Introduction to product design & development | D.H.

Ghanwat

Product Development
Unit -1 Introduction to product design and development

1.1 Design by evolution:

➢ When people observe the striking similarity between organisms, it forms a picture in the
mind that all living creatures adhered to a blueprint, to a biological design of sorts
that evolution effectively chose to follow. ... Those that claim evolution is random are
completely misguided by any definition of the term.
➢ a product of such development; something evolved: The exploration of space is the
evolution of decades of research. Biology. change in the gene pool of a population from
generation to generation by such processes as mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.
➢ Factors such as environment and predation pressures can have different effects on the
ways in which species exposed to them evolve. shows the three main types of evolution:
divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution. Figure%: Types of evolution; a)divergent,
b)convergent, and c)parallel.
➢ The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the
Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result
of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits.
➢ Evolution is not a random process. The genetic variation on which natural selection acts
may occur randomly, but natural selection itself is not random at all. The survival and
reproductive success of an individual is directly related to the ways its inherited traits
function in the context of its local environment.
➢ Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection has been divided into five parts to explain clearly
how evolution happens in nature. 1. Organisms produce more offspring than actually
survive. Organisms can die from many causes: disease, starvation, and being eaten, among
other things.
➢ Evolution is the process of genetic change from one generation to the next and may
be caused by several methods. In essence, evolution occurs when some individuals or
some alleles (gene types) reproduce themselves more than others,increasing their
prevalence in subsequent generations.
➢ Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over
successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level
of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms, and
molecules.
➢ Darwin also suggested a mechanism for evolution: natural selection, in which heritable
traits that help organisms survive and reproduce become more common in a population
over time. A heritable trait is one that's passed on from parents to children by way of genes.
➢ Five different forces have influenced human evolution: natural selection, random genetic
drift, mutation, population mating structure, and culture.

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1.2 Design by innovation:

➢ Definition (1) The process of innovating in a field that is traditionally considered design.
➢ The use of design and design thinking to innovative.
➢ Design innovation is the process of innovating in a field that is
traditionally considered design such as graphic design, product designand user experience
design. The term is also applied to the use of design and design thinking to innovative in
areas such as engineering, software development and business operations.
➢ Design innovation often involves making products, services and environments more
desirable, usable and effective. For example, the architecture of Kengo Kuma is viewed as
innovative for his use of lightness with structures that challenge the traditional solid wall
with windows.
➢ Design Innovation is not just about coming up with new ideas and products— it’s also
about changes that lead to growth and differentiation. Before you address new products,
services, technologies, and processes, you need a foundation that leads to innovation. Here
are 6 factors that will help foster an organisation of innovation:
➢ Innovation means change, experimentation, and new ideas which are inherently risky. If a
company leader is risk averse then the company and employees will be risk averse. The
best leaders that I have met who promote innovation are people who have been
entrepreneurs and have worked in the marketplace. They are comfortable with risk and are
willing to take the chances necessary to grow. If the leader is not fully supportive of a
creative environment and doesn’t inspire the employees to take chances, it will not happen.
➢ Design innovation is the creation of designs that are a leap forward. This
includes innovation in fields that are traditionally considered design such as visual design.
It also includes the use of design anddesign thinking to tackle innovation in fields such as
architecture, engineering and software development. The following are common types of
design innovation.
1. Structure
Structures such as architecture of a building. For example, a building that is a leap
forward in terms of earthquake resilient design.
2. Environments
Environments both physical and virtual such as a game environment that invents a new law of
physics in a virtual world.
3. Experience
Designs that change user experience in some meaningful way. For example, a new way to
navigate complex information structures.
4. Usability
Making things more usable. For example, a holographic user interface that is easier to use than
a tradition screen-based user interface.
5. Productivity
Designs that allow people to be more productive. For example, an ecommerce search engine
that displays the highest rated items that are a reasonable price such that customers often find
exactly what they want on the first page of results.

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6. Engagement
Making experiences more interesting and stimulating for users such as gamification of business
software that makes work more enjoyable and creative.
7. Accessibility
Making things more useful for as many people as possible. For example, a design for a living
street that improves things for people with disabilities, children, seniors, people carrying large
items, bicyclists and emergency services.
8. Safety
Designs that are safer than the current state of the art such as an innovative design for a child
safety seat.

9. Quality
Making things more fit for purpose such as a design for a kite that is easier to launch and
control.
10. Reliability
Reliability such as an aircraft engine that is better at handling bird strikes without being
damaged.
11. Performance
Performance such as a high speed train that can be safely operated at a higher speed than
competing models.
12. Efficiency
Getting more output for each unit of input. For example, a passivetechnique for transporting
sunlight to the center of a building that reduces the use of electric lighting.
13. Sustainability
Designs that reduce environmental damage or improve quality of life. For example, a plastic
bottle that quickly biodegrades into harmless elements. Product designs are commonly
produced in millions of units. As such, product designers are in a unique position to save the
world.
14. Capacity
The ability to hold more such as an innovative rechargeable battery that stores more energy
that any other comparable technology.
15. Aesthetics
A revolution in the way that things look and feel.
16. Differentiation
Designs that differentiate products in some extremely valuable way. For example, innovative
use of shape, form and materials that generates demand and publicity for a product.
17. Durability
Designs that are more difficult to break. For example, a valve for a soccer ball that doesn't
allow the ball to be overinflated.
18. Complexity Hiding

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Making interfaces simpler without making the product simpler. For example, an aircraft that
has extremely complex safety systems that are relatively simple for pilots to use.
19. Integration
Things that are better integrated with other things. For example, a child car seat that is easy to
anchor in any model of vehicle.
20. Modularity
Things that can be deconstructed and customized with modules such as a mobile device that is
infinitely upgradable with hardware components that click into each other. For example, the
ability to add nearly infinite memory units to the device as you need them.

1.3 Prototyping:
➢ Prototyping is the most important process of product development. It directly
determines the direction of the entire software. I believe that no companies will release a
product without prototype design.
➢ What is a Prototype
The American Heritage Dictionary gives the following definitions for a prototype
(TAHDotEL04):
1. An original type, form, or instance serving as a basis or standard for later stages.
2. An original, full-scale, and usually working model of a new product or new version
of an existing product.
3. An early, typical example
The goals for developing a prototype are usually the same: To provide an early or
continuous ability to observe something about the nature of a product (i. e. evaluate ideas about
a product or weight alternatives for a product) (HH93). In interface development prototyping
is often used to receive feedback from users for the refinement of the final product in a usability
evaluation of the prototype. The term rapid prototyping refers to prototyping methods that
produce prototypes fast enough to leave a substantial amount of time for actual changes of the
product.
Prototyping addresses these issues with an iterative or spiral process, in which a simpler
model is continually refined toward the desired end. Basically, prototyping consists of a series
of phases in which a model is discussed and refined by the stakeholders, and then
implemented by the developers. Then the next phase follows the same pattern, but with a
slightly more detailed model. A prototype starts simply and grows in complexity. All
stakeholders – managers, users, developers, researchers, etc. – are included from the start
and at all levels of development. The aim is to work together to realize the common
objective and minimize misunderstanding and omissions. The methodology highlights
flexibility to accommodate change right up until the product is finalized.
➢ Prototype Categorization
There are several different ways to categorize prototypes. Typically, categories emphasize
one or more points along prototype dimensions as those presented in Figure 1 (VSK96):.

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• Features: How many features of the final product does the prototype include?
• Functionality: How much of the functionality of the final product is included in
the prototype (for each feature)?
• Interaction: How similar is the interaction with the prototype to the interaction
with the final product?
• Design: How similar is the prototype in design to the final product (color, graphic
design, . . . )?

➢ Definition of prototyping
Prototyping refers to the early stage of software development, the core of
prototyping is to test the product and usually used for demonstration, testing,
communication and so on.
➢ Stages of prototyping
To performance the key functions of the software and the basic interaction process, what’s
more, it’s easy to modify, fast to prototype and the production costs are lower than other
prototypes.
Low-fidelity prototypes:
A prototype that compromises at least one of these dimensions is often called a low-
fidelity prototype. Low-fidelity prototypes often have limited functionality, features and
interaction. They are built mostly to depict concepts, design alternatives, or screen layouts.
Typical examples of low-fidelity prototypes include storyboards, drawings, paper mockups,
etc.
Medium fidelity prototype:
Medium fidelity prototype adds more details and the interaction is closer to the final product.
In most cases, medium fidelity prototype is enough for the user to fully experience the final
product, you can of the product and ensure that the major problems can’t be found in the
following development process. There is no clear separation between low-fidelity and high-
fidelity prototypes, several different techniques can also be classified as medium-fidelity
prototypes.
High-fidelity prototypes

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High-fidelity prototypes, in contrast, are typically fully interactive, represent the

product’s core functionality and are often built with prototyping systems (e. g. Smalltalk,
Visual Basic). They are used mostly for exploration and tests of the look and feel of the
final product.

➢ Horizontal prototypes
Horizontal prototypes (cf. Figure 2) include the full set of features that will be integrated
in the final product but with limited functionality. This prototype is often involved in a
simulation of the interface. A vertical prototype covers only a small set of features but those
with full functionality. This prototype is used to evaluate parts of the system in depth, often
under real circumstances with real tasks. Scenarios are a mixture of vertical and horizontal
prototypes. In a scenario a user is led through the system along one or just a few paths. It only
covers as much functionality as is currently needed.

➢ Steps in prototyping:
1) decide on the goal of the project and its major components or categories
2) choose one or two features to begin with (usually in the main category or
home page)
3) create a preliminary design on paper
4) discuss the design with stakeholders with the aim of improving it
5) repeat steps 3 & 4 to generate a simple design that all can agree on
6) implement the design on the computer
7) repeat the consultation / refinement process until the features are ‘good
enough’ to continue
8) add another feature and repeat the prototyping process of consultation and
Refinement

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There are several important things to watch for during the process:
- be sure to hear from all stakeholders
- schedule regular meetings from the outset, to keep the project on time and avoid
costly delays
- clarify who is able to approve a prototype and allow the team to move to the
next step (this is typically one person, with perhaps a delegate or alternate)
- look for improvements and don’t see them as criticism
- don’t be afraid to make mistakes or say ‘foolish’ things – brainstorm
- don’t be afraid to change earlier decisions if new ideas warrant it
- don’t get bogged down on details – they may have to be changed later anyway
- be sure to keep to your timeline
- choose the appropriate step size for each version (discussed below)
- expect the early stages to take longer; the first few features will take the longest
- be sure to do the most important features early on, so that if you run out of time
you still have a worthwhile system
- but don’t do the most important feature first as you are learning the method!
- work together on the first few features to familiarize the whole team with the
look and feel
- if you delegate parts later be sure to compare them so that from the user’s point
of view they are consistent
- try to design for your least sophisticated user
- don’t have people test the parts that they have coded
Some tips:
- designing on paper at first speeds up the project and keeps the team from being
‘mesmerized’ by the computer screen
- paper designs bridge the gap between those comfortable with technology and
those less comfortable or knowledgeable
- if this is your first project, begin with an easy feature
- having a good paper layout makes screen design much simpler
- spend more time designing and less time coding
- precise details such as sizes of buttons or placement of graphics are often best
left until later when more features are added and the impact of the details can
be assessed
- use the experts you have – for example, not everyone has the design sense of a
trained graphic designer
- don’t have separate teams working independently on different sections, as these
rarely mesh into a coherent single project
- invite people who are not tech-savvy and don’t know the project to help with
testing to get a real world viewpoint.
Choosing an appropriate step size between versions is important to keep the project
manageable. Too large a step (i.e. too many new features or very difficult ones) may
result in frustration and non-productive meetings. Steps that are too small waste time and

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resources, which remain idle waiting for approval or critique. While step size changes in
every project, it should be based on the time between project meetings, the personnel
available, the skills available, and the maturity of the project. In the later stages, more can
be done in a step because earlier steps can be used as frameworks and models

Advantages and Pitfalls of Prototyping

2.1 Why Prototype?
The development of prototypes in useful for a number of different reasons (HH93):
• Early validation of applications with users, clients.
• Users can take an active part in the development of a product.
• Users are encouraged to share needs and wishes for the final product.
• They produce more visible results earlier (good for managers to show-off!).
3
• Improved collaboration & communication among developers, analysts, users.
• Encourages reflection about the product.
• Finds answers to questions about the design.
• Many prototypes are very easy to build.
• Reduced risk of project failure!!
3 Pitfalls of Prototyping
There are a number of pitfalls to prototyping. They are called pitfalls rather than disadvantages
because they might be avoided with careful planning (HH93):
• Attempt to use prototyping techniques before securing cooperation from all parties
involved in the procedure.
• Established management procedures might not involve prototyping.
• Reduction in programming discipline.
• Pressure to later use the prototype as the real-thing (from client or management).
• Overpromising or misleading with the prototype (prototyping something that cannot
be included with the available resources).
• Trap of overdesign (too much time is spent on the prototype).
• Depending how the prototype was designed it might be hard to extend.
4 Prototyping in the Design Life Cycle
Prototyping can take place at different stages in the development cycle depending on the
goals of the prototype. For different goals different prototyping techniques should be used
at different stages. High-fidelity prototypes are full scale prototypes of the whole system.
They do not (significantly) compromise any of the points as presented in Figure 1. These
prototypes are used late in the design life cycle to test details of the design and the usability
of the system. Figure 3 gives an overview of how different prototyping categories can be
included in the design life cycle.

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➢ Why Use Prototyping?

Prototyping is a development methodology in which a model is quickly constructed to
test or illustrate design features and ideas, in order to gather user feedback. Subsequent
models are created by refining earlier versions, with the aim of convergence on the
desired end product. This design methodology is sometimes known as evolutionary
design or incremental development. Different versions of prototyping are used in
software design, system development, and electronics engineering.
This document deals with prototyping as a methodology for developing web sites with a
minimal need for custom programming. (Software prototyping is a more complex area,
and the methodologies currently used are much less straightforwardly applicable.)

➢ Pros and Cons of Prototyping

Benefits of prototyping include:
- systems which are finished more quickly
- less maintenance required
- greater client satisfaction
- more collaboration for stakeholders
In a well-run prototyping project, misunderstandings between clients and developers
(and within the development team) are often identified as the prototypes are
demonstrated, rather than at the end of development. Missing features can be identified
early on. Difficulties in use or confusing features can be identified and fixed quickly.
Developers may identify incomplete or even conflicting requirements as they implement
them, and users have the opportunity to clarify them before time is wasted coding

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incorrect requirements. If necessary, a demonstrable prototype, though not fully

functional, can be shown to management as proof of concept or to justify further funding.
Even in the worst case, the prototype can provide the basis for a specification for a
more complete, complex system.
Nothing is perfect, and especially when starting with prototyping there are some pitfalls
you must avoid:
- more involvement is required of stakeholders – more meetings, more thought,
more effort
- managers or funding agencies may not realize that early prototypes are mostly
‘smoke and mirrors’ and may think that the project is more complete than it is
- developers may forget some of the ‘quick and dirty’ compromises made in early
versions and these can create problems later on
- testers may not use the system as real users would, thus failing to expose
problems that should be fixed before the system goes live
- documentation needs to be constantly updated as the system changes during
each prototype phase
Finally, as with any system, there will be a need for ongoing maintenance. Prototyped
systems have been demonstrated to have lower maintenance costs, but there is always a
need for software upgrades, bug fixes, and unexpected glitches, not to mention new
features that may be added in the future.

1.4 Detailed Morphology of Design:

A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of design refers
to the collection of these time phases. The morphology of design as put forward by Morris
Asimow can be elaborated as given below. It consists of seven phases.
Phase 1. Feasibility Study.
This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins with a feasibility
study.
The purpose and activities during feasibility study are
• To ascertain there really exists a need [ie the existence of need must be supported by necessary
evidences, rather than the outcome of one's fancy]
• Search for a number of possible solutions
• Evaluate the solutions
i.e. is it physically realisable?
Is it economically worthwhile?
Is it within our financial capacity?
Phase 2 Preliminary (Embodiment) Design.
This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is carefully developed.
The
important activities done at this stage are:
• Model building & testing
• Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions.

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• Check for performance, quality strength, aesthetics etc.

Phase III: Detail Design

Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested product. The
arrangement, from, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts are
determined. Also, the materials to be used and the manufacturing process to be adopted etc. are
decided. Finally, complete prototype is tested.
Phase IV: Planning for manufacture
This phase includes all the production planning and control activities necessary for the
manufacture of the product. The main tasks at this phase are
• Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of manufacturing
processes.
• Specify the condition of row materials.
• Specify tools & machine requirements.
• Estimation of production cost.
• Specify the requirement in the plant.
• Planning QC systems.
• Planning for production control.
• Planning for information flow system etc.
Phase V: Planning for Distribution

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The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing. Hence, this
phase aims at planning an effective distribution system. Different activities of this phase are
• Designing the packing of the product.
• Planning effective and economic warehousing systems.
• Planning advertisement techniques
• Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions.
Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use
The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary user oriented
features. The various steps are
• Design for maintenance
• Design for reliability
• Design for convenience in use
• Design for aesthetic features
• Design for prolonged life
• Design for product improvement on the basis of service data.
Phase VII: Planning for Retirement.
This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the end of useful life. A
product may retire when
• It does not function properly
• Another competitive design emerges
• Changes of taste or fashion
The various steps in this phase are
• Design for several levels of use
• Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence.
• Examine service terminated products to obtain useful information.

1.5 Methods of Innovative Design

As we know, innovative design is an organized, systematized and logical approach for solving
a design problem. There are two design methods for innovative design.
• Design by creative design route
• Engineering Design
• Design by creative routs [Creative Design]
This is a design method that demands maximum ‘creativity' from the part of the designer.
Hence this method is also called creative design. Here the designer finds solutions to problems
by allowing his creativity aspects grow in a particular manner.
Creativity [S94, W95, W98, S03]
Majority of designs belong to variant design, where the designer simply modifies an existing
system. But the success of engineering design depends on the modes of thinking and acting
distinctively different from others. A creative designer is distinguished by his ability to
synthesize new combinations of ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful forms. Design
is commonly thought of as a creative process involving the use of imagination and lateral
thinking to create new and different products.

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Qualities of a creative designer [S96, S00, S03]

The creative designer is generally a person of average intelligence, a visualiser, a hard worker
and a constructive nonconformist with average knowledge about the problem at hand.
Generally, a creative designer has the following qualities.
• Visualization ability.
Creative designers have good ability to visualize, to generate and manipulate visual images in
their heads.
• Knowledge
All designers start their job with what they know. During designing, they make minor
modifications of what they already know –or, creative designers create new ideas out of bits of
old designs they had seen in the past. Hence, they must have knowledge of past designs.
• Ability to manipulate knowledge
The ability to use the same knowledge in a different way is also an important quality of a
designer.
• Risk taking
A person who does not take the risk of making mistakes cannot become a good designer. For
example, Edison tried hundreds of different light bulb designs before he found the carbon
filament.
• Nonconformist
There are two types of nonconformists: constructive and obstructive. Constructive
nonconformists are those who take a firm stand, because they think they are right. Obstructive
nonconformists are those who take a stand just to have an opposing view. The constructive
nonconformists might generate a good idea. But the obstructive nonconformists
will only slow down the design process. Creative designers are constructive nonconformists,
and they want to do things in their own way.
• Technique
Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving. They are prepared to try
alternative techniques, till they reach a satisfactory solution.
• Motivation
They always motivate others in the design team. In such a favourable environment creativity
is further enhanced.
• Willingness to practice
Creativity comes with practice. Creative designers are ready to practice for a long enough
period.
Roadblocks to Creativity
• Fear of making a mistake
• Unwillingness to think and act in a way other than the accepted norm.
• Desire to conform to standard solutions.
• Unwillingness to try new approaches
• Fear of criticism
• Lack of knowledge
• Overconfidence due to past experience
• Unwillingness to reject old solutions

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• Fear of authority
• Difficulty in visualization
• Inability to distinguish between cause and effect
• Inability to collect complete information
• Unwillingness to be different

1.6 STANDARDIZATION:
➢ Standardization is concerned with the use of common components, products, or processes
to satisfy heterogeneous needs.
➢ It necessitates designing an overly robust product or the use of a robust process (often
amore flexible process). Different aspects of standardization have been discussed in the
literature.
➢ Tarondeau [18] argued that standardization results in higher productivity, larger lot sizes,
decrease in the number of reference points to be managed, decrease in the stock level, and
the reduction of complexity of a manufacturing system.
➢ The unnecessary cost of robustness may be balanced by increased productivity and
decrease in product and process control.
➢ Lee and Tang [15] developed a mathematical model to determine the best compromise
between the investment necessary for the standardization and the profit resulting from the
economy of scale. They considered the standardization of products and processes.
➢ Erol [6] proposed a mathematical model for standardization of low value components that
was solved by Dupont et al. [5]
➢ Fouque [8] identified favourable scenarios for the standardization of two components into
one. The uncertainty of the components demand increases, the service level of the
components increases, the components have similar costs, and the demand for the two
components is small. Standardization aggregates the risk and the uncertainty of the
standardized component is smaller than the uncertainty of each individual component. Then
the buffer sizes may be reduced and the productivity and service level may increase [4].
➢ Thoteman and Brandeau [19] determined the optimal level of internal standardization of
products with
characteristics that do not differentiate models from the customer’s point of view. They
concluded that an optimal design (for cost) may be also obtained.
➢ The group technology [11] approach involves grouping parts, products, and processes that
are similar, and
therefore it can be applied to standardization. Numerous algorithms are available to define
these groups
according to various criteria, e.g., production cost, setup time, and in-process inventory.
➢ Researches have demonstrated that standardization may result in improved efficiency by
taking advantage of the economy of scale and simplifying manufacturing processes.
Different levels of standardization are considered (see Figure 2):
− Use of common components in different products.
− Design of standardized products for comparable requirements.

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− Standardization of a manufacturing process for similar products.

1.7 Simplification:
➢ It is the process of reducing variety of a product by limiting product range, design or type
of material. Simplification offers boost to standardization. Let us understand it by an
example. The technology for color TV is available to its manufacturers. They can
manufacture TV set of any size from palm size to big screen. But normally, 14", 15", 16",
18", etc., are the fixed sizes. Why not to have 14.01", 14.02". 14.03"..., as the variety to a
customer
➢ The answer is simplification in marketing, manufacturing and planning. The marginal
difference in size or specification does not offer real change in attributes, which may be
termed as variety. Therefore, simplification is needed in product development.
➢ Simplification provides better customer service due to limited variety, better after-sales
planning, and reduced volume. It is also helpful in reducing inventory level and complex
material planning. It is helpful in focusing effort on limited parts and therefore lesser cost
may be anticipated. It is also helpful in better product quality due to concerted effort on
limited product range.
➢ Combination of simplification and standardization leads to specialization. Limited but
focused product variety is helpful for a company to specialize in a particular area.
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1.8 Meaning of Product Development:

A product is an article obtained by the transformation of raw material and is marketed/sold by
the manufacturer, i.e., a product is a salable item. It may be a consumer product such as
cigarettes, televisions or an Industrial product, e.g., a lathe, an overhead bridge crane, etc.
Development is carried out after applied research which follows pure research.

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Product Development concerns the most economically feasible method for applying the
principles identified through Research. Development involves design/redesign and fabrication
of new or modified product and then testing it to find its usefulness.

➢ Product Research and Development are concerned with all aspects of the product
design and applications including its:

(i) Functional efficiency,

(ii) Quality,

(iii) Unexplored uses,

(iv) Investigation of materials and possible substitutes,

(v) Utilization of waste products, and

(vi) Standardization and customer satisfaction.

➢ Product development is essential in order to:

(i) Meet changing consumer needs.

(ii) Manufacture improved and low cost products.

(iii) Maintain (one’s) sales position and profit margin.

➢ Products can be developed by:

(i) Imitation, i.e., marketing another product similar to one in the market, e.g., when one
concern introduced a refrigerator with automatic defrosting unit, others imitated and
marketed their own refrigerators having such a unit.

(ii) Adaptation, i.e., developing an improved product for an already existing in the market, e.g.,
the introduction of electronic and atomic clocks (against mechanically spring wound
clocks).

(iii) Invention, e.g., synthetic fibres, nylon, etc., for making garments and other items of use.

➢ Product development may involve a:

(i) Small refinement, or

(ii) A major redesign.

Frequently a completely new design results, e.g., the development of more reliable rotary, fuel
injection pumps for diesel engines in place of old reciprocating types of pumps. Product

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development generally involves considerable expenditure; but a concern has to meet it if it has
to survive when competition is hard.

➢ Procedure for Product Development:

The various steps involved in product development are discussed below:

A) Get New Ideas:

New ideas can be obtained:
(i) By Imitation.

(ii) By Adaptation.

(iii) By Invention (i.e., R and D).

(iv) From dealers and customers.

(v) By advertising – asking people to send their ideas and announcing prizes for the best idea.

B) Separate the Good and Feasible Ideas:

Separate the good, meritorious and feasible ideas from amongst the many, received in step (a)
above. Screening of ideas may be done by a committee consisting of managers of R and D,
Production, sales and other departments related with the product development.

C) Evaluate Ideas Technically:

The selected ideas are evaluated technically as regards, the method of manufacture, labour and
equipment requirements, performance characteristics of the product, cost of manufacture, etc.

D) Evaluate Ideas from Market’s Point of View:

Selected ideas are evaluated as regards their acceptability by the customers.

1. The first evaluation is simply a cursory survey by salesmen.

2. If the idea looks promising a nationwide market survey can be conducted.

E) Take the Final Decision:

Based on the information collected on technical and market aspects of the new product, it is
decided finally as whether to go ahead for production or to forget the idea.

F) Get into Production:

If it is decided to take up the idea:
1. The product is designed,

2. Equipment are ordered,

3. Materials are procured,

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4. Workers are selected and trained, and

5. Control systems etc., are established, and it is decided whether to manufacture the product
on mass scale or job-lot basis.

G) Introduce Product into the Market:

While the product is under manufacture, preparations are done to introduce the product into
the market and to impress the market with the developed product
.
The following aspects are explored:
(i) Size, location and characteristics of market,

(ii) Advertisement policies,

(iii) Appealing packaging,

(iv) Channels of distribution,

(v) Price, discount and guarantees,

(vi) Service after sale, etc.

1.9 Principles of Product Development:

The five principles basic and integral part of product development, are discussed below:
A. Standardization,

B. Simplification,

C. Specialization,

D. Diversification, and

E. Interchangeability.

A. Standardization:
Standards are at the base of all mass production. They make possible thousands of different
articles to be placed within the reach of everybody. When one purchases a new spark plug for
a scooter or car, he knows that it will screw into the engine head all right. Why? Because spark
plug threads are standardized Standards convey the sense that there are only certain specific
sizes made and sold. Standards are carefully established specifications for products, materials,
etc.

Standardization means producing maximum variety of products from the minimum variety of
(i.e., standardized) materials, parts, tools and processes. Standardization is one way which leads
to economical products. Standardization usually means that non-standard products will not be

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produced-except when a customer orders them to be made. Standardization is the process of

establishing standards or units of measure by which extent, quality, quantity, value,
performance, etc., may be compared and measured.

➢ Standardization procedure:
Steps involved:
(a) With the help of market research, sales statistics, etc. decide what to sell in future.

(b) Then, define a standard range of products.

(c) From the range, ask the designer to develop minimum variety of components to match the
range.

Introduce new materials, components, etc. if necessary.

An approach to standardization necessitates the classification of materials and component

parts.

➢ Classification:
‘Classification’ is of great value in material and component standardization. Classification aims
at, systematically, grouping items, together by their common features and subdividing them by
their special features. A system of classification and coding is necessary for the design of new
products within the range defined.

➢ Such a system should readily:

(i) Identify and locate identical items.

(ii) Facilitate the use of standard items in new designs.

(iii) Identify substitutes in case of stock outs.

(iv) Help developing Group Technology.

(v) Aid to improve parts location in the store.

➢ Classification procedure involves the following steps:

(i) Define all items.

(ii) Classify each item according to its basic characteristics.

(iii) Identify each item by allocating to it some meaningful code number.

A code consists of letters and numbers. The aim is to classify from general to particular. Taking
an example of grinding wheels for classification and coding purposes, various wheel features
are denoted by letters and numbers. A code is marked on the grinding wheel.

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➢ According to Indian Standard Specifications, for example, a grinding wheel is

specified as follows:

➢ Advantages of standardization:
All sections of a company benefit to some degree from standardization.

1. Design department:
a. Fewer specifications, drawings and part lists have to be prepared and issued.

b. Thus more time is available to develop new designs or to improve established designs.

c. Better resources utilisation.

d. Allocation of work to suit available talent.

e. Lesser design mistakes and design alterations.

f. Less qualified personnel can handle routine design work.

2. Manufacturing department:
a. Lower unit costs.

b. Better quality products.

c. Accurate delivery dates.

d. Better methods and tooling.

e. More effective training.

f. Better services of production control, stock control, purchasing, etc.

g. Fewer tool changes and process set-ups.

h. Increased interchangeability of parts.

i. Better utilisation of manpower and equipment.

j. Longer production runs are possible with fewer changeovers; wider use of automation and
mechanisation.

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k. The operations can be analysed and broken down into short repetitive cycles which can be
easily mastered.

3. Marketing department:
Marketing section gets better quality products of proven design at reasonable prices.This leads
to a greater sales volume.

i. Increased margin of profit.

ii. Less pressure of after-sales-services.

iii. Better product deliveries.

iv. Easy availability of spare parts.

4. Production planning section:
i. Scope for improved methods, processes and layouts.

ii. Opportunities for more efficient tool design.

iii. Greatly reduced pre-production planning activities. Fewer issues of new planning cards.

5. Production control department:

i. Well proven design and methods improve planning and control.

ii. Chasing small batches (of products) consumes less time.

iii. Fewer delays arise from waiting for materials, instructions, tools, etc.

iv. Accurate delivery promises.

6. Purchase and stock control section:

i. Holding stock of standard items, (i.e., less variety of materials and components) means less
paper work and fewer requisitions and orders.

ii. Storage and part location can be improved.

iii. Because of large purchase quantities involved, favourable purchase contacts can be made.

iv. Newer techniques can be used for better control of stocks.

7. Quality control department:

i. Better inspection and quality control is possible.

ii. Operators become familiar with the work and produce jobs of consistent quality.

iii. Quality standards can be more clearly defined.

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8. Work-study section:
i. Efficient break down of (limited) operations into short repetitive cycles and effective work
measurement afford considerable opportunities for work-study.

9. Supervision:
i. All the above points help the supervisor to run his department efficiently and more
effectively.

ii. Less time is wasted in resolving production snags such as wrong information’s, faulty
tooling, etc.

iii. Reduced rejections and scrap.

iv. More time is available to the supervisor to make useful records and preserve statistics.

10. Costing:
i. Costing can obtain better control by installing standard costing.

➢ Disadvantages of standardization:
i. Reduction in choice because of reduced variety and consequent loss of business or custom.

ii. Changes in public taste seriously affect a company producing only standardized product
range.

iii. It becomes difficult to introduce new models because of less flexible (existing) production
facilities and due to the high cost of specialised production equipment.

iv. Standardization tends to favour large famous companies, because small or new concerns
can rarely get much business even by producing same items and by selling them at the same
price as the big companies.

v. Standards once set, resist change and thus standardization may become an obstacle to
progress.

➢ Applications of standardization:
Standardization can be applied to a major extent in the following fields:
1. Finished products, e.g., cars and televisions.

2. Subassemblies and components, e.g., automobile gearboxes and auto-electric bulbs.

3. Material Standardization, e.g., both of direct materials (plain carbon and alloy steels, arc
welding electrode core wires, etc.) and indirect materials (such as oils and greases).

4. Production equipment standardization, e.g., that of machine tools, presses, welding

equipment, etc.

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International standardization:
It becomes very necessary to follow international standards if a country has to capture the
export market. The work of international standardization is carried out under the aegis of ISO
(International Organisation for Standardization). Most industrialized countries are members of
ISO. ISO was founded after World War II. ISO does not issue independent standards of its own
but it makes recommendations which are included in the national Standards of the collaborating
countries.

National standardization:

Every country has its own national standards. Is in India, BS in UK, DIN in Germany are a few
examples of national or home standards.

B. Simplification:
The concept of simplification is closely related to standardization. Simplification is the process
of reducing the variety of products manufactured (known as variety reduction). Simplification
is concerned with the reduction of product range, assemblies, parts, materials and design. A
manufacturer may reduce the number of different types of radio sets from a dozen to three or
four to simplify his range. Simplification makes a product, assembly or design, simpler, less
complex or less difficult.

Simplification removes the superfluous. It decreases variety of sizes; for example a garment
factory making tea-shirts in sizes 16,16¼, 16½ ,16¾ ,17,17¼ etc., can eliminate superfluous
sizes such as 16¼,16¾,17¼, etc., and thus simplify its production line. A production line is
generally simplified when it possesses unnecessary complexity and confusion. Often variety
reduction will reveal that a subassembly or component needs simplification.
➢ Variety reduction:
(i) Variety reduction consists in identifying the existing variety and then removing unnecessary
items from the system.

(ii) Classification and codification help locating and identifying all items (i.e., products,
materials, components, etc.).

The availability of suitable standards assists in simplification.

➢ Considerations in simplifying items (i.e., products, components, etc.):

(i) Can simplification be effectively achieved depending upon the nature of item?

(ii) How the simplification will affect customer demand and volume of sale?

(iii) Does market competition permit simplification or it encourages product diversification?

➢ Advantages:

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Simplification involves fewer, parts, varieties and changes in products; this reduces manufac-
turing operations and risk of obsolescence. Since simplification reduces variety, volume of
remaining products may be increased. Simplification provides quick delivery and better after-
sales service. Simplification reduces inventory and thus results in better inventory control.
Generally speaking, simplification implies fewer parts and fewer the parts, the lower the
production costs. Thus, simplification reduces price of a product. Simplification improves
product quality.

C. Specialization:
Specialization is the natural outcome of the application of standardization and simplification.
Specialization means concentrating efforts on a particular field of action or towards a specific
attempt. A worker is said to be specialized in a work when he acquires skill and proficiency in
it by concentrating solely on it (i.e., on that particular work or job).

A mechanic, brick-layer or an engineer is a specialist in his field. A factory producing spark

plugs only is a specialist in its production. Specialization as applied to human activities on shop
floor can be defined as ‘Division of Labour’. This means that if a worker instead of completing
the full product performs one small operation on the product and attains proficiency in that one
activity, he becomes a specialist in that.

➢ Advantages:
(1) Workers achieve a high state of skill and proficiency.

(2) They take smaller times to complete the activity in which they are specialized.

(3) Thus they raise their salaries and their standard of living.

➢ Limitation:
(1) Specialized labour and equipment are not flexible, i.e., they cannot be used for other
purposes.

(2) Specialization may result in monotony.

➢ Applications:
(1) Specialization is universal in application; it is a rule rather than exception in today’s
industry.

(2) Specialization has been applied to;

(i) Products,

(ii) Processes,

(iii) Individuals,

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(iv) Companies,

(v) Jobs, and

(vi) Equipment, etc.

D. Diversification:
Diversification is just contrary to simplification. Diversification means addition of new
products or introduction of established products into new markets. This tends to increase
complexity of the methods of manufacturing, because, sometimes consumers like to have
variety in type, size, colour and quality of products being manufactured.

This adds to the cost characteristic of the production which is of varied nature. The extent to
which diversification programme can be carried out must be determined by market analysis of
probable volume at varying levels of diversification compared with production cost of the
volumes obtainable at those various levels.

Industries generally expand. An automobile concern may think in terms of diversifying in its
own product lines, an aircraft concern may like to expand in the field of propulsion or
electronics, and so on. Diversification adds to the classes of consumers served, by developing
new technical knowledge.

➢ Reasons for diversification:

Given below are the reasons why companies diversify:
(A) Survival:
i. To offset declining or vanishing markets.

ii. To offset obsolete facilities.

iii. To offset declining profit margins.

iv. To compensate for technological obsolescence.

(B) Stability:
i. To offset seasonal slumps.

ii. To offset cyclical fluctuations.

iii. To provide balance between high margin and low margin products.

iv. To maintain market share.

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v. To meet new products of competitors.

vi. To tie customers to the firm.

vii. To distribute risk by serving several small markets.

viii. To develop a strong competitive supply position by offering several close substitute
products.

(C) Productive utilisation of resources:

i. To utilise waste or by-products.

ii. To make use of basic raw materials.

iii. To utilise excess productive capacity.

iv. To make use of innovations from internal technical research.

v. To make full, use of management resources.

vi. To capitalise on a firm’s market contacts.

(D) Adaptation to change in customer needs:

i. To meet the demands of diversified dealers.

ii. To meet the specific requests of important groups of customers.

iii. To improve performance of existing products through adding accessories.

(E) Growth:
i. To counter market saturation on present products.

ii. To reinvest earnings.

iii. To take advantage of unusually attractive opportunities.

(F) Miscellaneous:
i. To maintain reputation for industrial leadership.

ii. To realise maximum advantages from the tax structure.

iii. To comply with the desires (or whims) of owners or management. Probably the easiest route
to diversification is through merger or acquisition.

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E. Interchangeability:
The system of interchangeable manufacture is considered as the eighth great invention of the
Industrial revolution. The credit to first establish such a system of interchangeable manufacture
in 1798 goes to an American, Eli Whitney, who carried out a contract for ten thousand muskets.

Interchangeable manufacture played an extremely important role in the growth of mass produc-
tion techniques and is very common today. The concepts of specialization, standardization and
simplification are closely inter-related and lead to interchangeability.

Interchangeability or interchangeable manufacture means that any standardized component

will assemble correctly with any mating component, both being chosen at random. For an
interchangeable system to work, the parts produced should be as near identical as possible, and
for continuous production, a transfer line will achieve this best because it eliminates the human
control of the machines. Interchangeability reduces cost because the task of assembly is
simplified. Moreover standard replacement parts can be drawn from the stock with the certainty
that they will fit without alteration.
In order to achieve interchangeability:
(i) Appropriate component tolerances must be specified (from the standard) to suit the type of
fit required.

(ii) Manufacturing process should be selected to make components within the specified toler-
ances.

(iii) A system of inspection and quality control should check that only components within the
specified tolerances are accepted for use.

➢ Elements of interchangeable system:

In interchangeable system is also called a limit system or system of limits and fits. Fig. 5.3
gives the concept of limits, tolerance and allowance.

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The larger and smaller dimensions of the hole or shaft are called the LIMITS; there is a high
limit (HL) and a low limit (LL). The difference between the high and low limits (which is the
margin allowed for variations in workmanship) is known as TOLERANCE (T).

The system is:

unilateral when tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal diameter, e.g., and it is called
bilateral when tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal diameter,

1.10 Difference Between Verification And Validation With Example?

➢ Example of verification and validation are explained below

Suppose we have the specifications related to the project than by checking that
specifications without executing to see whether the specifications are up to the
mark or not is what we have done in verification.

Similarly Validation of the software is done to make sure that the software always
meets the requirements of the customer by executing the specifications of the
project and product.

Note that the customer and end users are concerned in validation of the software.

It is also crucial to differentiate between end users, and customers. Considering

example, if you are developing a library monitoring system, the librarian is the

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client and the person who issue the books, collect fines etc. are comes under the
category of the end users.

➢ Verification and Validation example is also given just below to this table.

Verification Validation

1. Verification is a static practice of 1. Validation is a dynamic mechanism

verifying documents, design, code and of validating and testing the actual
program. product.
2. It does not involve executing the code. 2. It always involves executing the code.

3. It is human based checking of 3. It is computer based execution of

documents and files. program.

4. Verification uses methods like 4. Validation uses methods like black

inspections, reviews, walkthroughs, box (functional) testing, gray box
and Desk-checking etc. testing, and white box (structural)
testing etc.
5. Verification is to check whether the 5. Validation is to check whether
software conforms to specifications software meets the customer
expectations and requirements.
6. It can catch errors that validation 6. It can catch errors that verification
cannot catch. It is low level exercise. cannot catch. It is High Level Exercise.
7. Target is requirements 7. Target is actual product-a unit, a
specification, application and software module, a bent of integrated modules,
architecture, high level, complete and effective final product.
design, and database design etc
8. Verification is done by QA team to 8. Validation is carried out with the
ensure that the software is as per the involvement of testing team.
specifications in the SRS document.
9. It generally comes first-done before 9. It generally follows after verification.
validation.

➢ Methods of Verification
1. Walkthrough
2. Inspection
3. Review

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1.11 Difference Between Product Design and Product Development

➢ Product Development

Product Development is a complete product development cycle from market analysis, product
specifications, concept/industrial design, costing, scheduling, testing, manufacturing,
Logistics, customer feedback, improvements and all other aspects of getting a product into
the market.

Complete product development process includes involvement of marketing, design, purchase,

manufacturing, sales and after sales support team.

➢ Product Design

Product Design is complete product design process that includes product industrial design,
user experience, 3D Cad modelling, design calculations, simulation. Responsibility of a good
product design is to make product working as per design specifications.

➢ Conclusion

Product development process is complete product cycle. Marketing, design, procurement,

manufacturing and development teams work together to make a product successful. Product
design is a part of product development cycle.

1.12 Rapid Prototyping:

Prototype
•Originated from Greek word (1603), prototypon "a first or primitive form,

" Protos“First" + Typos“Form”.

•It is an art of managing expectation.

•An original, full scale, and usually working model of new product or new version of existing
product.

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➢ Introduction
• Rapid prototyping technologies are able to produce physical model in a layer by layer
manner directly from their CAD models without any tools, dies and fixtures and also
with little human intervention.
• RP is capable to fabricate parts quickly with complex shape easily as compared to
traditional manufacturing technology.
• RP helps in earlier detection and reduction of design errors.
➢ All RP techniques employ the basic five-step process.
• Create a CAD model of the design
• Convert the CAD model to STL format
• Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
• Construct the model one layer a-top another
• Clean and finish the model
➢ CAD Model Creation:
• First, the object to be built is modelled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
software package.
• Solid modellers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3-D objects more
accurately than wire-frame modellers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield
better results.
• This process is identical for all of the RP techniques.
➢ Conversion to STL Format:
• The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD file into STL format. This format
represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles
• STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces exactly.
Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation

➢ Slice the STL File:

In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built.
The pre-processing software slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 mm to
0.7 mm thick, depending on the build technique.
The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the build.
Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled
sections.
➢ Layer by Layer Construction:
• The fourth step is the actual construction of the part.
• RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered metal.
• Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention.
➢ Clean and Finish:
• The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the
machine and detaching any supports.
• Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use
• Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment.
• Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and
durability.
➢ Advantages of Rapid Prototyping
• Process is fast and accurate.
• Superior quality surface finish is obtained.

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• Separate material can be used for component and support.

• No need to design jigs and fixtures.
• No need of mould or other tools.
• Post processing include only finishing and cleaning.
• Minimum material wastage.
• Reduces product development time considerably.
➢ Techniques of Rapid Prototyping
• SLA (Stereo Lithography)
• SLS (Selective Laser Sintering)
• LOM (Laminate Object Manufacturing)
• FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling).
➢ Stereolithography(SLA)
• Builds 3D model from liquid photo sensitive polymers when exposed to UV rays.
• Model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface of liquid epoxy or
acrylate resin.
• A low power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying model
cross section.
• An elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer.
• Process is repeated until prototype is complete.
• Model is placed in an UV oven for complete curing.

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➢ Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

• Uses a high power laser and powdered materials.

• A wide variety of materials can be used, ranging from thermoplastic polymers, such
as nylon and polystyrene, to some metals.
• 3D parts are produced by fusing a thin slice of the powdered material onto the layers
below it.
• The surfaces of SLS prototypes are not as smooth as those produced by SLA
processes.
• SLS parts are sufficiently strong and resistant for many functional tests.
➢ Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

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• The powdered material is kept on a delivery platform and supplied to the building
area by a roller.
• For each layer, a laser traces the corresponding shape of the part on the surface of the
building area, by heating the powder until it melts, fusing it with the layer below it.
• The platform containing the part lowers one layer thickness and the platform
supplying the material elevates, providing more material to the system.
• The roller moves the new material to the building platform, levelling the surface, and
the process repeats.
• Some SLS prototype machines use two delivery platforms, one on each side of the
building platform, for efficiency, so the roller can supply material to the building
platform in both directions.

➢ Laminated Object Manufacturing:

• Laminated Object Manufacturing is a relatively low cost rapid prototyping technology

• Thin slices of material (usually adhesively coated paper, plastic or metal) are
successively glued together to form a 3D shape.
• The process uses two rollers to control the supply of paper with heat-activated glue to
a building platform.
• When new paper is in position, it is flattened and added to the previously created
layers using a heated roller.
• The shape of the new layer is traced and cut by a blade or a laser. When the layer is
complete, the building platform descends and new paper is supplied.
• When the paper is in position, the platform moves back up so the new layer can be
glued to the existing stack, and the process repeats.

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➢ Fused Deposition Modeling:

• A numerically controlled extruder head (nozzle) moves in two principle directions

(vertical and horizontal) over a table
• Table can be raised or lowered as needed
• Thermoplastic or metal filament is extruded through the small orifice of heated nozzle
• Initial layer placed on a foam foundation with a constant rate
• Extruder head follows a predetermined path from the file
• After first layer the table is lowered and subsequent layers are formed.

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