Mrs.

Ashima Sadhu
M.A. Hons. Geography, M.A History, B.Ed (NCERT) Lecturer
St. Xavier Senior Secondary School, Bathinda

HISTORY: XII, King, Farmers and Towns (Early States and Economics) Chapter – 2

Very Short Answer – Type Questions

Q.1. What is the meaning of the words ‘Janapada’ and ‘Mahajanapadas’?
Ans. ‘Janapada’ means the land were Jana , (a people, clean or tribe) sets its foot or settles. The bigger
Janapadas were called ‘Mahajanapadas’. Ex:- Magadha, Avanti, Kuru etc.

Q.2. What was the Sangama Literature and in which language it was written?
Ans. The literature collectively produced by the Tamilian poets is commonly known as the Sangam
Literature. It was written in the Tamil language.

Q.3. Give any two causes of the rise of the Magadhan Empire.
Ans. (i) It was because of great rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda and later on the
Mauryas that Magadha became all powerful.
(ii) The fertility of Magadha also accounts for its rise.

Q.4. Who was Megasthenese? What do you know about him?

Ans. Megasthenese was a Greek historian who lived in the court of Chandragupta Maurya from 320 B.C.
to 298 B.C. He wrote the famous book ‘Indika’ which gives a detailed account of Mauryan
administration and Indian society.

Q.5. How do the coins helps us about the Gupta period?

Ans. Many coins of gold and silver of Samudra Gupta, Chandragupta Vikramaditya and their successors
have been found, which give us a lot of information.
(i) They throw a good deal of light on the names and titles of the Gupta rulers.
(ii) They also helps us in forming an idea of the art and economic condition of the people during the
Gupta period
(iii)These coins facilitated long distance transactions from which kings also benefited.

Q.6. The Cholas had trade relations with which foreign countries?
Ans. Under the Cholas, India had trade relations with South Asian countries like Malaya, Indonesia, Indo
– China, Sri Lanka, Andaman – Nicobar, China and in the West, the Cholas had trade relations with
Persia and Arabia, etc.

Q.7. How were mothers important under Satavahana rulers? Give an example to support your
answer.
Ans. The Satavahanas, who ruled over the Andhra Pradesh, were matrilineal who followed the line of the
mother. They were named after their mothers.
Such names of the rulers as Gautamipu2tra and Vashishtiputra suggest that the Satavahana rulers
were named after their mothers.

Q.8. Mention any two ways in which the inscriptions of land grants help us to understand rural
society in ancient times.
Ans. (i) Inscriptions especially those dealing with and grants, help us a lot in understanding the
relationship between the state and the cultivators.
(ii) From such inscriptions we find that some rulers awarded these land grants to different sections
of the rural society, especially to the Brahmanas, to extend agricultural activities in new areas. It
was a very clever strategy adopted by certain wise rulers.

Q.9. Give two reasons why the 6 th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early
Indian history.
Ans. (i) In the 6th century BCE, we see the emergence of early states, kingdoms and empires in the
Indian sub - continent.
(ii) Much progress was made in the fields of agricultural production.
(iii) New towns appeared almost throughout the sub – continent.

Q.10. How were the Shakas, who came from Central Asia, regarded by the Brahmanas. Name their
best known ruler and one of the his contributions.
Ans. (i) The Shakas who came from Central Asia were regarded as barbarians, outsiders, and even
Mlechchas.
1
 (ii) Their best known ruler was Rudradaman I, who repaired the Sudarshana lake from his own
pocket when his ministers refused to finance this project.

Q.11. From C . sixth – century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Justify the statement.
Ans. (1) Some historians suggest that with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire long – distance
trade declined, and this affected the prosperity of the states, communities and regions that has
benefited from it.
(2) Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this time. They also
point out that though finds of coins of that time are fewer, coins continue to be mentioned in
inscriptions and texts.

Short Answer – Type & Long Questions

Q.12. How are coins important for the study of Indian History?
Ans. Importance of cons for the study of Indian History.
(1) The important guides to the history of ancient Indian are the coins. They have proved to be very
useful to solving many great chronological puzzles.
(2) Not only the names of the rulers and the dynasties to which they belonged are known but
sometimes they reveal other information received form literature.
(3) They corroborate and sometimes modify the information received from literature. These coins
are our only source of information with regarded to the Bactrian and Indo – Greek rulers.
(4) The inscriptions on these coined both in Greek and Kharoshti clearly indicate that these rulers
must have ruled over northern India.
(5) Similarly, these coins throw remarkable light on the personal accomplishment of certain rulers
(e.g. Samudragupta) and also on the religious views of others (e.g., Kanishka). Samudragupta;’s
coins having the vehicle of Vishnu inscribed on them, clearly indicate that he was a devotee of
that deity; others with Vina attest his love for music.
(6) These coins are of various metals - gold, silver, copper or alloy (mixture of two or more metals.)
They metal used and its purity undoubtedly reflect the economic condition of the country at that
time.
(7) Their discovery at different places helps us fixing the extent of various kingdoms in ancient
India.

Q.13. Explain how Kharoshthi was deciphered?

Ans. (1) Many inscriptions found in north – west were found in a script which the scholars called
Kharoshthi. But it was a problem to decipher this script. However, the finds of coins of Indo – Greek
kings, who ruled over the area in second – first centuries BCE came to the help of the scholars.
(2) These coins have the names of these kings both in the Greek and Kharoshthi scripts. This thing
greatly helped the European scholars who could read the Greek language.
(3) Thus by comparing letter one by one they were able to decipher the Kharoshthi script as well.
(4) Much of the credit for deciphering the Kharoshthi (as well as the Brahmi script) goes to James
Prinsep who was an officer in the mint fo the East India Company in the 1830s.
Q.14. Enumerate the factors that led to the growth of Magadha Empire in the Pre – Mauryan Period.
Or
How do the modern historians explain the development of Magadha, the most powerful
Mahajanapada? Explain.
Or
What were the different explanations offered by the early writers and historians for the
growth of Magadha power? Explain.
Ans. The modern historians and writers give many explanations from the growth of Magadha as the most
powerful Mahajanapadas. According to them, the Magadhan kingdom owned its rise and growth to
the contemporary political, social, economic, military and geographical conditions.
(1) Ambitious Rulers. To fulfil their ambitions, the Magadha rulers adopted al kinds of methods
that could help them in extending their empire. King Bimbisara made his border safe by seeking
matrimonial relations with the neighbouring kingdom. Ajatasatru annexed by force the territories
of Vaishali and Kosala. Mahapadma Nanda annexed Kalinga. All diplomatic norms were
employed to achieve the rise of the Magadhan Empire.
(2) Natural Resources. Magadha had vast iron – ore resources which made it possible for the
rulers to make weapons and tools for industries and agriculture etc. This natural bounty helped
greatly in the growth of the Magadhan Empire.
(3) Strategic Situation of its Capital Cities- Rajgriha, the earliest capital of Magadha was
surrounded by five hills. Pataliputra, the new capital was situated on the confluence of the

2
 Ganga, the Gandak and the Sone. Both the capitals were impregnable. The strategic situation of
these capital cities was also an important factor in the growth of Magadha.
(4) Military Power. Magadha had a well – organized army which was composed of elephants,
horses and chariots. The elephants were used to trample upon the enemy cavalry which
resulted in confusion. Elephants were also used to storm the fortresses. A strategic use of
horses and chariots had its own advantages.
(5) Fertile Area. As the Magadhan territory was quite fertile, there was no shortage of food. This
agriculture prosperity played a vital role in keeping the kingdom’s economy in good shape. It
brought prosperity to the whole kingdom.
(6) Growth in Trade. The loss in war was usually made up by charging toll and octroi duties. There
was sufficient facility for transit and communication. The roads were safe. There being no fear of
being plundered or robbed, the trade grew rapidly.
(7) Social Uplift. To start with, the orthodox among the Brahmans boycotted the Magadha
kingdom. They refused to accept it as a part of their body and of the marriages, the kingdom of
Magadha got a great impetus to grow and expand. Besides, the Magadha rulers aqchieved
great glory and established supremacy over other kingdoms.
(8) A symbol of Power. When Alexander invaded India. Magadha had become so powerful that
the Greeks could not dare to advance further. This undoubtedly added to the prestige of the
Magadhan kingdom.

Q.15. Discuss the evidence of craft production in early Historic cities. In what ways is this different
from the evidence from the Harappan cities?
Ans. The cities that came into existence in the country during the sixth century B.C. to the 6 th century
A.D. are known as early Historic cities. Such cities include Varanasi, Champanagri, Rajgriha,
Kushinagar, Pawa, Kaushambi,Pataliputra, Indraprastha, Ujjayini, etc.
In these early cities, crafts production was of high quality. Excavations in these cities showed the
following progress in the field of craft production:
(i) People made bowls and dishes of very find type of pottery with a glassy finish. This pottery
were known as the Northern Black Polished Ware.
(ii) Craftsman made beautiful ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines from gold, silver,
copper, bronze, ivory, glass and shell, etc.
(iii) Discovery of iron had resulted in the making of a number of instruments.
(iv) Carpentry was progressed too. Now carts, ploughs and other household articles were made
from wood.
(v) Religious teachers, businessmen, washermen, weavers, carpenters, potters, blacksmiths
and other traders also lived in towns.
(vi) Different craftsmen had their own organizations that were known as shrenis or guilds.
Differences in Evidences from the Harappen Cities:-
(i) The clay utensils that were excavated from Harappen cities were not polished while fine
pottery bowls and dishes of early Historic cities were beautifully polished.
(ii) No trace of instruments, arms and other things made of iron have been found in Harappen
cities but in early cities, such things were widely used.

Q.16. Describe the salient feature of Mahajanapadas.

Ans. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas before the arrival of the Mauryan period, as mentioned in the
Buddhist texts. Some were monarchies while others were republics. The sixteen Mahajanapadas as
mentioned in the Buddhist texts as follows – Magadha, Kashi, Koshala,, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa,
Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Sursena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.
Salient features of Mahajanapadas:
(i) While most Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some known as Ganas or Sanghas, were
oligarchies, where power was Buddha belongs to such Ganas.
(ii) In some instances, as the case of the Vajji Sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources
such as and collectively. Although, their histories are often difficult to reconstruct jdue to the
lack of sources. Some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand years.
(iii) Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Maintaining these fortified
cities as well as providing for regular armies and bureaucracies required huge resources.
(iv) Rulers were generally Kshatriyas who acted according to the norms laid down by the
Dharmashastra. They were advised to collect taxes and tribute form cultivators, traders an
artisans.
(v) Raids on neghbours states were recognized as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth.
Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained irregular bureaucracies.
Others continued to depend on militia, recruited generally from the peasantry.

3
Q.17. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Ans. Historians had limited sources to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people of the Harappan
civilization. They reconstruct the lives or ordinary Harappan people by using historical sources such
as material remains (ruins of houses, buildings, pottery, tools implements, etc.). But after that
especially from 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. a lot of other material, in addition to archaeological material is
also available in the shape of literature especially the Buuddhist texts, the so called Sangam
literature. Inscriptions too help the historians to reconstruct the lives of the ordinary people.
(i) The Vedic Literature. The Vedic literature is very Besides the four Vedas - The Rigveda,
the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda, it also includes Brahmanical texts –
Aranyakas, Upanishadas, Pranas, the Mahabharata and the Ramanyana. These Vedic texts
throw a flood of light on the social, religious, political and economic life of the ordinary people
of ancient India.
(ii) The Buddhist and Jain Literature. The Tripitakas and Jatakas of the Buddhist and Angas
of the Jains also throw very valuable light on some very obscure periods of the Indian
history. Though purely religious, they do contain here and there some very useful
references to the contemporary society and the political and economic conditions of those
days.
(iii) The Sangam Literature. The Sangam Literature has great significance of it own especially
for the reconstruction of the South Indian History. This literature throws a good deal of light
on the trade relations of the Tamilians with the Greeks – and the Romans. It also gives a
detailed account of certain rulers, especially those of the Chola and Pandya rulers. This
literature also throws a god deal of light on the social, religious and economic life of the
people of South India.
(iv) Records of Land Donation. Historians have also collected valuable information from the
records of land donations given by kings to the ordinary people and especially to the
Brahmans. From these records, a lot of information regarding gift made to the officers by the
land owners and tax revenues given by ordinary people are collected.
(v) Accounts of Foreign Travellers. Many foreign travellers who visited India from time to
time have given detailed account of the lives of the ordinary people. Some of the famous
foreign travellers who left valuable accounts are – Megasthenese, Fahien, Heiun Tsang.
(vi) Inscriptions. Many inscriptions have been found engraved on rocks, pillars, copper plates,
stone tablets and caves, etc. They provide us a first rate information about ancient Indian
monarchs and the important events of their reigns. The inscriptions also throw a flood of
light on the ieves of the ordinary people. In one such inscriptions concerning the Gupta
period, we find Prabhavati Gupta period, we find Prabhavati Guptas, the daughter of
Chandragupta II, giving and in donation to ordinary people and instructing the state officials
not to take any tax from them. From such inscriptions, historians have collected very
valuable information’s.
(vii) Archaeological Evidences. From these evidences (such as houses, pots, ornaments tools,
seals, etc.) historians have reconstructed every valuable information about the lives of the
ordinary people.

Q.18 List some of the problems faced by epigraphists:-

Ans. Problems faced by epigraphists. Though historians have got important information from
inscriptions, the epigraphists have faced a number of problems in collecting such historical material.
Some of the problems faced by epigraphists are as follows.
(i) Epigraphists sometimes do not know the script or language used by the people of earlier
historical periods. Sometimes, they have to take the help of the experts who know the scripts
and the language.
(ii) Sometimes, they find incomplete sentences on the inscriptions. They sometimes add these
to make the meaning of sentences clear. This has to be done carefully, to ensure that
intended meaning of the author is not changed.
(iii) Epigraphists have to take the stress of translation of some technical words or terms used in
inscriptions. Their translation may not convey the correct sense or meaning.
(iv) Inscriptions have been mostly suffered from the ravages of time as a result of which
sometimes many lines have been damaged or completely vanished. So nothing useful can
be gathered from them.
(v) Sometimes, the different scholars widely differed on certain words or what mentioned in the
inscriptions.
(vi) Lastly, the inscriptions do not always contain the complete truth. They project the ideal of the
subscriber and no that of the common people who are generally ignored in the inscriptions.

Q.19. What are the main historical sources of the Mauryan Empire?
4
 Or
Describe the sources used to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.
Or
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.
Explain.
Ans. Main Historical Sources of the Mauryan Empire. The following are some of the chief source of
information regarding the Mauryan dynasty.
1. Megasthenese’s Account. Megasthenese was a Greek historian who lived as a representative
of Seleukus Nicator in the court of Chandragupt Maurya for abut five years from 302 B.C. to 298
B.C. He wrote a book name ‘INDIKA’ in which he gave a detailed description of Mauryan
administration and Indian society.
2. Kautilya’s Arthashastra. The Arthashtra by Kautilya, the chief adviser and minister of
Chandragupt Maurya, is another important source which throws a good deal of light on the
Mauryan period. From Arthashastra, we get a lot of information about the Mauryan king, his
ministers, his Central and Provincial Administration and also economic condition of the people.
3. Mudra Rakshasa. The political drama written by Visakhadutta in the fifth century A.D. in the
Gupta period is another important work on the Mauryan period. It described in detail as to how
Chandragupta Maurya got the help of Kautilya and overthrew the Nanda dynasty. Side by side,
we get a glimpse of the social, economic and religious life of the people in those days. This work
is not written in the Mauryan period, yet its author did his best to base has drama on the
information that was then available in the fifth century A.D. which is not available now.
4. Jain and Buddhist Texts. From the Jain traditions, we come to know as to how Chandgragupta
Maurya, towards the end of his reign, embraced Jainism and abdicated his throne. Similarly, the
Buddhists traditions provide us with valuable information about Ashoka and the steps taken by
him for the spread of this faith.
5. The Puranas. Sometimes the Puranas, which contain ancient Hindu traditions, come to our
help. The historians have extracted valuable information from the Puranas regarding the
Mauryas, their predecessors Nandas and their successors, the Andhras.
6. Works of Art. From the different works of art of the Mauryan period, just as the stupas, viharas,
pillars and caves, we can form an idea of the Mauryan art, architecture, sculpture, art of
polishing, art of engineering and art of ornamentation, etc.
7. Inscriptions. Last but not the least, inscriptions found on pillars, rocks and caves form an
important sources of information about the Mauryan dynasty especially the region of Ashoka.
From these inscriptions, we come to know as good deal abut Ashoka’s dharma, administration,
character and other things. Not only this, they also help us a lot in forming an idea about the
standard of education in those days and the common language that was used in the Mauryan
period.

Q.20. How do the inscription help us in the study of the mauryan period?
Ans. Inscriptions.
(1) The inscriptions of Ashoka are a very significant source of information about his reign. The
inscriptions are engraved on rocks, caves and pillars. From these inscriptions, we come to know
a good deal abut Ashoka’s ‘Dhamma’.
(2) We also become acquainted with the progress in the field of arts that was made under the
Mauryas.
(3) We know much from these inscriptions about the administration of Ashoka and his benevolent
activities.
(4) These inscriptions tell us in detail that Ashoka got wells dug and shady trees planted for benefit
of human beings and animals. As a matter of fact, Ashoka remained every ready to mitigate the
suffering of his people.

Q.21. Write a note on Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma).

Or
Describe the main features of Ashoka’s Dhamma or Dharma.
Ans. Ashoka’s Dhamma or Dharma. Much of the information about Ashoka, especially about his
concept of Dhamma is derived from his inscriptions which are found scattered in different parts of
the country. They are inscribed on pillars, rocks, caves, walls, etc. From these inscriptions we come
to know that Ashoka’s personal religion or Dharma was quite different from what he preached. His
personal Dharma or religions was Buddhism as he had himself mentioned in religion was Buddhism
as he had himself mentioned in religion but Dhamma (or Dharma) that he put forward was not the
code of the Budha but the essence of all religious beliefs. His Dhamma was the embodiment of all
that is good in al faiths.

5
 Chief Features of Ashoka’s Dhamma. Ashoka believed that a good Dharma or Dhamma must
follow the following principles:
(1) Respect of Elders. Ashoka says in his Edicts, “Obeyance must be rendered to father and
mother likewise to the elders. In the same way pupils must show respect to their teachers”.
(2) Proper Treatment of the Younger. Just as the younger should show respect to their elders so
the elder show love to their younger and treat them politely and with kindness.
(3) Non – Violence or Ahimsa. One should not be kind only to his fellow men but also to birds and
animals and not cause them any injury.
(4) Religious Tolerance. Ashoka himself writers. “ There should not be honour to one’s own sect
or condemnation to another….. on the contrary, other sects shall be honoured on this and that
occasion. By doing so, one promotes one’s own sect and benefits another sect”.
(5) Truthfulness. One should endeavour to speak the truth in all circumstances, whether in or
happiness. The gem of truthfulness is of greater worth than the show of useless rituals.
(6) Charity. One should practise charity to the poor, education to the illiterate and true knowledge
of religion to the ignorant so as to bring them to light from darkness.
(7) Righteous Ceremonies. True ceremonies do not include the practices like witchcraft casting
spells, fasting on religious occasions. They, on the contrary, include respect to elder following
the path of righteousness and speaking the truth.
(8) Pure Living. One should live a life of purity and protect himself against sin, as sin in the of all
vices like anger, cruelty, pride and jealousy.
In this way, we see that Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the holy principal of righteous living.
Q.22. What is the importance of the Guptas in the Indian History?
Ans. Importance of the Guptas in the Indian History. The rise of the Guptas has its own significance
in the Indian History:
(1) First of all, it struck a below to the foreign ruyle of the Sakas and the Kushanas and established
a national empire.
(2) Secondly, the Guptas were great conquerors who founded a strong empire and after several
centuries brought about political unity in India.
(3) Thirdly, the Gupta rulers were great lovers and patrons of art and literature and under their
patronage, the Indian literature and culture prospered so well that their period came to be known
as the ‘Golden Period’ of the Indian History.
(4) With the rise of the Gupta Empire, the foreign elements in Indian art and literature faded away
Q.23. What is historical importance of the Allahabad Pillar inscription?
Ans. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
(1) The greatest source of information about Samudragupta is the inscription on the Ashoka Pillar in
Allahabad Fort. This inscription was composed and written by Harisena, the court poet of
Samudragupta.
(2) As a matter of fact, before this inscription was discovered it was difficult to find exact information
about the reign of Samudragupta.
(3) This inscription is written in Sanskrit and is spread over 33 lines but forms only ne and the same
sentence. It does not refer to any date in it.
(4) From it, we know about Samundragupta’s conquests – that he defeated nine kings in the North
and know about Samundragupta’s conquests – that he defeated nine kings in the North and
eleven in the South. Harisena was the curt poet of Samudragupta and a prominent office as well
and so in his inscription whatever is given is exactly correct. According to a historian, “Upon this
single record rests the name and fame of the real founder of the Gupta Empire.”

Q.24. Discuss the notions of Kingship that developed in the post – Mauryan period.
Ans. During the post – Mauryan period ( 1853 B.C. to 600 A.D), the notions of kingship changed and
developed in many ways. The rulers of different royal families tried to enhances their status.
Firstly, the began to identify themselves with a variety of deities.
Secondly, they did so much for the welfare of their subjects that they themselves began to install
their status in temples and began to worship them like gods and goddesses.
Thirdly, some of the rules divided their empire among the different chiefs or ‘Samantas’ who not
only paid them various taxes but also offered them homage and praised them in high words.
Fourthly, some rulers gave gift of land to the Brahmanas who showered all types of praises on their
rules.
Fifthly, some rulers brought peace and prosperity to their subjects who began to regard their rulers
as godlike.
Sixthly, some rulers issued gold and silver coins in such numbers that people themselves began to
sing in praise of their rulers.
Seventhly, some rulers like the Gupta rulers got prepared ‘Prashastis’ by their court poets who
compared their patrons to Gods like Kubera, Varuna. Indra etc.
6
 Elightly, again there were rules, like the Kushana rulers , who got prepared and installed their huge
statues in different part of thee country. Such states instilled awe and respect for the rulers.
Few dynasties like the Kushanas, the Gupts, the Satavahanas, the Choles and some of their great
rulers can be cited as examples who contributed to the development of the notion of kingship.
(i) Some rulers such as the Satavahanas tried to co – relate their social origins with the old
traditional ruling dynasty of ancient India claiming their higher social status. It means that
many rulers claimed high status identifying themselves with a variety of deities.
(ii) The notions of kingship that the Kushana rulers wished to project are perhaps best
evidenced in their coins and sculpture. Colossal status of Kushana rulers have been found
installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar status have been found in
a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas
considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or
‘Son of god’, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
(iii) By the fourth century, there is evidence of large states, including the Gupta empire. Many of
these depended on Samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources
including control over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers.
They not only offered homage to their masters but also showered all types of praises on
them.
(iv) Again, about the Gupta rules, we have prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular,
and patrons in general, by poets. The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the
most powerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE), is a case in point. Here the poet
compares Samudragupta with gods like Kubera, Varuna and Indra.
(v) The Chola rulers did so much for the all round development of their subjects that they
themselves installed the status of their rulers and worshipped them like deities.

Q.25. To what extent were agriculture practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Ans. Transformation in Agricultural Practices from C. 600 BC to 600 A.D. Land revenue was the
main source of income of the rulers. So much attention was paid to land reforms and to increase the
agricultural production. Various attempts were made time and against in this direction. Some of
them were the following:
(i) New strategies for increasing agricultural production were adopted. One such strategy was
the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of
Ganga and Kaveri from c. sixth century BC. The irontipped ploughshare was used to turn the
alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall.
(ii) In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the
introduction of transplantation, although, this meant back – breaking work for the producer.
(iii) While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, its use was restricted
to certain parts of the sub – continent – cultivators in areas which were semi – arid, such as
parts of Punjab and Rajasthan did not adopt it till the twentieth the sub – continent ,
practiced how agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.
(iv) Another important strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of
irrigation, through wells and tank, and less commonly canals. Communities as well as
individuals organized the construction of irrigation works. The later, usually powerful men
including kings, generally recorded such activities (constructions of wells, tanks and canals
etc.) in inscriptions.
(v) From the early centuries of the CE (Common ERA) we find grants of land being made. The
records that have survived are generally about grants to religious institutions (such as
temples) or to Brahmanas. There were regional variations in sizes of land donated ranging
from small plots to vast stretches of uncultivated land – and the right given to donels (the
receipts of the grant). Some historians feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted
by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Other historians suggest that and
grants were indicative of weakening political power; as kings were losing control over their
Samantas they tried to wish alies by making grants of land. However, there and grants
provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the state.
(vi) Differences in rural society have been observed by the scholars in this period ( c. 600 BC –
600 A.D.) While different technologies and ways generally let to an increase in production,
the benefits agriculture small peasants as well as large landholders. The large landholders
as well as the village headman, emerged as powerful figures , and generally exercised
control over other cultivators. The Sangam texts also mention different categories of people
living in villages – large landowners or vellaler, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or admai.
It is likely that these difference were based on differential access to land, labour and some of
the new technologies.
7
8