust that comes along with shoes of computer users. The dust
may also come from other sources e.g. from outside the computer installations through the
windows, doors or through any other entrance.
Plugging your computer into an electrical surge protector is something everyone does to protect
against changes in the electricity supply.
But, you also must test your surge protector regularly.
The manufacturer of the surge protector provides instructions on how to perform this test.
If your surge protector is not adequately working, your computer's motherboard or hard drive could
be destroyed from even the most minor electrical surge. This simple test can prolong your
computer's life by months or years, and it only needs to be done about every six months or so.
Reduced Likelihood of Lost Files
Backing up your computer files is a task that many people put off because it can be time intensive
or it may seem unnecessary.
Unfortunately, if your computer crashes, you won't usually get a second chance to recover your
files and photos. Make back-ups a regular part of your routine.
In addition to making your own backups with CDs or an external hard drive, there are online
services that you can use to automatically back-up your files for a small fee such as Carbonite or
Mozy. They work in the background anytime you are on your computer without intervention,
making file back-ups easy and safe.
Faster Speed
Defragmenting your hard drive, running spyware and virus removal programs as well as installing
the latest drivers and software updates are all computer maintenance tasks that help keep your
computer running at top speed.
Don't forget the Windows updates if you are running that system. Not only do these updates help
your computer run more efficiently, but they help close any recent security holes.
Protection Against Threats
Keeping your spyware and anti-virus programs updated and running on a regular basis is essential
to keeping threats at bay.
You may never realize you have any spyware or viruses on your computer, but they could be there
wrecking havoc in the background by stealing your personal information and transmitting it to third
parties, destroying your files or even making your computer unusable.
Most spyware and anti-virus programs can be set up on a schedule so that they run automatically on
your chosen day and time.
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS
Computers are categorized according to how the processed data is represented.
There are three categories i.e.
(a) Digital Computers
(b) Analog Computers
(c) Hybrid Computers
i. ABACUS
iii.Slide rule
- In 1620, a British mathematician called William Oughfred invented the first kind of
analog computer which was referred to as the Slide Rule.
- This device was made up of two sets of scales marked in logarithms.
- This Mechanical Computer could also solve mathematical problems involving
multiplication, division, addition and subtraction. All these computations could be
done by sliding its cursor.
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- When one wheel moved past the notch of another wheel, it would cause it to rotate
automatically.
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- Charles Babbage was the first to propose the concept of the modern computer hence
called the Father of Computing.
- In 1823, with the help of a grant from the British Government, he partially built a
steam driven mechanical calculator called the Difference Engine to compute
logarithms tables.
Analytical Engine
- He then thought of an Analytical engine which was a mechanical steam driven mechanical
machine.
- This had many characteristics of a modern computer.
The Analytical engine had five logic units which carried out functions and they are similar
to those carried out by the logic units of the present day computer. These logic units
included:
The Input
- This unit was responsible for entering data into the computer.
The Store.
- The store was to keep all the data which was waiting to be operated upon and that data which
had been operated upon but waiting for output instructions.
The Control
- It was very similar to the control unit of the present day computer. It would keep all the
instructions to be carried out by the computer in their respective order.
The Mill
- It was also very similar to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the modern computer i.e. it
would perform Arithmetic and Logic computations which are feed into the computer.
The Output
- It was responsible for producing results after the computer had carried out its operations on
the data entered into it.
- Some points to note about the Analytical Engine.
- It used punched cards to restore its data and instructions.
- It had both input and output units.
- It used modern computing principles such as cycles and loops.
- He then died in 1871 before completing any of his machines.
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Lady Augusta Ada Bryon
- She recorded and analyzed many of ideas of Babbage.
- She is considered to be the world‘s first computer programmer
v. Hollerith’s Tabulator
- It was developed by Dr. Herman Hollerith.
- It was a hand operated computer which used punched card for storing and tabulating data.
- It allowed the 1890 US census to be completed in less than three years.
- It is said that before the introduction of this computer, it had taken the Bureau seven years to
compile the results but with this computer, it took the Bureau few months to compile the
results of 1890 census.
- He then left the census Bureau to start a business Firm (company) to produce punched card
machines. He called his company Dr. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company.
- He later named it the International Business Machine Corporation (IBM), the present day
computer manufacturer.
Fig; An integrated
Characteristics of third generation computers
- Primary memory increased to 64KB of RAM.
- The speed increased to 5 – million instructions per second.
- Introduction of simple programming languages like BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code)
- Computers greatly reduced in size compared to their predecessors.
- They became reliable, smaller in size, cheap and consumed little power which made them
popular.
Examples of 3rd generation computers
IBM 360 PDP – 11
IBM 370 IBM 360 series etc.
4. FOURTH GENERATION (1973 – Present: large and very large scale integration circuits)
Technological innovations
Introduction of Large Scale Integration Circuits and Very Large Integration Circuits.
Development of the microprocessor by a team led by M.E Tedd Hoff of the Intel
Corporation
Development of the first microcomputers
Fig; A robot
- Use of robots most especially in industries
- Increased use of internet for communications
- Increased use of mobile communication devices such as mobile phones.
Artificial Intelligence is a group of related technologies that attempt to develop machines to
emulate human like qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing.
Artificial intelligence includes:
Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for
example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
Natural Language processing: programming computers to understand natural human
languages
Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types
of physical connections that occur in animal brains
Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli
(i) Hardware
Hardware comprises the electronic and the electromechanical parts of the computer.
Hardware devices are the physical and tangible of a computer.
Examples;
Monitor, keyboard, mouse, system unit. Etc
Hardware is important because it carries out the
in putting, out putting
processing, Communications of the system.
storage,
(ii) Software
· Software are electronic instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task.
· These are a series of programs (instructions) that tell the computer what and how to work.
Examples
System software –
System software is a software that manages and coordinates the computer and its resources.
Examples;
Operating systems - Windows XP, Vista, Windows 95
Programming languages – C+, Java Script, SQL
Utilities – ANTIVIRUS software, disk defrag mentors, data recovery.
Application software;
Off the shelf (packed software) e.g. MSOffice suite
Custom (tailor made) e.g. school management system SMS
o Application software solves the needs of the end user.
o The made the computer more user friendly case for utilities
o Production of other programs (programming)
(iii) Data
· Data refers to raw facts and figures that are processed into information.
letters (e.g., a, b, c, ...)
words and symbols
numbers
examination scores
musical notes
Names e.g. Moses
· Data is the foundation for information.
(iv) Information
· Information is the processed data which is organized, meaningful and useful.
· Is manipulated/ processed data.
Examples
words (e.g., apple, boy, cat)
a report, a letter, an essay
a mathematical formula
comments, grades
a piece of music, a song
Importance of information
· In all organizations, managers depend on information to make decisions.
· They also base on information when planning for the organizations.
· They base on information when analyzing their performance.
· They depend on information to forecast the likely outcomes of certain actions.
· Information helps in discovering the past, present and future.
(v) Procedures
- These are descriptions of how things are done (i.e. step for accomplishing a result)
- They normally appear in documentation materials which contain guides for using the hardware
and software.
(vi) User
User – the most important component of a computer system – used to design and develop computer
systems, operate the computer hardware, create the software, and establish procedures for carrying
out tasks.
Ordinary user - is someone without much technical knowledge of computers but uses computers
to produce information for professional or personal tasks, enhance learning, or have fun.
A computer professional user -is a person in a profession involving computers who has had
formal education in the technical aspects of computers; an example is:
Examples of users.
Computer programmer Database administrator
System analyst Network administrator.
System administrator
Importance of users –
Data entry
manipulating the computer system
programming the computer
administering the network
analyzing the computer system, etc.
(vii) Communications hardware
· Communications hardware facilitates connection between computers and computer systems
over phone lines and other channels.
· This is the linking of one device of a computer to another.
Examples are:
Modems fax modems
Cable routers
Computer gateways
Importance of communications
Linking up computer devices and computers
Enabling the flow of data
Enabling the flow of information
Enabling the flow of instructions
Networking of computers
2. COMPUTER HARDWARE
DEFINITION;
Hardware refers to the physical and tangible components of a computer.
These are devices you can see, touch and feel.
Hardware can be
Input hardware Processing hardware
Output hardware Communication hardware.
Storage hardware
For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic steps:
Step 1: Fetching the instruction. The instruction to be executed is obtained from memory by
the control unit.
Step 2: Decoding the instruction. The
instruction is translated into commands the
computer understand. Relevant data is moved
from memory to the register, and the location of
the next instruction is identified.
Step 3: Executing the instruction. The
commands are carried out. This could involve
making either an arithmetic computation or a
logical comparison in the ALU.
Step 4: Storing results. The results are stored in
registers or memory.
Data
Is collection of raw unorganized facts that can include words, numbers, images, sounds, and videos.
Data is the raw material to be processed by a computer, such as grades in a class, bar codes, light
and dark areas in a photograph, or speech that enter the computer through a microphone.
Information
Is processed data that is organized, meaningful and useful.
A program
Is a series of instructions that directs a computer how to perform the tasks necessary to process data
into information.
Programmers write a program and then store the program in a file that a user can execute (run).
When a user runs a program, the computer loads the program from a storage medium into memory.
A command
Is an instruction given to a computer program to perform a specific action.
Commands can be issued by typing keywords, pressing special keys on the keyboard, selecting
menu choices, clicking the mouse on a graphical user interface, speaking into a microphone, or
touching an area on a screen.
A user response
Is an instruction users issue to the computer by replying to a question posed by a computer
program.
A response to the question instructs the program to perform certain actions.
NB; The alternative to the QWERTY keyboard is the Dvorak keyboard developed by Dr. Dvorak
in 1936. With the Dvorak, the most used letters are positioned in the middle row of the keyboard,
intending to reduce typing time and finger movements.
Types of keyboards
- 82 key keyboard
- 102 keyboard
- 102/3 enhanced keyboard (the most commonly used type today)
- 105 (developed from 102/3 enhanced keyboard)
Parts of a Computer Keyboard
i. Functional keys
These are keys found across the top row of the keyboard.
Each key is composed of letter F and a number ranging from 1 to 12.
Each functional key performs a specific operation based upon the software being used.
Secondary/Right
mouse button
Primary/Left mouse button
Connecting cable
The top and sides of a mouse have one to four buttons; some also have a small wheel. The
bottom of a mouse is flat and contains a mechanism, such as a ball or a light, that detects
movement of the mouse.
Types of mice
Mechanical mouse
Optical mouse
Most computer users today have some type of optical mouse, which has
no moving mechanical parts inside.
Instead, an optical mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to detect
the mouse's movement.
Some use optical sensors, and others use a laser.
An optical mouse is more precise than a mechanical mouse and does not require cleaning as
does a mechanical mouse, but is more expensive.
Air mouse
Is a motion-sensing mouse that, in addition to the typical buttons, allows
you to control objects, media players, and slide shows by moving the
mouse in predetermined directions through the air.
For example, raising the mouse up would increase the volume on your
media player.
Connecting a mouse to a computer
Many types connect with a cable that attaches to a serial port, mouse port, or USB port on the
system unit.
A wireless mouse (or cordless mouse) is a battery-powered device that transmits data using
wireless technology, such as radio waves or infrared light waves.
A Trackball
A trackball is like an upside-down mouse.
It is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism
on its top.
You roll the ball directly with your hand.
It usually has one or more buttons around the trackball
that work just like mouse buttons.
A trackball requires frequent cleaning because it picks
up oils from fingers and dust from the environment.
Touchpad
A touchpad is a small, flat, rectangular pointing
device that is sensitive to pressure and motion.
To move the pointer using a touchpad, you slide
your fingertip across the surface of the pad.
Some touchpad have one or more buttons around the edge of the pad
that work like mouse buttons.
They are found most often on notebook and laptop computers.
i. Pointing Stick
A pointing stick is a pressure-sensitive pointing device shaped like a
pencil eraser.
Because of its small size, the pointing stick is conveniently positioned
between the GBH keys on the keyboard.
To move the pointer using a pointing stick, you push the pointing stick
with your finger.
The pointer on the screen moves in the direction that you push the pointing stick.
By pressing buttons below the keyboard, users can click and perform other mouse-type
operations with a pointing stick.
A light pen
Is handheld input device that can detect the presence of light.
To select objects on the screen, a user presses the light pen against the surface of the screen or
points the light at the screen and then presses a button on the pen.
Advantages of Light pen
- It is direct and precise than using a mouse.
- It is convenient for applications with limited desktop space.
Disadvantages of a light pen
It normally requires a specially designed monitor to work with.
They are commonly used by architects, mapmakers, designers, artists, and home
users create drawings and sketches by using a pressure-sensitive pen or a cursor
(digitizer) on a graphics tablet.
A cursor looks similar to a mouse, except it has a window with crosshairs, so that
the user can see through to the tablet.
A webcam;
It is also called a PC video camera.
It is a type of digital video camera that enables small business usersor a home
user to;
capture video and still images,
send e-mail messages with video attachments,
add live images to instant messages,
broadcast live images over the Internet (videoconference), and
make video telephone calls.
It is normally attached to the computer‘s USB port or FireWire port, and normally placed on
top of the monitor.
Most modern notebook computers have built-in Web cams.
Types of scanners
Flatbed ,
It works like a photocopy machine except that it
creates a file of the document rather than a paper copy.
Sheet-fed,
This has motorized rollers that can feed the source document
across the scanning head during the scanning process
Drum, and
Items to be scanned are rotated around a stationary scanning mechanism.
It is very large and expensive and commonly used in publishing industry.
Handheld
This can be manually passed over the image to be scanned.
Many scanners include OCR (optical character recognition) software, which can read and
convert text documents into electronic files.
NB: The quality of a scanner is determined by its resolution and color depth.
Disadvantages of Scanners
- It is best for only two - dimensional objects
- Scanned images usually take up a lot of storage space.
Advantages of MICR
- It is difficult to forge.
- Documents can even be read when folded or written on.
Disadvantages of MICR
* MICR readers and encodes are very expensive.
* The system can only accept a few d6890ifferent character sets.
2.2.3.11. Terminals
A terminal consists of a monitor (output), a keyboard (input), memory, and a video card often housed
in a single unit.
A variety of terminals enable both input to and output from a remote computer system
Categories of terminals
i. Dumb terminals,
ii. Smart terminals,
iii. Special-purpose terminals.
A dumb terminal
It is a terminal that has no processing power, thus, cannot function as an independent device.
A dumb terminal can enter and transmit data to, or receive and
display information from, a computer to which it is connected.
It connects to a host computer that performs the processing and
then sends the output back to the dumb terminal.
The host computer usually is a server or mainframe.
A Smart terminal
In addition to a monitor and keyboard, a smart terminal also has a
processor that has the capability of performing some functions
independent of the host computer.
Special-purpose terminals
Theseperform specific tasks and contain features uniquely designed for use in a particular industry.
Two common special-purpose terminals are;
- Electronic Point-Of-Sale (EPOS) and
- AutomatedTeller Machines (ATM).
POS terminals are used by clerks and salespeople in retail stores, restaurants, and other establishments
that sell goods and services.
When the checkout clerk scans the bar code on the item, the computer uses the manufacturer and item
number to look up the price of the item and the complete product name in a database.
Some EPOS terminals are Web-enabled, which allows updates to inventory at geographically separate
locations.
An ATM is a self-service banking machine that connects to a host computer through a network.
You insert a plastic bankcard with a magnetic strip into the ATM and enter your personal
identification number (PIN), to access your bank account.
Some ATMs have a touch screen; others have special buttons or keypads for entering input.
NB:
A smart card;
Advantages of a hardcopy
It cannot easily be changed without trace.
It can be read off-line without a computer.
It doesn‘t require computer devices in order to read the output hence becoming cheap.
Hardcopies last longer if stored in a safe place compared to a softcopy which must all
the time be changed with the technological developments taking place.
Hardcopies cannot be attacked by viruses as the case with the softcopy.
2.3.3. Examples of output devices;
Display devices Multifunction peripherals
Printers Data projectors
Speakers Interactive whiteboards
Headsets Terminals
Earphones 3D – Spectacles
Fax machines
2.3.3.1. Display Devices
A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video
information.
Information shown on a display device often is called soft copy, because the information exists
electronically and is displayed for a temporary period of time.
Display devices consist of a screen and the components that produce the information on the
screen.
Most display devices show text, graphics, and video information in color.
Desktop computers typically use a monitor as their display device.
Kinds of Monitors
a. Monochrome Monitors
These display only one color on a different color background (e.g. white on a dark
background).
Advantages of Monochrome Monitors
- They are relatively cheap.
- They are suitable for word processing and other applications where color is not much
applicable.
b. Color Monitors
They are most often called Graphics Monitors
They display text and graphics in color.
Examples of color monitors
- CGA (Color Graphics Adapter)
- EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter)
- VGA (Video Graphics Array)
- SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array)
Advantages of using colors
- They make the screen displays more attractive.
- Colors can be used to highlight error messages and menu options.
Disadvantages of using colors
* Screens with a lot of colors take too long time to process.
* More memory is required to display a lot of colors.
i. Flat-Panel Displays
A flat-panel display is a lightweight display device with a shallow depth and flat screen that typically
uses LCD (liquid crystal display) or gas plasma technology.
Types of flat -panel displays;
LCD monitors,
LCD screens,
Plasma monitors.
An LCD monitor
It is a desktop monitor that uses a liquid crystal display
(LCD) to create images on the screen.
These monitors produce sharp, flicker-free images.
They are available in a variety of sizes, with the more common being 17, 19, 20,
22, 24, 27, 45 or 65 inches.
Many are widescreen, which are much wider than they are
tall.
The size of a monitor is measured diagonally from one corner to the other.
OLED are less expensive to produce, consume less power, and can be
fabricated on flexible surfaces.
Passive-matrix display
A passive-matrix display, also called a dual-scan display, uses fewer transistors and requires less
power than an active-matrix display.
The color on a passive-matrix display often is not as bright as an active matrix is play.
You can view images on a passive-matrix display best when working directly in front of the display.
A plasma monitor
This is a display device that usesgas plasma technology, which sandwiches
a layerof gas between two glass plates.
When a voltage is applied, the gas releases ultraviolet(UV) light.
This UV light causes the pixels on the screen to glow and form an image.
Advantages of plasma monitors
Plasma monitor offer screen sizes upto 60 inches wide
Have a richer colordisplay than LCD monitors
Disadvantages of plasma monitors
They are more expensive.
2.3.3.2. Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film.
Printed information is called hard copy.
It exists physically and in a more permanent form.
Connecting a printer to the system unit
Printers are either connected to a computer via a USB or parallel port.
Today, some printers are connected to notebook computer, Tablet PC, PDA, digital camera, or smart
phone via wireless technology (i.e. Bluetooth and infrared).
Categories of printers;
- Impact printers
- Non-impact printers
Impact Printers
a) Impact printers
These are printers that produce a hard copy output by the print heads physically touching the print
media.
Print media include paper, transparencies, cloths, some plastics, etc.
Impact printers form characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against
an ink ribbon that physically makes contact with the paper.
Examples of impact printers;
- Character printers
- Line printers (High speed printers)
- Dot matrix printers
i. Character printers
- These are low speed printers that mimic the action of typewriters by printing one character
at a time.
- The characters are directly engraved on the print heads.
- This implies that the font type cannot be easily modified
- Their speed is measured in characters per second (CPS)
Examples include;
Daisy wheel printers and thimble printer
ii. Line printers
- A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time. This makes
them to be speedy
- They print from one end of a paper to the other end,
hence the name line printers.
- Their speed is measured in lines per minute (LPM)
Types of line printers
Band matrix printers
Shuttle-matrix printers
iii. Dot Matrix Printers
- A dot-matrix printer produces printed images when tiny wire pins on a print head
mechanism strike an inked ribbon.
- These form characters by print heads forming a pattern of dots on paper to make out a
character.
- When the ribbon presses against the paper, it creates dots thatform characters and graphics.
Most dot-matrix printers usecontinuous-form paper, in which thousands of sheets of paper
areconnected together end to end.
- Their speed is measured in characters per second
andranges from 375 to 1100 cps.
Examples of dot matrix printers
Epson LQ1170 ESC/P2 (24pin)
Epson LQ2170 ESC /P2 (24pin)
Epson FX880 (9pin)
Operation
The print head mechanism in an ink-jet printer contains ink-filled print cartridges.
Each cartridge has fifty to several hundreds of small ink holes, or nozzles.
The ink propels through any combination of the nozzles to form a character or image on the paper.
Most ink-jet printers have two or more print cartridges: one containing black ink and the other(s)
containing colors.
Some color cartridges contain a variety of ink colors; others contain only a single color. The
number of pages a single cartridge can print varies by manufacturer and the type of documents you
print.
v. A mobile printer
This is a small, lightweight, battery-powered printer that allows a mobile user to print from a
notebook computer, Tablet PC, PDA, smart phone or other personal mobile device while traveling.
Barely wider than the paper on which they print, mobile printers fit easily in a briefcase
alongside a notebook computer.
Mobile printers mainly use ink-jet,
thermal, thermal wax-transfer,
or dye-sublimation technology.
Many of these printers connect to a parallel port or USB port.
Others have a built-in wireless infrared port through which they communicate with the computer
wirelessly.
Plotters
These are sophisticated printers with a pen like print head that can accurately draw straight, thin
and meandering lines.
They are used to produce high-quality architectural drawings such as blueprints, maps, circuit
diagrams, posters, and signs.
Because blueprints, maps, and other such drawings can be quite large, these printers typically can
handle paper with widths up to 98 inches.
These printers are usually very costly.
They are used in specialized fields such as engineering, drafting, and graphic art.
Three basic technologies exist for displaying computer images on an interactive whiteboard:
Front projection: separate projector displays an image from the computer screen on the
interactive whiteboard;
Rear projection: a projector built into the back of interactive whiteboard displays an
image from the computer screen on the whiteboard; and
An interactive whiteboard fits over an LCD screen or a plasma display.
2.3.3.8. 3D – SPECTACLES
- These are common in modern computer games especially on fights.
- The user wears the glasses like ordinary sun glasses except that here, instead of seeing through
the glasses, one will be treated with high quality three – dimensional pictures.
- It is similar to being in a cinema hall.
2.3.3.9. Terminals
A terminal can work as an input device and as an output device. (See input devices).
Similar to a tape recorder, a tape drive, also called tape backup units (TBUs), is used to
read from and write data and information onto a tape.
Although older computers used reel-to-reel tape drives, today's tape drives use tape
cartridges.
A tape cartridge is a small, rectangular, plastic housing for tape.
An external hard disk is a separate free-standing harddisk that connects with a cable to a
USB port or FireWire port on the system unit.
A removable hard disk isa hard disk that you insert and remove from either a dock or a drive.
Internet hard drive, also called onlinestorage, is a service on the Web that provides storage
to computerusers, usually for a minimal monthly fee.
i) Volatile memory
The contents of volatile memory are lost whenthe computer power is turned off.
Characteristics of RAM
o It is a temporary memory.
o The user can read from it and write to it.
o Es It loses its contents when power goes off
(i.e. it is volatile)
o It can be increased.
Types of RAM
- DRAM (Dynamic Random Access
Memory)
- SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory)
- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Other terms related to RAM
i. Cache memory
- Is a kind of temporary memory which holds the recently or frequently used
instructions and data.
- A cache is a relatively small block of very fast memory designed for speeding up the
internal transfer of data and software instructions.
- It is used to speed up the computing process.
Types of cache memory
L1 cache
L2 cache
L3 cache
ii. Virtual memory;
- It is a type of memory allocated by the operating system to function as additional
RAM.
- This portion of storage medium is usually got from the hard disk.
- The area of the hard disk used for virtual memory is called a swap file.
Characteristics of ROM
- The user can read the contents of ROM but can‘t make modifications or write to it.
- It is a permanent memory
- It is a non – volatile memory.
- It cannot be increased.
Other terms related to ROM
i. BIOS (Basic Input / Output System)
- It resides in the ROM.
- It is a sequence of instructions the computer follows to load the operating system and
other files when the computer is turned on.
iii) CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)`
- It is used to store configuration information about the computer.
- This information includes;
the amount of memory installed,
types of disk drives, type of keyboard,
monitor,
current date and time e.t.c.
- CMOS technology uses a CMOS battery power to retain its information even when the
computer is turned off.
- Its contents can be changed.
- It provides high speeds and consumes little power.
Definitions;
i. Bit;
- Is the smallest unit of measurement of computer memory.
- Each 0 or 1 is called a ―Bit‖
ii. Nibble
- Is a group of four (4) binary digits.
iii.Byte;
- It is a group of eight binary digits.
- A byte represents one character or digit.
- It is the fundamental (basic) unit for measuring computer‘s memory.
iv. A kilo byte (KB);
- Is a group of 1000 bytes (or exactly 210 or 1024 bytes)
v. Megabyte (MB);
- Is a group of 1,000,000 bytes (or exactly 220 bytes)
vi. Giga byte (GB);
- Is a group of 1,000,000,000 bytes (or exactly 230 bytes)
vii. Terabyte (TB);
- Is a group of one trillion bytes (240 bytes)
3. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE:
It is a program that consists of step by step instructions that tell the computer how to perform a given
task.
NB:
A program;
A computer program is a sequence of instructions, written to perform a specified task with a
computer.
a) OPERATING SYSTEM;
It is a set of programs that coordinate the operation of all hardware and application software
components of a computer
The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate with each device in the
computer.
Definition;
A device driver is a small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with a
device.
Functions of the Operating System
Controls the hardware resources like accessing disk drives, printers and keyboard.
Calling into memory programs and instructions when required.
Protecting hardware, software and data from improper use e.g. when deleting a file.
Provides error correcting routines e.g. when data is lost during transfer, it should be
recovered.
Communicating with the user e.g. reporting suspended program due to error, request for
operation e.g. insert disk.
Manages files and memory thereby saving the user from knowing where in memory his
files are to be stored.
Scheduling and loading programs so as to provide a continuous sequence of operation.
Enables application software to interface with the hardware.
Provides an interface between the user and the application software and the hardware.
Manipulating data
Managing the processor
Providing security
Managing multitasking
NB;
USER INTERFACE
This controls how users enter data and instructions into the computer and how information is
displayed on the screen.
Types of User Interfaces
a) Command Line Interface (CLI)
This is a kind of interface which allows a user to type key wards or press special keys on
the keyboard to enter data and instructions into a computer.
Advantages of CLI
Takes up little space
Doesn‘t require a very fast processor.
Operation is quite fast because commands can be entered directly through the key board.
Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so that repetitive tasks can be
automated.
Disadvantages of CLI
A command language has to be learnt and memorized.
It is not user friendly.
The interface may vary from application to application.
Advantages of a GUI
It is user friendly
No need to type or memorize any command language
The interface is similar for any application.
Disadvantages of a GUI
Requires more memory
Requires a very fast processor.
It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.
Occupies more disk space to hold the files for all the different applications.
ii) Windows Operating System
- This is an operating system that uses icon – based graphical user interface that simplifies
working on a computer.
Versions of windows;
Windows 3.0 Windows M.E
Windows 95 (Millennium)
Windows 98 Windows Xp Home
Windows NT workstation Windows Xp Professional
Windows 2000 Windows Vista
professional
Windows 2000 server
iv) UNIX
- It is a multi user O/S.
- It can run multiple applications at the same time (multitasking)
- It was developed in 1970s by scientists at Bell laboratories.
- It has a command line interface and most of its commands are difficult to remember.
v) Linux
- It is an ―Open Source‖ software i.e. its code is made available to the public.
- It is a popular, free UNIX – like multitasking operating system.
vi) Palm O/S
Is an operating system designed for the hand – held computers (Personal Digital Assistants
– PDAs)
Examples of palm O/S; Pocket PC 2002
vii) Windows CE
Is a windows operating system designed for use on wireless communication devices and
hand – held computers.
Utility programs
A utility program is a type of system software that allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasks,
usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.
Utility programs included with most operating systems provide the following functions:
Managing files, searching for files,
Viewing images,
Securing a computer from unauthorized access,
Uninstalling programs,
Scanning disks,
Defragmenting disks,
Diagnosing problems,
Backing up files and disks,
Setting up screen savers .etc
Examples of utility programs
i) A file manager;
It is a utility that performs functions related to file and disk management.
Windows Vista and XP include file managers called Explorers (Documents Explore, Pictures
Explore, and Music Explore).
Functions performed by file managers
Formatting and copying disks
Organizing files in folders
Displaying a list of files on a storage medium
Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium
Organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, moving, and sorting files; and
Creating shortcuts.
NB: A folder is a specific named location on a storage medium that contains related documents.
A shortcut is an icon on the desktop that provides a user with immediate access to a program
or file.
Formatting is the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing.
ii) A search utility
Is a program that attempts to locate a file on your computer based on the criteria you specify.
The criteria could be a word or words contained in a file, date the file was created or modified,
size of the file, location of the file, file name, author/artist, and other similar properties.
iii) An image viewer
Is a utility that allows users to display, copy, and print the contents of a graphics file.
With an image viewer, users can see images without having to open them in a paint or image
editing program.
iv) A personal firewall
Is a utility that detects and protects a personal computer from unauthorized intrusions.
Personal firewalls constantly monitor all transmissions to and from a computer.
When connected to the Internet, your computer is vulnerable to attacks from hackers (people
who tries to access a computer or network illegally).
v) An uninstaller
Is a utility that removes a program, as well as any associated entries in the system files.
In Windows Vista and Xp, you are able to access the uninstaller for many installed programs
through the "Uninstall a program" command in the Control Panel.
You also are able to access the uninstaller for some programs through that programs folder on
the Start menu, or on the program's installation media.
The uninstaller deletes files and folders from the hard disk, as well as removes program
entries from the system files.
Examples of uninstallers;
McAfee’s uninstaller
vi) A disk scanner
Is a utility that searches for and removes unnecessary files from the hard disk.
Windows Vista and XP includes a disk scanner utility, called Disk Cleanup, which searches
for and removes unnecessary files such as temporary files.
It is used to detect and correct both physical and logical problems on a hard disk or floppy
disk and searches for and removes the unwanted files.
A physical problem is one with the media e.g. any scratch on the surface of the disk.
A logical problem is one with the data e.g. corrupted File Allocation Table (FAT)
Examples of disk scanner
Scan Disk
Disk Clean Up.
vii) A disk defragmenter
Is a utility that reorganizes the files and unused space on a computer's hard disk so the
operating system accesses data more quickly and programs run faster.
When an operating system stores data on a disk, it places the data in the first available sector
on the disk. It attempts to place data in sectors that are contiguous but this is not always
possible.
When the contents of a file are scattered across two or more noncontiguous sectors, the file is
fragmented. Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the performance of the entire
computer.
Disk defragmentation enables data to be accessed more quickly and programs to be run
faster.
Examples of defragmenter in windows is the Disk defragmenter
NB;
Defragmentation
Is the process of reorganizing the disk so that the files are stored in contiguous sectors.
viii) A diagnostic utility
- This compiles technical information about your computer's hardware and certain system
software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.
- For example, Windows Vista includes the diagnostic utility Problem Reports and
Solution, which diagnoses problems as well as suggests courses of action.
- Information in the report assists technical support staff in remedying any problems.
- Windows Xp has Dr. Watson as a diagnostic utility.
ix) A backup/Copy utility
- This allows users to copy, or back up, selected files or an entire hard disk to another
storage medium. During the backup process, the backup utility monitors progress and
alerts you if it needs additional media, such as another CD or tape.
- Many backup programs compress, or shrink the size of files during the backup process.
- Because they are compressed, you usually cannot use backup files in their backed up
form. In the event you need to use a backup file, a restore program reverses the process
and returns backed up files to their original form.
- Backup utilities include restore programs.
- You should back up files and disks regularly in the event your originals are lost, damaged,
or destroyed.
x) A screen saver
This is a utility that causes a display device's screen to show a moving image or blank screen
if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time.
When you press a key on the keyboard or move the mouse, the screensaver disappears and the
screen returns to the previous state.
Importances of screen savers
- Screen savers originally were developed to prevent a problem called ghosting, in which
images could be permanently etched on a monitor's screen.
- Screen savers also are popular for security. They prevent unwanted lookers from accessing
information or data from your computer.
To secure a computer, users configure their screen saver to require a password to
deactivate.
- Business – advertisements on the screen.
- Entertainment- in which digital photos can be put on your screen as moving pictures.
xi) Debuggers
- These are utility programs used during the testing of a program.
- They help in tracing and removing of errors from newly installed programs.
xii) Sorting Utility
- These are utility programs used to take in data and re – arrange it in any order as specified
by the user.
- The order can be ascending or descending order.
xiii) Merging Utility
- These programs are used to combine two or more files to produce one file.
xiv) Antivirus Software
- This is used to prevent, detect and remove viruses from a computer‘s memory or storage
devices.
- Examples include; Norton Antivirus, Avira, Panda, Pc – Cillin, Dr. Solomon, McAfee,
Avast antivirus, AVG antivirus, Kaspersky antivirus, Escan antivirus, F – secure
antivirus, Netqin antivirus, Eset – Nod 32 antivirus, e.t.c.
xv) A file compression utility;
- It is used to reduce or shrink the size of a file.
- A compressed file takes up less storage space on a hard disk than the original file.
- Compressing files frees up room on the storage media and improves system performance.
- In order to reduce transmission time, email attachments, and files to be uploaded or
downloaded should always be compressed.
- When you receive or download a compressed file, you must uncompress it.
- Some operating systems such as Windows XP and Vista include uncompress capabilities
- Compressed files are sometimes called zipped files because they have a .zip extension.
- Examples of compression utilities; PKzip, WinZip, Winrare.t.c.
xvi) A media player;
- Is a program that allows you to view images and animation, listen to audio, and watch
video files on your computer.
- Media players may also include the capability to organize media files, convert them to
different formats, connect to and purchase media from an online media store, download
podcasts and vodcasts, burn audio CDs, and transfer media to portable media players.
- Windows Vista and XP include Windows Media Player.
- Three other popular media players are iTunes, RealPlayer, and Rhapsody.
xvii) CD/DVD burning software;
- This writes files on a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD, including Blu-ray and HD
DVD.
- This software enables the home user easily to back up contents of their hard disk on a
CD/DVD and make duplicates of uncopyrighted music or movies.
- When you buy a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD, it typically includes CD/DVD
burning software.
xviii) A personal computer maintenance utility;
- Identifies and fixes operating system problems, detects and repairs disk problems, and
includes the capability of improving a computer‘s performance.
- Some personal computer maintenance utilities continuously monitor a computer while you
use it to identify and repair problems before they occur.
- Norton System Works is a popular personal computer maintenance utility designed for
Windows operating system.
b) PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A programming language is a set of instructions used to direct the operation of a
computer.
d) PASCAL
- It was named in remembrance of the inventor of the mechanical adding calculator, Pascal
Blaise.
- It was developed to teach the concepts of structured programming.
Advantages of Pascal
It reinforces the principles of structured programming.
It is not limited to business or scientific applications.
e) ADA
- It was developed and named in honor of Lady Augusta Lovelance Ada.
- It was developed for the U.S department of defense to improve software reliability, portability
and maintainability.
f) LISP (List Processing)
- It was developed in the late 1950s by John McCarthy of M.I.T.
- It is the prominent language used in artificial intelligence.
- Both programs and data are sorted as lists.
- Not suitable for commercial data processing.
- It is not widely available or known by many programmers.
g) LOGO
- It was developed for educational use.
- It could allow children to explore and develop concepts through programming the movement
of a ―turtle‖ or pen.
- It has no commercial purpose.
h) ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
It is suitable for scientific and engineering computations.
i) C
- It is a high level language
- It is the most portable general purpose language
- Derivatives of C are; C+, C++
j) PL/1 (Programming Language 1)
- It was developed for mainframe computers
- It is suitable for both scientific and commercial work.
k) PL/M (Programming Language Microcomputer);
- It was developed purposely for use with the Intel Microcomputers.
- It has a compiler.
l) APL (AProgramming Language)
3. Fourth generation Languages (4GLs / Application generators / program generators)
- Are languages designed to make the process of creating a computer – based application easier
by doing the programming themselves.
- The user defines certain tasks and then the application generators will create the program code
that will perform the tasks that have been defined.
Examples of 4GLs
Structured Query Language
4. Artificial Intelligence Languages (Fifth Generation Languages / 5GLs)
- These are languages used in intelligent knowledge based systems (IKBs) such as robots.
- They ―think‖ and reason like human beings because of the programs installed on them.
- They are extremely used in artificial intelligence projects like space exploration.
5. Web development languages
- These include HTML and JAVA
- HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is one of the programming languages used to create
web pages for the internet and intranets.
- JAVA is an Object Oriented Programming (OOP) language that resembles a simplified form
of C++.
- Object Oriented Programming (OOP) uses objects which combine data and behavior.
- OOP enables rapid program development. Examples include; Visual Basic.
Undo
It is the feature that allows actions that have been performed to be reversed such that if
some text was accidentally deleted, then the action can be undone.
Redo
It is the feature that allows actions that have been undone to be reversed.
Inserting
It is an editing feature that allows adding text or graphics to a document.
Deleting
Is the process of erasing text or graphics from a document.
Cutting
Is the process of removing the original text from its original position onto the
clipboard
Copying
Is the process of duplicating and storing text on the clipboard.
NB; When text is cut, the original text is removed from its place while when text is
copied, the original text remains in its original place.
Pasting
Is the process of removing the text from the clipboard into the document.
Find
This feature allows the user to locate all occurrences of a particular character, word or
phrase.
Replace
It is a feature that allows a user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with
new ones
ii. Formatting
It is the process of making changes to the appearance of a document.
Levels of formatting
- Character formatting;
This involves changing the font, font size, or font style of the text.
It involves applying the boldface, italics and underline text.
- Paragraphs formatting;
Involves changing the alignment of text, line spacing, indenting text, tab settings and
boarders.
- Section formatting;
It lets you specify page numbers, headers and footers for different sections or chapters
of a document.
- Document formatting;
It helps you specify the overall page layout for printing.
It involves choosing the paper size (letter, legal, A4, A3), page orientation (portrait or
landscape), changing page margins (top, down, left or right) and the distances between
the main body of text and the edges of the paper.
2. PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
This is the type of software used to create presentations which can communicate ideas and other
information to a group or audience
Or
It is a software program that helps you to organize and present information to an audience.
The presentation can be viewed as a slide show on a large monitor or a projection screen.
Examples of presentation software;
Microsoft power point Harvard Graphics
Corel presentations Micro media Director etc.
Lotus Freelance graphics
NB;
- A presentation; this is a collection of slides, handouts, speaker‘s notes and outlines in a
single file.
- A slide; is an individual page in a presentation
Microsoft power Point
Presentation Elements
1. Slides
- A slide is an individual page in a presentation.
- They are normally viewed using projectors
2. Slide Master
- This is a single slide that controls all other slides in a given presentation.
- Any changes made to it affect the rest, respectively.
3. Handouts
A handout is a combination of 2 to 6 slide images on a single page.
4. Speaker’s notes
- These help in the actual delivery of a presentation.
- Power point lets you enter and print a notes page for each slide
5. Outlines
- They help in brainstorming and organizing one‘s thoughts.
- In the outline form, the headings and the main body text appears without the slide‘s
background, colors and graphics.
6. Templates
- Power point provides over 100 professionally designed templates containing proven
layouts, color schemes and background textures.
- NB: A template defines what your presentation will look like, where text and other
objects will appear the foreground and the background colors to be used, etc.
7. Auto features
- These make it easier for one to perform his or her work.
- They include the clip art commands which enable the user to include clip arts in his or
her presentation.
8. Slide Layout
- This is the given design of a slide showing divisions/areas or sections of a slide where
work can be done. E.g. title only and blank slide layouts.
9. Wizards
- Power point employs many wizards to help in simplifying work.
10. Transitional looping
- It is a facility which sets up the presentation to run continuously until it is stopped by
the presenter.
- It is got through slide show – setup show – then loop continuously until Esc. under
show
options
Features of Microsoft Power Point;
(i) Auto correct
- It helps to correct any typing errors and capitalization mistakes.
(ii) Auto clip art;
- It provides clip art suggestions that relate to the presentation topic.
(iii)Style checker;
- Allows the user to scan the presentation for design problems such as spelling errors,
incorrect and inconsistent use of capitalization or punctuation and inconsistent use of font
sizes and other related style attributes.
- It can be customized to match the design rules you want your presentation to follow.
(iv) The pack and Go wizard;
This feature helps in leading you step by step through preparing your presentation for
delivery on another computer.
(v) Ability to present onscreen presentation in color;
-It enables the user to design his presentations in any color he / she want.
-It also provides different background colors which make the presentations appear nice
and attractive.
(vi) Animations
It enables the user to put ―Life‖ and impact to the presentation by adding motion and
sound effects to objects in the presentation.
Viewing a presentation
Power point provides five different presentation views i.e.
- Slide show - Notes page view
- Outline view - Slide show view
- Slide sorter view
a) Slide view
- It shows you how the slide will appear when printed or displayed.
- It is similar to page layout in a word processor for windows
- All text, graphics and other media elements appear in slide view.
3. SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE
A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet that is used to organize data in rows and columns and
perform calculations on the data.
Or
It is an electronic worksheet that is used to organize, manipulate and graph data.
Uses of spreadsheets
It can be used by business men to record sales
It can be used by business men to produce invoices
It can be used to compile statements (e.g. Bank statements)
Managers use them to keep track of the current payments from customers.
It helps researchers to compile and analyze their results quickly
Teachers can use them to create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as required.
Types of formulae
(a) Numeric (Arithmetic) formulae
These perform calculations on values and use +, -, *, ^ and % numeric operators for
calculation.
Examples
=25+5, =A15*B1/B5
(b) Text formulae
- These are used to manipulate text.
- The text is normally enclosed in ―‖ (quotation marks) and to combine strings of text,
use & (ampersand)
Example
A3 B3 C3
Term one Term two Term three
xi) Functions;
- A function is a predefined formula that helps to perform common mathematical functions.
- Each function has a specific order, called a syntax which must be strictly followed for the
function to work correctly.
- Functions include; SUM, AVERAGE, SQRT, LOG, ROUND, MAX, MIN etc.
Syntax order
a. All functions begin with the = sign.
b. After the = sign, define the function name (e.g. SUM)
c. One or more arguments, numbers, text or cell references enclosed in parentheses.
If these are more than one argument, separate each by a comma.
An example of a function with one argument that adds a range of cells B2 through B12
=SUM (B2:B12)
= (equal sign)
SUM (Function)
:( Argument)
An example of a function with more than one argument that calculates the average of
numbers in a range of cells, B2 through B12 and C2 through C12
=AVERAGE (B2:B12, C2:C12)
= (equal sign)
AVERAGE (Function name)
, (Argument)
b) Statistical functions
AVERAGE (range) Calculates the average value of a range of
numbers
COUNT (range) Counts how many cells in the range have entries
MAX (range) Returns the maximum value in a range of
numbers
MIN (range) Returns the minimum value in a range of
numbers
STDEV (range) Calculates the standard deviation of a range of
numbers
c) Logical functions
IF (logical test, value if result of the test is true, Performs a test and returns one value if the result
value if false of the test is true and another value if the result is
false)
d) Financial functions
FV (rate, no. of periods, payments) Calculates the future value of an investment
NPV (rate, range) Calculates the net present value of an investment
4. DATABASE SOFTWARE
A database
It is a collection of related information stored for a particular purpose.
Examples of databases
- Telephone books (directories) - Dictionaries
- Customer address books - Television guides e.t.c.
- Employee information forms
MICROSOFT ACCESS
It is one of the most common database applications on the market today.
Features of a Microsoft Access Document
i. A table
It is a primary element for collecting data that relates to a particular subject.
Tables are organized into rows (records) and columns (fields) similar to an electronic
worksheet.
Consider the table below
ii. A record
Is a row in a table that contains information about a given person, product or event.
E.g. one which contains 1, Mary, F, Kampala, 10,000/=
iii. A field
It is a column in a able that contains a specific piece of information within a record.
E.g. Sex, F, M, M, M.
iv. The table structure
Is the number of fields, field names, field lengths and data types in the database table.
v. Field name (Field Labels)
Is a title of a particular column (field).
E.g. titles like ID No, Name, Sex, District, Allowance.
vi. Field Length
Is the maximum number of characters that can be stored for data in a particular field.
vii. Data type (Field Type)
It specifies the type of data that the field can contain
ix. Queries
These are tools used to locate specific records within the table or ask questions to your
database.
x. Forms
These are tools that enable one to enter and display records from the database tables
easily.
They can be used to enter data in many tables at the same time.
xi. Reports
Are tools that enable one to preview and print data in a meaningful format.
xii. Macros (Mini programs)
These are tools used to automate the way one uses his database.
Macros can be used to instruct the computer to print specific reports at a given time.
xiii. Modules
These do the same work as a macro.
They enable one to automate work processes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASES
The data is arranged in columns (fields) and rows (columns)
Each column has similar data items.
Each row contains information belonging to a single individual.
Qualities of a good database
Should make use of the computer resources
Should be fast
Should interface smoothly with existing facilities
Should be updatable
Should provide easy access to authorized users
Should preserve data integrity
Should ensure the privacy of data
Functions of databases
i) Sorting
It involves organizing a set of records in a particular order
The order can ascending or descending order and by alphabetic or numeric order.
ii) Browsing (searching)
It involves the ability to extract information of general interest from a database
iii) Report generation
A report generator allows one to create formatted reports which include headings, sub
– headings, columns of data from the database, columns of data that are compiled from
existing fields in the database and final totals e.t.c.
iv) Databases are powerful and easy to use when creating information.
v) They are used to organize and manage a collection of related information (data)
vi) They provide the user with the means of managing and manipulating large amounts of
data.
Factors to consider when designing a database
The number of tables needed.
The number of fields and the field names.
Unique identifiers of fields with unique vales.
Relationships between the tables if any.
Practicability of the database.
Types of databases
1. Flat file database
- It is a database made up of only one table
- It is easy to set up and use
2. A relational database
- It is a database which can take information from two or more database tables and combine
them into a new table or report.
NB: A relationship
It determines the way in which the details in one table are related to the details in
another table.
It can be a one to one relationship, one to many or many to many relationship.
3. Hierarchical database
It uses a structure in which records are divided into segments.
Each record contains one root segment and a variable number of subordinate segments
that define a field within a record.
4. The network databases (Online databases)
- It uses a linked list structure
- Combines records with links which are called pointers
- The pointers physically establish the relationships between records.
Other terms related to databases
i. Validation
Is the process of checking of input data for errors (e.g. data type) before processing
Examples of data validation techniques;
- Range check; is to make sure that the data entered lies within a certain rage
- Type check; is to make sure that the data entered is of the correct type( e.g. numeric or
alphabetic)
- Length check; is to make sure that the numbers of characters entered is within the limit
- Presence check; is to make sure that data is actually present
- Check digit; is an extra digit appended to a code consisting of a series of numbers or
character to detect errors arising from transcription
ii. Data verification
Is the checking for mistakes when data is copied from one place to another.
Examples of data verification techniques
- Visual check
- Enter the data twice by the same person or by two different persons.
Initial expense
Because of their complexity and efficiency, database systems can be expensive to set up.
Vulnerability
Data in a database may be more susceptible to sabotage, theft or destruction
Need for substantial conversion effort
- Changing from a traditional file oriented system to a database system can often involve
large scale reorganization of data and programs.
- This normally creates user resistance.
o Microsoft Publisher
o Adobe PageMaker
o Adobe InDesign
o QuarkXPress
o Broderbund Print Shop Pro.
Uses of electronic publication software
It is ideal for the production of high quality colour documents such as text books, corporate
newsletters, marketing literature (adverts), product catalogues, business cards, gift certificates,
flyers, brochures and annual reports, etc.
It is used in creating of web pages.
It is also used to share the above documents over the internet.
From the Start menu, select All Programs » Microsoft Office » Microsoft Office Publisher 2003.
Publisher opens and the New Publication task pane appears, offering many pre-formatted designs to
use in creating your publication.
Title BarThe Title Bar displays the document's name, and contains the Close, Restore and Minimize
buttons.
Menu BarThe Menu Bar contains menus with additional commands in the form of a drop-down list.
Standard ToolbarThe Standard Toolbar contains frequently used buttons that are common functions
in Publisher and throughout Microsoft Office. This toolbar is similar in most Office 2003 programs.
Formatting ToolbarThe Formatting Toolbar contains buttons for common text formatting options in
Publisher and throughout Microsoft Office. This toolbar is similar in most Office 2003 programs.
Object BarThe Object Bar contains each of the tools you will use to create and manipulate text and
graphics in Publisher.
Task PaneThe task pane provides quick access for complicated functions and can include Help, Clip
Art, Find and Replace, Graphics Manager, Publication Designs, Styles and
Formatting, and many others.
Status BarThe Status Bar shows the size and position of the object on the Work
Pane.
6. SOFTWARE SUITE
- Software suite; this is a collection of individual application software packages sold as a
single package.
Examples of software suite;
Microsoft office
Lotus smart suite
Corel word perfect suite
Advantages of software suite
- Its cost is relatively less than purchasing each of the application packages separately.
- It is easy to use because applications within the suite usually have the same interface and
share common features.
7. INTEGRATED SOFTWARE
- It is a software the combines applications such as word processing, spreadsheet and database
into a single, easy to use package.
- Applications in the integrated software use a similar interface and share some common
features.
- Unlike a software suite, applications in the integrated software cannot be purchased
individually.
Examples of integrated software
o Microsoft works
Advantages of integrated software
Costs less than a software suite or each individual application.
It is easy to use because all applications have a similar interface and share similar features.
Disadvantages of integrated software
Applications within the integrated software normally do not have all the capabilities of a stand
– alone application software of the same kind.
Applications may share some resources.
8. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN SOFTWARE (CAD)
- It is a software which is mainly used for creating engineering, architectural and scientific
drawings.
- It can be used in drawing plans for buildings, etc.
Examples of CAD software;
o AutoCAD
o Autodesk
o Microsoft Visio Technical
9. PROJECT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
It is a kind of software used to plan, schedule, track and analyze the events, resources and
costs of a project.
It helps people such as a publisher or general contractors to complete projects on time and
within budget.
Examples of this software;
o Microsoft Project
Definitions
Simulations;
These are computer based models of real – life situations
Virtual reality (VR)
This is the use of computer to create an artificial environment that appears and feels like a
real environment
Computer Based Training (CBT)
Allows students to learn and complete exercises with instructional software.
COMPUTER BOOTING
Powering on the computer
- Most microcomputers are switched on by the switch on the system unit and the monitor.
- As the computer is switched on, it does the Power – On Self Test (POST) before it starts.
- The POST consists of RAM check, CMOS check, HDD controller check (Disk Drive controller
check)
- In case one of the checks fails, then an appropriate error message is displayed on the screen or
- An abnormal number of beeps are sounded.
- The whole process is called BOOTING.
Definition
Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer which involves loading an operating
system into memory.
Types of booting
There are two types of booting;
a. Cold booting
b. Warm booting
a. Cold booting
It is the process of starting a computer which has been totally off which involves loading the
operating system into memory.
b. Warm booting
It is the process of restarting (resetting) a computer that is already turned on.
In the windows environment, it is normally performed by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del keys on the
keyboard.
Application of booting
Booting is done in the following cases;
- Cold booting is done always when one is starting up the computer which has been totally off.
Warm booting is done;
- Whenever the computer devices such as keyboards, mouse, etc.stop responding to commands
issued to them.
- After installing a software or hardware onto your computer.
- After scanning for viruses.
NB;
Booting can be done from a booting diskette or a hard disk.
Steps that occur during a cold boot using the windows operating system
- The power supply sends an electrical signal to the motherboard and other devices located in the
system unit.
- The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the BIOS.
- The BIOS executes the Power On Self Test (POST) to ensure that all the computer hardware is
connected properly and operating properly.
- The results of the POST are compared with the data in the CMOS chip on the motherboard.
- If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS looks for the boot program that loads the
operating system.
- Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and executed, which then loads the kernel
of the operating system into RAM.
- The operating system loads system configuration information and the remainder of the operating
system is loaded into RAM and the desktop and the icons display on the screen.
NB:
1. Kernel
This is the core of an operating system responsible for;
- managing memory,
- Managing files and devices,
- maintaining the computer‘s clock,
- starting applications and
- assigning the computer‘s resources such as printers, scanners, etc.
The kernel is referred to as a memory resident because it remains in memory while
the computer is running.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
System (Computer) Configuration refers to the hardware and software specifications
required for a PC or any other type of a computer.
Below is a typical system configuration;
Microprocessor of Pentium series type
Hard disk in range of gigabytes
Floppy disk drive 3.5‖, 1.44MB
104 Qwerty Keyboard
15‖ or 17‖ color digital monitor
Desktop version of inkjet or laser jet printer
Multimedia kit with the following;
CD ROM drive or DVD drive
Speakers and a sound card
A 3-button mouse with a wheel
System software with the latest windows version
Application software with the latest Ms. Office version.
THE SYSTEM UNIT
The system unit is a box-like case that houses the electronic components such as the processor,
memory and other electronic components of the computer that are used to process data.
All other computer system devices, such as the monitor, keyboard, and mouse, are linked either
directly or indirectly into the system unit.
(ii) Motherboard
The motherboard, is a single circuit board that provides the path through which the
processor communicates with memory components, other components, and peripheral
devices.
- It is the main circuit board in the system unit.
- It houses the CPU chip, Main memory chips
and expansion slots into which other circuit boards
can be inserted for the expansion of the computer
system.
Parts of a CPU
(d) Control Unit
- The control unit is the component of the processor that directs and coordinates most
of the operations in the computer.
- It interprets each instruction issued by program and then initiates the appropriate
action to carry out the instruction.
- It directs data from storage to memory.
- It sends data required for mathematical operations from the memory to the ALU.
- It sends the data processed to the printer or a storage device.
- It erases/deletes/rubs data from memory when instructed to do so.
For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic steps:
Step 1: Fetching the instruction. The instruction to be executed is obtained from
memory by the control unit.
Step 2: Decoding the instruction. The
instruction is translated into commands the
computer understand. Relevant data is moved
from memory to the register, and the location
of the next instruction is identified.
Step 3: Executing the instruction. The
commands are carried out. This could involve
making either an arithmetic computation or a
logical comparison in the ALU.
Step 4: Storing results. The results are stored
in registers or memory.
Figure shows how USB and FireWire are replacing other ports completely.
Special purpose ports
There are five special-purpose ports available:
MIDI,
eSATA,
SCSI,
IrDA, and
Bluetooth.
These portsare not included in typical computers.
For a computer tohave these ports, you often must customize thecomputer purchase order.
(f) MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) port
- It is designed to connect the system unit to a musical instrument such as an electronic
keyboard.
- It is connected to the sound card inside the system unit to enable one play and manipulate
computer sounds that were originally created on another computer.
- Software installation
The learners should be guided on how to install and uninstall computer software, both
application and system software
- Computer troubleshooting
The learners should be guided on how to identify and explain software and hardware
problems, and how to provide solutions to the problems.
DATA COMMUNICATION
Is the process of transferring data, instructions and information from one computer to another
computer.
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
- These are devices which enable one or more computers to exchange data, instructions and
information with each other.
- They are used to convert or format signals so that they become suitable for the communications
channel or a receiving device.
A digital signal consists of individual electrical pulses that represent bits grouped
together intobytes.
For communications channels that use digital signals, the modem transfers the digital signals
between the computer andthe communications channel.
If a communications channel uses analog signals, however, the modem first converts
betweenanalog and digital signals.
i.Dial – up modem
- This is the communications device that performs the function of modulation/demodulation.
- The word modem comes from two words i.e. ―MOdulation‖ and ―DEModulation‖
Modulation: Is the process of converting digital signals into analog signals
Demodulation: Is the process of converting analog signals into digital signals.
- A dial-up modem usually is in the form of an adapter card that one
inserts in an expansion slot on a computer's motherboard.
- Dial-up modem can automatically dial telephone numbers,
originate message sending, and answer incoming calls and
messages.
- Both the sending and receiving ends of a standard telephone line
must have a dial-up modem for data transmission to occur.
One end of a standard telephone cord attaches to a port on the modem card and the other end plugs
into atelephone outlet.
Examples of devices that use modems
- Computers
- Fax machines
-
iv. Cablemodem
- This is a kind of modem which sends and receives digital data over the cable
television (CATV) network
- They can transmit data at speeds (500Kbps – 2Mbps) much faster than the dial
– up or ISDN modems.
- Cable modems typically include built-in Wi-Fi connectivity.
v. Wireless modem
- Some mobile users have a wireless modem that allowsaccess to the Internet wirelessly from a
notebookcomputer, a PDA, a smart phone, or other mobile device.
- Wireless modems, which have an external orbuilt-in antenna, typically use the same waves
used bycellular telephones.
- These modems are available as PC Cards, ExpressCard modules, and flash cards.
signals.
Types of Twisted pair cable
Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
- This has a metal wrapper around each twisted pair wire to further reduce the noise.
- This makes them more suitable for use in environments susceptible to noise such as in a
LAN.
Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)
- This doesn‘t have a metal wrapper for shielding noise.
- They are commonly used in telephone networks.
- It is inexpensive and easy to install.
(ii) Coaxial cable;
This is a cable which consists of a single copper wire surrounded by at least three
insulating layers i.e.
o An insulating material
o A woven or braided metal &
o A plastic outer coating.
DATA TRANSMISSION
Modes of transmission
Note;
- Broadband transmission transmits only one signal at a time
- Baseband transmission transmits multiple signals simultaneously.
DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION
(i) Simplex transmission
- Here, data flows in only one direction from the
sending device to the receiving device.
- It is used only when the sending device doesn‘t
require a response from the receiving
device.
- It is applied in security alarms and fire alarms
that contain sensors, television
broadcasting, etc.
(ii) Half duplex
- Data can flow in either direction from the
sending device to the receiving device and
back but not simultaneously.
- It is used in radio calls, ATM machines, Fax
machines, credit card verification systems,
etc,
(iii) Full duplex
- Data can flow in both directions at the same
time.
- E.g. with modern telephone system, the sender can be able to talk while listening to the
receiver on the other side.
Asynchronous transmission
This is a mode in which data is transmitted one byte at a time over a line at random intervals.
Each byte is framed by controls—astart bitfor marking the beginning of the byte, a stop bitfor
marking the end of the byte, and a parity bitfor error checking.
NB:
Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow and used for low-speed transmission e.g. in
conversations over telephone lines.
Synchronous transmission
This is a mode of transmission in which data is transmitted as groups of bytes simultaneously at
regular intervals.
The beginning and ending ofa block of bytes is determined by the timing circuitry of the sending
device and receiving devices.
NB:
Synchronous transmission;
Requires more sophisticated and expensive communications devices,
Provides much higher speeds and greater accuracy than asynchronous transmission.
Advantages of telecommuting
Reduces time and expenses for travelling to and fro work.
Eliminated travelling during bad weather conditions.
Allows flexibility in the work schedule.
Reduces air pollution by vehicles driven to and fro work.
Employers reduce costs due to less office space and furniture required.
Favors the disabled employees.
Disadvantages of telecommuting
Reduces human face – to – face interactions among the working staff.
If any device of the communications system fails, the work has to stop.
Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
There is less security over the company‘s information.
12. Global positioning (GPS)
It consists of one or more earth based receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in
order to determine the receiver‘s geographical location.
Uses of GPS
To locate a person or an object
To find the best route between two points
Monitor the movement of a person or object.
Create a map
To get weather information
Used by cars and ships to provide directions.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected by telecommunications
channels that allows users to facilitate communications, share data, information, software, and
hardware with other connected users.
Advantages of using a network
Enables sharing of resources such as printers, scanners, storage devices hence reducing costs.
Enables sharing of data and information stored on other computers on the network.
Facilitates communication between people via e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms,
telephony, videoconferencing, etc.
Allows tight control over who has access to what data
Disadvantages of using networks
The hardware, software and expertise required to set up a network are expensive.
They are vulnerable to security problems
If a server fails, the whole network may fail hence inconveniencing all the users
They easily spread viruses which can damage information on the network.
Components of a network
Network Administrator;
This is the person who manages and troubleshoots the computer network.
Internet Service Provider (ISP);
Is a company that supplies connections to the internet usually for a monthly fee.
An Internet service provider (ISP, also called Internet access provider) is a business or
organization that offers users access to the Internet and related services.
Many but not all ISPs are telephone companies or other telecommunication providers.
The Internet was developed as a closed network between government research laboratories and
relevant parts of universities. By the late 1980s, it was slowly moving towards commercial use; these
restrictions would be completely removed by 1995, 4 years after the release of the World Wide Web
to the general public.
In 1989, an ISP had appeared in Australia. In the US the same year, Brookline, Massachusetts-based
The World became the first commercial ISP in the US. Its first customer was served in November of
1989.
Mailbox providers
A mailbox provider is a department or organization that provides email mailbox hosting services.
It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, and store email for other organizations and/or end
users, on their behalf and upon their explicit mandate.
Many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others aren't.
They include;
Yahoo! Mail,
Hotmail,
Gmail,
AOL Mail,
Pobox
Hosting ISPs
Hosting ISPs routinely provide email, FTP, and web-hosting services.
Other services include virtual machines, clouds, or entire physical servers where customers can run
their own custom software.
Transit ISPs
Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet
access.
An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP and/or is able to provide the
contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to.
Virtual ISPs
A virtual ISP (VISP) is an operation which purchases services from another ISP (sometimes called a
"wholesale ISP" in this context) which allows the VISP's customers to access the Internet using
services and infrastructure owned and operated by the wholesale ISP.
It is akin to mobile virtual network operators and competitive local exchange carriers for voice
communications.
Free ISPs
Free ISPs are Internet service providers who provide service free of charge.
Many free ISPs display advertisements while the user is connected; like commercial television, in a
sense they are selling the users' attention to the advertiser.
Other free ISPs, often called freenets, are run on a non-profit basis, usually with volunteer staff.
Peering
ISPs may engage in peering, where multiple ISPs interconnect at peering points or Internet exchange
points (IXs), allowing routing of data between each network, without charging one another for the
data transmitted—data that would otherwise have passed through a third upstream ISP, incurring
charges from the upstream ISP.
Cable service provider in the other hand is the fastest satellite provider among the rest.
This cable connection is the same connection with the television cable.
It is easily accessible if the area that you are living is covered by the major cable companies.
By comparison, this type of connection is actually 70 times much faster than the dial up connection.
We often hear the terms of WiFi, wireless internet broadband and EV-DO.
Those are the types of services under the wireless internet provider.
It is 35 times much faster than the dial up connection and the easiest service to get since it is the most
popular service right now.
You can get direct access to any wireless internet services in your house, the hospitals, coffee shops
or even in the libraries that have installed this service.
This is a good satellite internet provider if you are a frequent traveler and always need an internet
connection.
The most expensive service provider would be the satellite services. The only reason for you to
subscribe the satellite satellite provider is that; if there is no other connection available in that area
that you are staying.
This could happen to a very remote area or a rural area that do not have cable or DSL connections.
It is much faster than the dial up connection; therefore the subscribers do not take the price as a major
obstacle for them to get connected to the cyber world.
Datanet Ltd.
Crested Towers Ground Floor 680, Kampala
031-2263520/5
Jolis Intercom
22 Jinja Road Namanve Arkright III Estate 22930, Kampala
031-2280643, 041-4577227, 079-2567374
Computeknology.com
3 Pilkington Road NIC Building 1st Floor 35628, Kampala
041-4232605
Africa Online
7 Kampala Road Commercial Plaza 5th Floor 29331, Kampala
041-4258143
Clients;
These are independent computers connected to a server in a network.
Servers;
A server is a computer that controls access to the hardware (e.g. printers, scanners) and
software on the network and provides a centralized storage area for programs, data, and
information.
It provides shared services such as network security measures with other machines.
The other computers (clients) on the network rely on the servers for these resources, such
as files, devices, processing power, and storage.
Examples of servers;
DNS server (Domain Name Server)
It translates the domain name into its associated IP address so that data can go to the
correct computer.
Dedicated Server
Is a server that performs a specific task independently in a network.
File server
It stores and manages files on the network
Print server
Manages printers and print jobs.
Database server
Stores and provides access to a database stored on the network
Network server (e.g. DNS)
It manages all the traffic on the network.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
i) Peer to Peer network
In this architecture, several personal computers are connected together with each being able to
access the resources of other computers.
All computers access resources equally.
Each computer stores files on its own storage devices.
Each computer has its own network operating system and application software.
It normally connects less than 10 computers together.
It is suitable for home and small scale business users.
NB:
The major difference between peer – peer and client – server network lies in how the data and
information is stored.
NB; To prevent unauthorized access to data and information, intranets and extranets are often
protected by firewalls.
Definition;
A FIREWALL is the hardware and software used to restrict access to data and information
on a network.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the physical arrangement of the devices in a communications network.
Types of Network Topologies
i. Bus topology
ii. Ring topology
iii. Star topology
iv. Tree topology
v. Mesh topology
i. Bus Topology
It consists of a single central cable (Backbone or Bus) to which all the network nodes
are attached.
The bus in a bus network transmits data, instructions, and information in both directions.
When a sending device transmits data, address of the receiving device is included with
the transmission so that the data is routed to the appropriate receiving device.
or
or
Data travels from device to device around the entire ring in one direction only.
The node examines any data that passes by to see if it is the addressee; if not, the data is
passed on to the next node in the ring.
If one device fails, all the devices before the failed device are not affected but those after the
failed device cannot function.
It can span a larger distance than a bus network, but it is more difficult to install.
It is primarily is used for LANs, but also is used in wide area networks (WAN).
Advantages of ring topology
Can span a larger distance than a bus network.
Since data is only in one direction, no collisions can occur.
Speed of data transmission is fast.
Failure of one device only affects the devices after the failed node but doesn‘t
affect the nodes before.
Disadvantages of ring topology
Difficult to install
If the cable fails, the whole network goes down.
or
All the data from one computer to another passes through the central point.
Advantages of a star topology
Fairly easy to install and maintain.
nodes can be added to or removed from the network with little or no disruption to the
network.
If one node fails, its only that node that is affected.
Any connection failure between a node and the hub will not affect the overall system.
Disadvantages of a star topology
A lot of cables are needed hence becoming expensive.
If the central point fails, the entire network fails.
iv. Mesh Topology
All devices are connected to each other.
Data sent on a mesh network can take any of the several
paths from the source to the destination.
or
Computer
Disadvantages of the Mesh topology
Much cabling is needed hence expensive
Not easy to troubleshoot incase of failure
Not easy to install.
v. Tree (Hybrid) Topology;
It is a combination of star and bus networks.
While none of these organizations has actual control over the Internet and how it functions, they can
and do influence government agencies, major network owners,ISPs, corporations, and software
developers with the goal of keeping the Internetoperating as efficiently as possible.
It is an Internet communication service which allows Internet users to create, send and receive
mail messages electronically.
In order for any two users to receive or exchange E-mail messages online, they must have E-
mail addresses
E – mail address
An email address is a set of characters that are required to send and receive emails
Parts of an email address
Consider the email address below; [email protected]
i) Username: eyddie
It helps to identify your account on the email server that handles the email.
ii) @:
Means ―at‖
It separates your account name from the name of the mail server.
iii) Domain name: yahoo.com
It consists of;
- Email server name (yahoo) after @ and
- A top – level domain (com) usually a three letter extension which shows the type of
organization.
E.g.
Top-level domain name Purpose of host
.com a business or commercial enterprise (trying to make money)
.ac an academic instutition or a university
.edu host is an educational institution
.org a non-commercial organisation
.mil military
.net for network(ISP)
.gov government
For email addresses outside the United States, there is often a [DOT] followed by two letters
representing the country.
Country-codes Country
.ca Canada
.au Australia
.nz New Zealand
.ug Uganda
.uk United Kingdom
.za South Africa
The Message Header comprises of specified information which appears in the following fields:
From: Contains the E-mail address and in some cases the actual name of the sender of
the e-mail message.
To: Contains the E-mail address and in some cases the actual name of the recipient of
the e-mail message
Date: Contains the date and time when the E-mail message was sent.
This information is automatically generated by the e-mail client software on the server.
Subject: Contains a phrase or statement summarizing the main theme/topic of the mail message.
In some cases it is recommended that it is preceded by the prefix RE:
e.g, RE: Mum’s Health
Advantages of email
It is very quick in delivering files.You can communicate quickly with anyone on the Internet.
Email usually reaches its destination in a matter of minutes or seconds.
It is a cheap means of transferring files.
The cost to you for email has nothing to do with distance, and in many cases, the cost doesn't
depend on the size of the message. Most Internet access charges are based on the number of
hours per month you access the Internet, or you pay a flat monthly fee.
Other computer files can be attached to the email.
Records and copies are kept automatically online.
Can be picked up anywhere in the world.
Can be sent at any time to its destination (it works 24-7)
You can deal with your email at a convenient time. You don't have to be interrupted when
email arrives, and you can read it or work with it when you have the time. Also, you can send it
at a convenient time. It doesn't have to be written or sent at a time when you know the recipient
will be available. This is what we mean by the term asynchronous communication.
You can send letters, notes, files, data, or reports all using the same techniques. Once you learn
how to use your email program, everything is sent the same way.
You don't have to worry about interrupting someone when you send email. The email is sent
and delivered by one computer system communicating with the Internet. Although it is put into
someone's mailbox, the recipient isn't interrupted by the arrival of email.
You don't have to be shy about using email to communicate with anyone. Email isn't
anonymous-each message carries the return address of the sender-but you can write to anyone
with an Internet address. All the messages appear the same to the person who gets the email.
The messages are generally judged on what's in them, not where they're from.
Disadvantages of an email
A computer and other hardware such as a modem are required.
It is not secure
It is easy to get on junk (useless) mail lists.
Email isn't necessarily private. Since messages are passed from one system to another, and
sometimes through several systems or networks, there are many opportunities for someone to
intercept or read email. Many types of computer systems have protections built in to stop
users from reading others' email, but it's still possible for a system administrator to read the
email on a system or for someone to bypass the security of a computer system.
Some email systems can send or receive text files only. Even though you can send and
receive images, programs, files produced by word processing programs, or multimedia
messages, some folks may not be able to properly view your message.
It's possible to forge email. This is not common, but it is possible to forge the address of the
sender. You may want to take steps to confirm the source of some email you receive.
It's difficult to express emotion using email. The recipient doesn't have the benefit of seeing
your facial expressions or hearing your voice. You have to be careful with humor or sarcasm,
since it's easy for someone to take your message the wrong way.
You can receive too much or unwanted email. You can receive "junk" email in the same
way you receive other types of junk mail. On the Internet, junk mail is called spam. You may
have to take active steps to delete the email you receive and try to stop it from being sent to
you in the first place
You may not know about the person with whom you are communicating. The
communication is often al in text and it's possible for us to get an incorrect impression of the
person sending us email. Also, some people misrepresent themselves.
NETIQUETTE
It is short form for Internet etiquette.
It is thecode of acceptable behaviors users should follow while on the Internet.
Netiquette includes rules for all aspects of the Internet,including the World Wide Web, e-mail,
FTP, newsgroups and message boards, chat rooms, and instant messaging.
Rules of Netiquette
Golden Rule: Treat others as you would like them to treat you.
a) In e-mail, chat rooms and news groups;
Keep messages brief. Use proper grammar, spelling and punctuation.
Be careful when using sarcasm and humor as it might be misinterpreted.
Be polite. Avoid offensive language.
Read the message before you send it.
Use meaningful subject lines.
Avoid sending or posting flames, which are abusive or insulting messages. Do not
participate in flame warms, which are exchanges of flames.
Avoid sending spam, which is the internet‘s version of junk mail.
Do not use all capital letters which is equivalent to SHOUTING!
Use emoticons to express emotion. Popular emoticons include;
:) Smile :│ Indifference :O Surprised
:( Frown :\ Undecided etc.
Use abbreviations and acronyms for phrases:
BTW By the way
FYI For your information
FWIW For what it‘s worth
IMHO In my humble opinion
TTFN Ta ta for now
TYVM Thank you very much
Clearly identify a spoiler, which is a message that reveals a solution to a game or
ending a movie or program.
b) Read the FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions), if one exists. Many news groups and
web pages have a FAQ.
c) Do not assume material is accurate or up-to-date. Be forgiving of other‘s mistakes.
d) Never read someone‘s e-mails.
Opera SeaMonkey
Google Chrome Galeon
Mozilla Firefox Konqueror
Microsoft Internet Explorer Camino
Safari iCab
Netscape Mozilla Suite
K-Meleon Sunrise
v) A web server
It is a computer that keeps and delivers web pages requested by users.
vi) A web master
Is the individual responsible for developing web pages and maintaining a website.
vi) Videoconferencing
- A videoconference is a real time meeting between two or more geographically separated people
who use a network or internet to transmit audio and video data.
- It allows participants to collaborate as if they were in the same room.
- A videoconferencing software along with a microphone, speakers and a digital video camera
attached to the computer are required to participate in a video conference.
vii) Electronic Commerce (e – commerce)
- It is the buying and selling of goods and services over the internet (Online)
- It is a financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic network such as the internet.
E-business is the conducting of business on the Internet, not only buying andselling, but
also serving customers and collaborating with business partners.
Examples of transactions conducted online
Online shopping
Online banking
NB: E – Money: it is a means of paying for goods and services over the internet.
NB: Netiquette; is the code of acceptable behaviors users should follow while using services on
the internet.
MULTIMEDIA
It is the use of computers to integrate text, graphics, audio, animations and videos into one
application in order to convey messages.
A web page can contain text, graphics, animations, audio, video, and hyperlinks to other
documents.
These are called multimedia elements.
a) Graphics
A graphic is a digital representation of non-text information such as a drawing, a chart or a
photo.
Graphics formats
i. JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group)
- It is aformat that compresses graphics to reduce their file size, which means the file takes up less
storage space.
- Smaller file sizes result in faster downloading and uploading of Webpages because small files
transmit faster than large files.
- It is often used for scanned photographs, art work, and other images that include smooth
transitions of colors.
ii. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)
- It is also saved using compression techniques to reduce its file size for downloading.
- It works best for images with only a few distinct colors, such as line drawings, logos, single-
color borders, and simple cartoons
MP3
It is a popular technology that compresses an audio file to about one – tenth of its original
file size while preserving the original quality of the sound.
d) Video
- On the Web, you can view video clips or watch live video.
- Video consists of full-motion images that are played back at various speeds.
- Most video also has accompanying audio.
- You can use the Internet to watch live and/or pre-recorded coverage of your favorite
television programs or enjoy a live performance of your favorite vocalist.
- You can upload, share, or view video clips at a video sharing Web site such as You Tube.
Educators, politicians, and businesses are using video blogs and video podcasts to engage
students, voters, and consumers.
- MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) is a popular video compression standarda widely
used one called MPEG-4, or MP4.
e) Hyperlink
- It‘s also called a link.
- It is a built – in connection to another related web page or part of a web page.
- A link can be a word, a phrase or an image.
f) Simulations
- These are computer based models of real life situations.
- They often replace costly and sometimes hazardous demonstrations in teaching and learning.
g) Virtual reality (VR)
- Is the simulation of a real orimagined environment that appears as a three-dimensional (3-D)
space.
- On the Web, VR involves the display of 3-D images that you can explore and manipulate
interactively.
- Using special VR software, a Web developer creates an entire 3-D environment that contains
infinite space and depth, called a VR world.
- A VR worldmight show a room with furniture. Users walk through such a VR room by
moving an input device forward, backward, or to the side.
- Science educators create VR models of molecules, organisms, and other structures for
students to examine.
WEB DESIGNING
Terms used:
i) A web page
It is an electronic document or files of information stored on the web / website.
It can contain text, animations, audio, and video (i.e. multimedia elements), as well as
built – in connections (called hyperlinks) to other documents.
ii) A website
It is a collection of web pages where information of a particular organization or company
is stored.
Or it is a group of files that are interconnected by hyperlinks that allow a user to jump
from one page to another, usually by a mouse click.
iii) Home page
It is the first page (starting page) of a web site.
It is the table of contents for a website.
It normally has a name ―index.htm‖ or ―index.html‖
iv) Hypertext
It is a text document containing links to other documents and pages
v) HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
It is a language made up of text codes used to create web pages.
vi) Favorites or Bookmarks
These are features that are used to save addresses of your favorite web pages
vii) History
This is a feature that is used to find the recently visited sites
viii) HTML Editors
These are used to help in keeping the HTML tags or codes e.g. Microsoft FrontPage, Micro
media Dreamweaver etc.
It consists of a Protocol, a domain name, Top Level Domain and the path to a specific
document file.
A protocol (http ://)
Thisstands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is the communicationsprotocol used to
transfer pages on the Web.
The location of the site ( www which means that the site is on the World Wide Web)
The domain name
The name of the organization that maintains the site (yahoo)
Top Level Domain (TLD)
A suffix that identifies the kind of organization (e.g. .com for commercial organizations,
.com for commercial institutions, .mil for military organizations, .educ for educational
institutions etc.)
NB; No spaces should be left in a URL
j) HTML lines
These are horizontal lines in an HTML page.
k) Comments
Comments can be inserted into the HTML code to make it more readable and understandable.
They are not displayed by the web browsers.
l) Ordered lists
These are lists with items marked with numbers.
1. Coffee
2. Milk
3. Black tea
m) Unordered lists
These are lists with items marked with bullets (typically small back circles
e.g.
Coffee
Milk
Black tea
n) Definition lists
It is a list of items with a description of each item.
o) Forms
These are used to select different kinds of user input.
They are used to pass data to a server.
They can contain elements like text fields, checkboxes, radio buttons, submit buttons etc.
p) Text field
It is an input field that a user can enter text into;
e.g.
First name:
Last name:
q) Password field
Is an input field that a user can enter a password into
e.g.
Password:
r) Radio buttons
These are buttons in a web page that lets a user to select only one of a limited number of
choices.
They look like;
s) Check box
This lets a user select one or more options of a limited number of choices. E.g.
I have a bike
I have a car
t) Submit button
This is a button used to send data to a server.
E.g.
Username:
u) Drop down arrows
NB:
Do not assume that information presented on the Web is correct or accurate. Any person,
company, or organization canpublish a Web page on the Internet. No one oversees the content
of these Web pages. Therefore, a lot of caution should be taken when acquiring information
from the web.
Questions
1. The internet has given rise to a number of developments, including blogs and wikis.
a. Give two features of a blog. [2]
b. Give two features of a wiki. [2]
2. Describe three ways to evaluate the reliability of information found on a website.
LIMITATIONS OF A WEBSITE
- Websites are expensive to be constructed. Therefore, some institutions may not be in position to
come up with one.
- They require a lot of maintenance and update hence becoming expensive and time consuming.
- They limit customers from directly interfacing with the business men. This makes customers to
sometimes be cheated.
- Very many people and organizations are creating websites with a lot of information which is not
legitimate and some organizations lie the public through the websites.
A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computers,
software, data or information.
NB:
Computer crime: is any illegal act involving a computer.
Cyber-crime: is the online or internet – based illegal acts.
Computer security risks include;
1. Internet and network attacks
2. Unauthorized access and use of computer systems.
3. Hardware and software theft
4. Information theft and information piracy
5. System failure.
b) Worms
A worm is a computer program that sits in the computer‘s memory, rewrites itself
continuously into the memory until the system runs out of memory and crushes.
It differs from a virus in that the ―reproduced‖ segments keep communicating with the
―mother‖ code to function.
c) Trojan Horse
It is a small program code hidden within legitimate software.
Unlike a virus or a worm, a Trojan horse doesn‘t have the ability to replicate itself but it is
often a way for viruses or other malicious code such as bots to be introduced into a
computer system.
They continue to operate as legitimate software until at such a time that they are activated
to cause trouble.
d) Bots
Are a type of malicious code that can be covertly (secretly) installed on your computer
when attached to the Internet.
Once installed, the bot responds to external commands sent by the attacker, and your
computer becomes a ―zombie,‖ and is able to be controlled by an external third party.
NB: A Botnet is a group of compromised computers connected to a networks such as
theInternet that are used for malicious activities such as sending spam, participating in a
Distributed Denial of Service attack,stealing information from computers, andstoring
network traffic for later analysis.
Other forms of malicious code include;
e) Time bomb
It is a program code that is activated when it detects a certain condition or event.
These events can be famous days like Valentine, Fools – day, etc.
f) Droppers
These are programs that have been written to perform useful tasks like compressing files,
previewing video clips, etc. and in the process of performing those tasks, they introduce
viruses in the system.
g) Failedviruses
These are viruses that have not met their would be goals.
This may be due to poor programming by the authors.
h) Packagers
These hide the existence of a virus from virus guards by masking some codes around the
actual software programs.
It is only when the virus has been triggered off that you realize that the software had a
virus.
i) Jokes
A joke is a harmless program that does amusing actions on the screen.
They can display messages like ―Your computer is about to explode in five minutes.
Please run away‖.
j) Test viruses
These are viruses written to test some virus guards (antivirus software)
They are not harmful, just for learning purposes only.
k) Bugs:
A bug is unintentional fault in a program that is normally misinterpreted as a real virus.
Moat complex software in computer systemsnormally contain bugs.
Minor bugs normally cause simple inconveniences while major bugs can cause loss of
data.
How are viruses activated?
By opening an infected file
By running an infected program
By starting up the computer with an infected floppy diskette.
Sources of viruses
o Fake games
Virus programmers utilize the ability of games spreading so fast to design fake games and attach
viruses on them.
These games keep infecting systems as they are installed.
Such games are normally the irresistible like I LOVE YOU, HOTSEX.exe, JACKPOT.com,
ROMANCE.exe etc.
o Through use of contaminated diskettes on several computers.
o Through using pirated software.
o Through using freeware and shareware from the internet.
Since these are free, they are good grounds for distributing viruses.
They also in most cases contain bugs which may turn into viruses unintentionally
o Through software updates most especially over the internet or other networks.
o Through sharing of data in a network.
NB: Some Web sites use a CAPTCHA [Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and
Humans Apart (CAPTCHA)] to further protect a user‘s password.
A CAPTCHA is a program to verifythat user input is not computer generated.
A CAPTCHA displays a series of distorted characters and requires theuser enter the characters
correctly to continue using the Web site.
AVOID
Using your name, birthday, ID card number or telephone number.
A password of all digits or all the same letter.
Software theft
Forms of software theft;
Physical stealing of the media (e.g. floppy diskette, CD ROM e.t.c) that contains the
software
Software piracy
This is the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.
b. Software piracy
This refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.
This may involve duplicating someone‘s movie, song, book, etc, without his/her permission.
NB:
Whenever a consumer purchases a software, he/she is only provided with a license agreement
which gives him/her the right to use the software.
c. Information privacy
Privacy is the moral right of individuals to be left alone, free from surveillance or interference
from other individuals or organizations, including the state.
Information Privacyrefers to the right individuals, companies or organizations have to deny or
restrict the collection and use of information about them.
a) Cookies
A cookie is a small text file that a Web server stores on your computer that allows a site to
track the actions of its visitors.
E-commerce, Webcasting, and other Web applications often rely on cookies to identify users
and track information about viewers, customers, and subscribers.
NB; Although the cookie resides on an individual’s hard drive, it does not interact with
other information store on the system.
Uses of cookies
Web sites that allow for personalization often use cookies to track user preferences. On
such sites, you may be asked to fill in a form requesting personal information, such as
your name, postal code, or site preferences.
A news Web site, for example, might allow users to customize their viewing preferences
to display certain stock quotes. Your preferences are stored in cookies on your hard disk.
Many Web sites use cookies to store users' passwords, so they do not need to enter it every
time they log in to the Web site.
Online shopping sites generally use session cookies to keep track of items in your
shopping cart. This way, you can start an order during one Web session and finish it on
another day in another session. Session cookies usually expire after a certain time, such
as a week or a month.
Some Web sites use cookies to track how regularly you visit a site and the Web pages you
visit while at the site.
Web sites may use cookie to target advertisements. Your interests and browsing habits are
stored in the cookie.
d. Information accuracy
Millions and millions of information reside on websites of certain organizations. But in some
instances, the website providing access to information may not be the one which created it.
Some of the information on these websites may not be 100% accurate.
Therefore, it is always good to evaluate and analyze the information provided on a web page
before using it.
8. ICT INDUSTRY