Chapter 1

Topographic Surveying and Mapping

1.1 Topographic surveying

Topography refers to the characteristics of the land surface. These characteristics include relief,
natural features, and artificial (or man-made) features. Relief is the configuration of the earth’s
surface and includes such features as hills, valleys, plains, summits, depressions, and other natural
features, such as trees, streams, and lakes. Man-made features are highways, bridges, dams, buildings,
and so forth. A graphic representation of the topography of an area is called a topographic map. A
topographic map is simply a drawing that shows the natural and artificial features of an area. A
topographic survey is a survey conducted to obtain the data needed for the preparation of a
topographic map. This data consists of the horizontal and vertical locations of the features to be shown
on the map.

The purpose of topographic survey is to gather data necessary for the construction of topographic maps
which are very essential for the planning and designing of the most engineering projects such as
location of highways, railways, design of irrigation and drainage systems, the development of
hydroelectric power, layout of city planning and industrial plant.

In this chapter, you will study methods and procedures used to perform topographic surveying and to
prepare topographic maps.

The fieldwork in a topographic survey consists principally of (1) the establishment of a basic frame-
work of horizontally and vertically located control points (called instrument points or stations) and (2)
the determination of the horizontal and vertical locations of details in the vicinity of each instrument
point. We will begin our discussions with topographic control.

Topographic control consists of two parts:

(1) Horizontal control, which locates the horizontally fixed position of specified control points, and

(2) Vertical control, in which the elevations of specified bench marks are established. This control
provides the framework from which topographic details, such as roads, buildings, rivers, and the
elevation of ground points, are located.

Horizontal Control

Locating primary and secondary horizontal control points or stations may be accomplished by
traversing, by triangulation, or by the combined use of both methods. On an important, large-area
survey, there may be both primary control, in which a number of widely separated primary control
points are located with a high degree of precision; and secondary control, in which stations are located
with less precision within the framework of the primary control points.

The routing of a primary traverse should be considered carefully. It should follow routes that will
produce conveniently located stations. Such routes might run along roads, ridges, valleys, edges of
wooded areas, public land lines, or near the perimeter of tracts of land. This latter route is of particular
importance for small areas. When all the details in the area can be conveniently located from stations

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on the primary traverse, you do not need secondary traverses. However the size or characters of the
terrain or both usually make secondary traverses necessary.

Figure 2.1 Primary traverse and secondary traverse

Vertical Control

In topographic surveying, bench marks serve as starting and closing points for the leveling operations
when you are locating details. Although for some surveys the datum may be assumed, it is preferable
that all elevations be tied to bench marks which are referred to the sea-level datum. As a surveyor, you
must make every feasible effort to tie in your surveys to these bench marks to ensure proper location
and identification. Often, the established horizontal control marks are used as the bench marks because
the level routes generally follow the traverse lines.

Vertical control is usually carried out by direct leveling; however, trigonometric leveling may be used
for a limited area or in rough terrain.

Once the topographic control has been established, your next major step in a topographic survey is to
locate the details horizontally and vertically in the vicinity of each control point or station. These
details consist of (1) all natural or artificial features that will appear on the map and (2) enough ground
points and spot elevations to make the drawing of contour lines possible.

The methods and the instruments used in topographic surveys depend upon the purpose of the survey,
the degree of precision needed, the nature of the terrain to be covered, the map scale, and the contour
interval. For a high degree of accuracy, you should locate azimuths with a total station. Measure
horizontal distances with the chain or the electronic distance measurement (EDM) device. Determine
elevations with a level.

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1.2 Topographic Mapping

One of the purposes of a topographic map is to depict relief. In fact, this is the main feature that makes
a topographic map different from other types of maps. Before you go any further, refresh your memory
on the subject of topographic relief. Relief is the term for variance in the vertical configuration of the
earth’s surface. You may see relief can be shown in a plotted profile or cross section. These, however,
are views on a vertical plane, but a topographic map is a view on a horizontal plane. On a map of this
type, relief may be indicated by the following methods. A relief model is a three-dimensional
relief presentation a molded or sculptured model, developed in suitable horizontal and vertical
scales, of the hills and valleys in the area. Shading is a pictorial method of showing relief by the use of
light and dark areas to suggest the shadows that would be created by parallel rays of light shining
across the area at a given angle. Hachures area pictorial method similar to shading except that the
light-and-dark pattern is created by short hachure lines, drawn parallel to the steepest slopes. Relative
steepness or flatness is suggested by varying the lengths and weights of the lines. Contour lines are
lines of equal elevation; that is, each contour line on a map is drawn through a succession of points that
are all at the same elevation. A contour is the real-life equivalent; that is, a line of equal elevation on
the earth’s surface. All of these methods of indicating relief are illustrated in figure 1.2. The contour-
line method is the one most commonly used on topographic maps.

All engineering construction projects require maps or site plans. All engineers must know how to make
maps, to be better able to interpret them. Maps for ordinary people must be clear and easily understood
if they are to give maximum service.

Most maps are made for some definite reason. For example to show topography, boundary of
properties, precise location of traverse points, routes of highways or railways, soil erosion control
areas, forest areas, mineral lands and other features.

Map drafting
There are four stages:
1. Plotting the traverse
2. Plotting details
3. Drawing the topography and special data
4. Finishing the map

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Figure 2.2 Methods of indicating topography

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1. Plotting the traverse
Measurement of lengths and angles are used to plot a traverse. Lengths (distances) are plotted from the
field data to a selected scale by means of an accurate ruler.
Angles are plotted by a) coordinate b) tangents c) chords

2. Plotting the details

All contour points are taken as details. Trees, buildings, etc are all details. The positions are plotted
using a scale and a protractor

3. Drawing the topography and special data

Standard symbols are used to represent special topographic features, thereby making it possible show
many details on a single sheet of paper. Before placing symbols on a map, such things as buildings,
roads, boundary lines are first plotted. The symbols are then drawn or pasted. A fully detailed map
with contouring and shading is a work of art.

4. Finishing the map

The appearance of a finished map has considerable bearing on its acceptability and value. A map
which is poorly arranged, carelessly lettered, and unfinished looking does not inspire confidence in its
accuracy

A boarder line somewhat heavier than all other lines improves the appearance of the sheet. The
position of the traverse and topography must properly balance the sheet.

Scale of a map
1:100 or less ------------------ Large scale
1:100 – 1:1000 --------------- Medium scales
1:1000 or more --------------- small scales

Scale depends on the purpose, size needed and precision required. Area on the map is found using a
planimeter.

1.2.1 Contour lines

Contour lines indicate a vertical distance above, or below, a datum plane. Contours begin at sea level,
normally the zero contour, and each contour line represents an elevation above (or below) sea level.
The distance between adjacent contour lines is as the contour interval. Starting at zero elevation the
topographer draws every fifth contour line with a heavier line. These are known as index contours. At
some place along each index contour, the line is broken and its elevation is given. The contour lines
falling between index contours are called intermediate contours. They are drawn with a finer line than
the index contours and, usually, do not have their elevations given.

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Contour Interval and Horizontal Equivalent
On a given map the successive contour lines represent elevation differing by a fixed vertical distance
called the contour interval. The horizontal distance between two points on the consecutive contour
lines for a given slope, is the horizontal equivalent.

Figure 2.3 Contour plan with derived profile

The contour interval depends upon the nature of the terrain. A contour interval chosen for a flat ground
will be highly unsuitable for undulating ground. For flat ground, small contour interval is chosen
where as for undulating and broken ground, greater contour interval should be chosen.

The purpose and the extent of the survey also decide the contour interval. If the survey is intended for
detailed design work or for accurate earth work calculations, a small contour interval will be required.
The extent of survey in such cases will generally small. In case of location surveys, for lines of
communications and for reservoir and drainage areas, where the extent of survey is large, a large
contour interval should be used. If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required
in the field survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.

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Characteristics of Contours
The following characteristics help in plotting or reading a contour map
1. The ground slope between contour lines is assumed to be uniform
2. The direction of the steepest slope at a point on the contour is at right angles to the contour
3. Closely spaced contours indicate steep slopes
4. Widely spaced contours indicate moderate slope
5. Equally spaced contours depict a uniform slope
6. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other since contours join points of equal
elevation (caves and over hanging cliffs are exceptional)
7. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour ( vertical cliff is an exception)
8. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan
9. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessary within the limit of the map.
10. Depression and hills look the same. One must note the contour values to distinguish.
11. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-shape cross a
ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contours lines is towards
higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley.
12. The same contour must appear on both sides of a ridge or valley
13. Contours do not have sharp turnings
14. A single contour lines cannot lie between two contour lines of higher or lower elevation

Methods of Contouring
Contouring requires the planimetric position of the points whose elevations have been determined by
leveling. The methods of locating contours, therefore, depend up on the instrument used to determine
the horizontal as well as vertical position of several points in the area. In general, however the field
methods may be divided in to the following two classes:
 Direct Methods
 Indirect Methods
1. Direct Methods
In the direct methods, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Only those points are
surveyed which happen to fall on a particular contour. After having surveyed such points, they are
plotted and joined. The method is slow and tedious. This method is employed only for a small area
where superior accuracy is demanded.

2. Indirect Methods
In this method, sufficient number of points are located and given spot levels. The contours in between
spot levels are interpolated and drawn.

There are three different ways of employing the indirect method of contouring
 Grid Method
 Cross-section Method
 Radial Line Method

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Figure 2.4 Typical contour characteristic

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 Grid Method
51.4
If the area is not large, it is divided into a grid 50.4
51.2
or series of squares. The grid size may vary 51.0 50.6
from 5 m X 5 m to 25 m X 25 m depending 50.8
upon the nature of the ground, the contour 50.6 50.8
51.0
interval, and the scale of the map. Also, the 50.4
50.8
grids may not be of the same size throughout 50.4
50.2 50.6
but may vary depending upon the requirement
and field conditions. The grid corners are 50.0 50.4
50.4
marked on the ground and spot levels of these
50.4
corners are given by normal method of leveling
using a level. The contours of desired values 50.2
50.0
are then located by interpolation.

Contouring by Grid Method

Cross-section Method B
In this method, suitably spaced cross-sections 10.5 11
are projected on either side of the center line of 11.5
the area. Several points are chosen at
reasonable distances on either sides. The spot 12

levels are given to these points by normal 12.5

method of leveling using a level. The points on 13
chosen contours are interpolated assuming
13.5
uniform slope between adjacent points and 14

joined by a smooth curve. 14.5

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15.5

A
Contouring by Cross-Section Method

Radial Lines Method

In this method, a number of radial lines are set
out at known angular interval at each station 80
and points are fixed at convenient constant 75
70
distance apart on the rays that are set by 65
compass or, for greater accuracy, by theodolite.
60
This method is convenient in hilly terrain with
level stations chosen at high points so as to 55
command a large area from each. Horizontal
50
may be obtained by taping. If we are using
theodolite it may also be used for providing
horizontal and vertical controls. 45

Contour by Radial Line Method

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Figure 2.5 Commonly used map symbols

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Interpolating contour lines
A single contour line was interpolated between two points of known elevation, a known horizontal
distance apart, and by mathematical computation. In actual practice, usually more than one line must
be interpolated between a pair of points; and large numbers of lines must be interpolated between
many pairs of points. Mathematical computation for the location of each line would be time-
consuming and would be used only in a situation where contour lines had to be located with an
unusually high degree of accuracy. For most ordinary contour-line drawings, one of several rapid
methods of interpolation is used. In each case it is assumed that the slope between the two points of
known elevation is uniform.

Source of error in topographic survey

1. Control not established, checked and adjusted before topography is taken
2. Control point too far apart
3. Control points poorly selected for proper coverage of area
4. Poor selection of points for contour delineation

Mistakes
1. Improper selection of contour interval
2. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for particular survey and the terrain conditions.
3. Insufficient horizontal and vertical control of suitable precision.
4. Too few contour points chosen
5. Omission of topographic details

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