BES-143

Pedagogy of
Indira Gandhi
Mathematics
National Open University
School of Education

Block

4
CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II
UNIT 14
Statistics and Probability 5
UNIT 15
Parallel Lines, Parallelograms and Triangles 37
UNIT 16
Trigonometry and its Application 73
UNIT 17
Mensuration and Coordinate Geometry 95
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary School of Humanities
Education, NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri Sanskrit IGNOU, New Delhi
Vidhyapeeth, New Delhi
Prof. M. C. Sharma
Prof. Parvin Sinclair (Programme Coordinator- B.Ed.)
Former Director, NCERT School of Education
School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Gaurav Singh
Prof. Aejaz Mashih (Programme Co-coordinator-B.Ed.)
Faculty of Education School of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Pratyush Kumar Mandal
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SOE)

Prof. D. Venkateswarlu Dr. Bharti Dogra
Prof. Amitav Mishra Dr. Vandana Singh
Ms. Poonam Bhushan Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Dr. Niradhar Dey
Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Reddy

Course Coordinators : Prof. M.C. Sharma, SOE, IGNOU

Dr. Anjuli Suhane, SOE, IGNOU
COURSE TEAM
Course Contribution Content Editing
Unit 14 Prof. K.K. Vashistha
Adopted from ES-342 and major trasformation by Former Dean
Dr. Anjuli Suhane Department of Elementary Education
NCERT, New Delhi
Unit 15
Language Editing
Adopted From ES-342
Prof. Amitav Mishra
Assistant Professor
Unit 16
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
Ms. Vandita Kalra
PGT (Maths), Govt. Sr. Sec. School, New Delhi Format Editing
Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Unit 17 Assistant Professor
Ms. Vandita Kalra SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
and
Proof Reading
Sh. Ajith Kumar
Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Assistant Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi

PRODUCTION
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director Assistant Registrar (Publication)
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi

April, 2017
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l10068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi.
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Course : BES-143 Pedagogy of Mathematics

BLOCK 1: UNDERSTANDING THE DISCIPLINE OF MATHEMATICS

Unit 1 Nature and Scope of Mathematics
Unit 2 Aims and Objectives of Teaching -Learning Mathematics
Unit 3 How Children Learn Mathematics
Unit 4 Mathematics in School Curriculum

BLOCK 2: TEACHING -LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

Unit 5 Approaches and Strategies for Learning Mathematics
Unit 6 Organizing Teaching-Learning Experiences
Unit 7 Learning Resources and ICT for Mathematics Teaching-Learning
Unit 8 Assessment in Mathematics
Unit 9 Professional Development of Mathematics Teacher

BLOCK 3: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I

Unit 10 Number System, Number Theory, Exponents and Logarithms
Unit 11 Polynomials: Basic Concepts and Factoring
Unit 12 Linear Equations, Inequations and Quadratic Equations
Unit 13 Sets, Relations, Functions and Graphs

BLOCK 4 : CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II

Unit 14 Statistics and Probability
Unit 15 Parallel Lines, Parallelograms and Triangles
Unit 16 Trigonometry and its Application
Unit 17 Mensuration and Coordinate Geometry
 BLOCK 4 CONTENT BASED
METHODOLOGY -II

Block Introduction
The course BES-143: Pedagogy of Mathematics contains four blocks. This is
the fourth block which is titled Content based Methodology-II. The third and
fourth blocks focus on content/concepts. In both the blocks, teaching-learning
process and different modes of evaluation of these concepts have been
discussed. Different aspects of Statistics, Probability, Geometry, Trigonometry,
Coordinate Geometry and Mensuration are discussed in this block. This block
consists of four units.
Unit 14: Statistics and Probability
Unit 15: Parallel Line, Parallelogram and Triangles
Unit 16: Trigonometry and its Application
Unit 17: Mensuration and Coordinate Geometry
We can not imagine any news bulletin without reference to the inflation rate, index
numbers, industrial and agricultural growth rates ,etc. We all come across some
tables, graphs, charts etc., while going through newspaper and news channel of
television. Graph and charts are the pictorial presentation of data and this is the one
of the key aspect of statistics. Thus the Unit 14 discusses the important concepts
of statistics and probability and its application in day-to-day life.

The systematic study of geometry helps in developing logical thinking and increase
the power to analyze things. So the Unit 15 is devoted to develop geometrical
concepts by the children. Parallel lines, parallelograms, concepts of congruence and
the similarity of geometrical figures are dealt in this Unit.

Unit 16 presents a brief discussion of the basic concepts of trigonometry and their
application in solving problems of 'heights and distances'.

Unit 17 'Mensuration and Coordinate Geometry' basically have two sections one
is Mensuration and other is Coordinate Geometry. Mensuration is the branch of
Mathematics which deals with length of lines, area of surfaces and volume of solids.
This Unit is devoted to the study of mensuration. The formulae for finding the area
of different plane figures and the volume of different types of solids discusses with
their application. In the other section of this Unit basics of coordinate geometry;
distance and section formula and its applications are discussed.

After going through this block, you will be able to describe and explain the need
and ways of teaching-learning Statistics, Probability, Geometry, Trigonometry,
Coordinate geometry and Mensuration to the tender minds and you will also be
able to appreciate the practical applications of these branches of Mathematics.

4
 Statistics and
UNIT 14 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY Probability

Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 A Brief Look at Statistics
14.3.1 What are Statistics?
14.3.2 Why do We Use Statistics?
14.4 Collecting Data
14.4.1 Data and its Sources
14.5 Organising Data
14.5.1 Pictorial Presentation
14.5.2 Handling Large Data
14.6 Interpreting Data
14.6.1 Measures of Central Tendency
14.6.2 Measures of Dispersion – Range, Mean Deviation , Standard Deviation
14. 7 Probability and its Applications
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Unit End Activities
14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
14.11 References and Suggested Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern age is known as information age. Lots of information comes in
numbers. Information involving numbers which we come across is known as
data. Statistics is a branch of Mathematics which deals with collection,
organization and interpretation of data. By using Statistics we get specific trend
or pattern of data. From theses trends or patterns, we derive some predictive
inferences which may or may not be completely true, On the basis of these
inferences we hope that an event occur in certain way. And probability says
simply how likely something is to happen. Whenever we’re unsure about the
outcome of an event, we can talk about the probabilities of certain outcomes—
how likely they are. Mathematics teachers have special role in this field. It is
not just a matter of teaching few topics listed under the title ‘Statistics and
Probability’. Children need to understand these topics in relation to whatever is
happening in society around them. So the unit provides opportunities to involve
students in enjoyable and challenging activities – collecting data, presenting
them in the form of graphs and summarizing them in terms of average (mean),
median and mode. Such data may be in respect of some activity in which
students normally get interested. The unit also provides opportunities to
involve students in various activities that help them to understand the concept
of probability and its applications in day-to-day life.

5
Content Based
Methodology-II
14.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• illustrate the meaning of Statistics and its importance in everyday life
situations;
• help students in identification which graphic representation best suits a
given set of data;
• help students in organization of given data in suitable class intervals;
• enable students to calculate mean, median and mode of raw as well as
grouped data;
• understand the concept and importance of probability; and
• explain and design learning activities that help to transact various concepts
of statistics and probability.

14.3 A BRIEF LOOK AT STATISTICS

14.3.1 What are Statistics?
Main Teaching Point: Statistics deal with the collection, presentation and
interpretation of data.
Teaching-Learning Process: The topic should be introduced to students by
raising questions which require the collection of data in a real life situation.
The data collected would also need to be organized in some manner to be able
to answer the questions raised. Here is an illustration:
Ask: Suppose we need the following information about the students in class:
a) the height of the tallest student
b) the height of the shortest student
c) the difference in their heights
d) the height which the maximum number of students have
e) the number of students who are taller than the height which the
maximum number of students has
f) the number of students who are shorter than the height which the
maximum number of students has.
The answer you may get is that they would make all the students stand in a line
according to increasing or decreasing height and identify the tallest and shortest
students. But then, can we answer questions (a) and (b) unless we measure
their heights? Certainly, not. To answer all the above questions, we need to
measure the heights of all the students in the class.
You, as a teacher, should point out at this stage that the information we get by
measuring their heights is called data, that is in the language of Statistics. Data
are a number of facts. Data is the plural of the Latin word ‘datum’ which
means ‘fact’. Measuring and noting down the heights of the students is called
the process of data collection.
Suppose as a result of collecting the data, we get the heights of 45 students in a
class as under:

6
 Heights (in cm.) of 45 studentsof a class Statistics and
Probability
140 142 143.5 140.5 150 149 148.5 148 141
148 148.5 152 153 150.5 147 146 142.5 148
152.5 154.5 155 153.5 152.5 149 147 146 156
152 148 143 149 144 150 152 153 154
156 153 154.5 154 147 148 146 153 154
Ask the students to answer the questions raised. It may still be difficult for
them to answer those questions quickly. Lead the students to realize that they
can answer the questions faster if the data are organized in some manner. Since
the questions relate to a comparison of heights, the best way to organize the
data is to write the heights in increasing or decreasing order. Then see the
following table:

Heights (in cm.) of 45 students of a class

(arranged in ascending order)
140 140.5 141 142 142.5 143 143.5 144 146
146 146 147 147 147 148 148 148 148
148 148.5 148.5 149 149 149 150 150 150.5
151 152 152 152 152.5 152.5 153 153 153
153 153.5 154 154 154 154.5 154.5 155 156
Having organized the data as shown above, it is now easy to get the
information sought. Answering the questions and inferring other results from
the organized data comes under the domain of interpretation of data.
Thus, statistics is a branch of mathematics which deals with collection,
organization, and interpretation of data. The teacher will do well to tell the
students that interpretation of data involves much more than answering simple
questions such as those related above. It includes prediction, testing of
assumptions made etc.
Methodology Used: Mainly the discussion method is used to discuss the nature
of statistics.

14.3.2 Why do We Use Statistics?

Main Teaching Point: Understanding the need to use statistics in various real
life situations.
Teaching-Learning Process: Ask the students to visualize the situations in
which some data are needed to answer the questions posed. Let them start
exploring their immediate environment : the school, the home, the community,
the market place, busy thoroughfares, industry, etc. Here are some situations:
1) Is the class doing better in Mathematics than in English?
2) If the school is co-educational, are the girls doing better in Mathematics
than the boys in the class?
3) Is one section doing better than the other in some particular subject?
4) What is the average height of students in the class?
7
Content Based 5) What is the average age of students in the class?
Methodology-II
6) Has the school been improving its performance in the Board’s
examinations in the course of past ten years? (This will require a
determination of indicators of performance and weights to be attached to
these indicators).
7) Which size of shoes are sold the most (data may have to be collected for at
least 10 to 15 days from a shop).
8) The number of vehicles per minute passing at a busy intersection of roads
during different parts of the day (the survey may be extended to include
different types of vehicles such as passenger cars, auto-rickshaws, tempos,
two-wheelers, trucks, buses).
9) The average salary of workers in a factory.
10) The expenditure on advertisement and the corresponding sale over a
period of time (this leads to the study of regression that the business
houses use to plan advertisement expenditure as a measure of sales
promotion).
Listing various situations which require the use of Statistics (collecting,
presenting and interpreting data) could be a useful group activity where a group
proposes a number of situations, they discuss and modify.
Methodology Used: The discussion method is most suitable.

14.4 COLLECTING DATA

14.4.1 Data and its Sources
Main Teaching Point: Meaning of the word data, understanding about
collection of data and primary and secondary data
Teaching-Learning Process: By now students would have realized that the
situations listed above or those proposed by them require collection of some
information to be in order to answer the questions raised. Generally, the
information collected would be quantitative in nature but sometimes it might be
qualitative also such as the degree of darkness of films put on glass panes,
shades of colour of different objects from violet to red.
The information collected in each case constitutes the “data” for that particular
study.
Nowexplain to the students that the set of objects or persons from whom
data are collected from the population for that study. When data are
collected directly from the elements of the population, it is called ‘primary
data’. However, many a times, the data already available as part of earlier data
collection for some bigger project or as a matter of routine exercise, these data
can be utilized and it is referred as ‘secondary source’, and not collected
directly from the population.
If we are assessing the relative performance of the students of a class in English
and Mathematics, then we may not go to the students to collect their marks
because they would be available in the school records i.e. secondary source.
If we are collecting information about the sale of shoes of different sizes at a
particular shoe store for a period of two weeks, we need not to sit for two
weeks at the store and record each sale. Instead, we can get the information
from the stock register maintained at the store.
8
If we are making a study of the rural-urban population shift in the country over Statistics and
a period of fifty years, it would be impossible to collect the data from the Probability
primary source, but the information may be collected from the records
maintained with the Census Commissioner of India, i.e. from a secondary
source.
These examples illustrate the importance of secondary data. In fact, in modern
days, every government lays emphasis on data collection. The population
census helps the government to observe the rural-urban shift, the birth rate and
the death rate, the growth rate of population, infant mortality, life expectancy
etc.
Data on tax collection, exports and imports, production, GDP (Gross Domestic
Product), etc. help the government to plan strategies, the tax structure,
incentives and taxation policies.
Divide the students in group of four or five each. Let each group undertake a
project on data collection. You should help each group refine its project and
determine the line of action to be followed. A number of projects arise out of
questions posed under sub-section 14.3.2. ‘Why do we study Statistics’? Here
are a few more possible projects.
1) The most common letter in five pages of your English textbook.
2) The most common length of words in seven pages of a book.
3) Rolling a die 100 times and noting the number of times each score is
obtained.
Methodology Used: The discussion method is used.

14.5 ORGANISING DATA

14.5.1 Pictorial Presentation
Main Teaching Point: Includes a) Bar Chart b) Pie Chart c) Pictogram
Teaching-Learning Process: Suppose a group of students undertake a project
to find out how the students of their class travel to school. Their findings are:
Using the school bus .. … … 20
Using public transport . … … 10
Cycling to their school … .. 4
Taken by their parents in a car .. .. .. 2
Taken by their parents on a two wheeler … .. . 7
Walking to the school .. … .. 2
Total students 45

Let’s see how best these data can be depicted pictorially.

Bar Chart: One way is to use a bar chart. As the name suggests, the bar chart
consists of bars of equal thickness (why?), with the length/height being
proportional to the quantity the bars represent.

Here is the bar chart depicting the above information.

9
Content Based
Methodology-II
How the students come to school
20

Mode of transport used by students

Note that:
i) The bar-chart has a heading.
ii) Sub-divisions are made on the vertical axis, using a suitable scale
(suitable means that the scale is so chosen that the space on the graph
paper is optimally used by the given data).
iii) Bars are of equal thickness and do not touch each other (see next
example).
iv) Each bar is assigned a heading to denote what it represents.
v) The height of each bar represents the number it is supposed to represent.
Bars could be drawn horizontally also. Then the numbering would be on the
horizontal axis.
Sometimes, the numerical scale may not begin from zero. This is particularly
so if the change in the values of the variable is not large yet we want to depict
the data vividly. Consider the day to day price variation for 10 gm. of standard
gold over a period of one week in a certain city.

Price of 10 gm of standard gold

Rupees

10 January
 Date Price (per 10 gm) (in Rs.) Statistics and
Probability
11.1.15 26700
12.1.15 26900
13.1.15 27050
14.1.15 26700
15.1.15 26500
16.1.15 26600
17.1.15 26600
Ask the students to visualize what practical problem will arise if we were to
start the scale from 0 instead of 26,000.
Sometimes, we need to make a comparative chart about two elements, such as
exports/imports of a certain commodity over a period of time. Then, two bars
may be drawn side by side for each unit of time.
The accompany diagram represents inflation rates in the consumer price index
and the wholesale price index for a number of countries for June 2014 over
June 2013.
City Consumer Price Index Wholesale Price Index
U.S. 2.5 0
U.K. 2.6 2
JAPAN 0.8 -1.9
GERMANY 2.9 1.8
FRANCE 1.8 -1.5
INDIA 10.5 10.2

Inflation Rates

Figures in Percentage for June 2014 over June 2013

11
Content Based Wholesale prices are stable in the US, and are falling in Japan and France. In
Methodology-II India, however, they have risen by 10.2 percent when computed on an annual
basis. Sure, the weak rupee is still protecting exports, but the exchange rate is
also under strain at the moment.

An accompanying ability to draw bar charts is the ability to read and interpret a
given bar chart. Present a few bar charts in the class and ask the students to
describe what the bar charts show and what information can be derived from
the same.

Pie Chart: Explain to the students that another mode of representing data is
through the use of a pie chart (also called circle graph). The entire circle is
taken to represent one whole and all the constituents of the entire data are
represented proportionally in the pie chart.

Ask the students to suggest a method to determine the proportion.

If an answer is not forthcoming straightaway, suggest that the angle around the
centre of a circle is 360°. If we divide a circle into four equal parts by drawing
two mutually perpendicular diameters, we get four quadrants. Each quadrant is
1/4 of the circle and the angle made by the two arms of a quadrant is also 1/4 of
the entire angle i.e., it is 90°. Similarly, a semi-circle divides the circle into
two equal parts and the angle of 360° is also divided into two halves.
Encourage the students to use their intuition to devise a method to make
proportional parts of a circle.

The following table depicts to the ‘mode of transport used by students to reach
the school’ problem.

Angle in Approximate %
Mode of Transport Number the Sector of the whole
School bus 20 160° 44.5%
Public transport 10 80° 22.2%
Cycle transport 4 32° 8.9%
Parent's car 2 16° 4.4%
Parent's two-wheeler 7 56° 15.6%
Walking 2 16° 4.4%

Total 45 360° 100%

A pie chart depicting the above information will look like the following figure.

12
 Students using different modes of transport Statistics and
Probability

Note that while we construct a pie-chart using the idea of angles (since
protractor helps us in constructing it), the magnitude of each item is described
in terms of percent as shown.
Constructing a pie chart involves the following steps:
1) Work out the angle of the sector and approximate per cent of each item in
the data.
2) Draw a circle and construct sectors using the sectoral angle.
3) Label each sector and write the per cent of the whole.
Ask the students to practice drawing pie charts for given data.

Pictogram: Sometimes the picture of an object is used to display information.

For example, if we want to depict pictorially the production of cycles in the
country over a number of years, we choose a suitable scale such as one cycle
representing 1 lakh cycles and draw the required number of cycles. The last
cycle representing some fraction of a lakh will be drawn only partly in the
same proportion. Sometimes, a dotted outline may be given to complete the
picture. A pictorial representation of this type is called a pictogram.

Example: The production of motor cars in a certain country over a period of

five years is shown by the following table:

Year No. of Cars(in ten thousand)

2012 3
2013 5.5
2014 6
2015 7.5
2016 8

Taking one car to represent ten thousands, we can depict the above information
in a pictogram as shown:

13
Content Based 2012
Methodology-II
2013

2014

2015

2016

Production of Cars
= ten thousand
Methodology used: To draw figures is a skill which is developed by practice.
A sufficient number of exercises should be provided to the students.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) The expenditure on health care by the Government of India during the
first six five year plans is shown below:
Plan Expenditure
(inCroresRs.)
First 90
Second 160
Third 250
Fourth 400
Fifth 800
Sixth 1900
Total 3600
Construct a pie chart to depict the above information.

14
2) The number of schools of different types in Delhi in the year 2016 were Statistics and
Probability
as follows:
Primary 2500
Upper Primary 500
Secondary 1000
Higher Secondary 2000
Total 6000
Illustrate by representing this information on a bar chart.

14.5.2 Handling Large Data

Main Teaching Points: Class intervals and Constructing grouped frequency
distribution and their graphical representation.
Teaching-Learning Process: So far we have restricted ourselves to
representation of data which are not very large. You may now confront
students with large data and ask them to represent them by a bar chart or in
some other manner.
Ask: Suppose that a factory has 200 workers. You are provided with data about
their monthly pay packet. You are now asked to represent it by a bar chart.
How will you do it?
The students would obviously realize that it is futile to think of constructing
200 bars to represent pay packets of 200 persons. Therefore, the next best
option is to group together those persons whose salaries are close to some
convenient figure, deviating from it by small amounts only. In other words, we
choose a class of persons whose salaries lie in a small interval around that
convenient figure. We make a number of such intervals. Now a host of
questions arise. How do we go about constructing such class intervals? How
many class intervals should we have? Once a person is included in a class
intervals, can we still get the information about his individual packet? The
teacher will need to discuss these points one by one with the students.
Suppose the highest salary that a worker of the factory gets is Rs.11,500 per
month and the lowest salary a worker gets is Rs.8,000. We need to divide this
salary range into a suitable number of class intervals. In this case, we have the
range from Rs.8,000 to Rs.11,500. The number of intervals should not be too
small or too large. Generally, this number should lie between 5 and 15.
15
Content Based The intervals should be equal in size. From Rs.8,000 to Rs.11,500, as a range
Methodology-II of Rs.3,500, we may make seven intervals of class size of 500 each. The
number of workers who fall in one particular class interval is called the
frequency of that class interval. To determine the frequency of each class
interval we mark a tally for each person in that class, till all the data are
exhausted. Explain to the students the mode of putting the tallies in groups
of five tallies to facilitate counting.
Class mark, Frequency, Cumulative frequency
Suppose that the data about 200 workers of the factory is classified as below:

Cumulative
Class Intervals Tallies Frequency Frequency
8,000 – 8,500 33 33

8,500 – 9,000 30 63

9,000 – 9,500 32 95

9,500 – 10,000 28 123

10,000 – 10,500 25 148

10,500 – 11,000 27 175

11,000 – 11,500 25 200

Total 200

Note that:
i) the upper limit of each class interval appears again as the lower limit of the
next interval. Where data are so classified, the overlapping limit is
included only as the lower limit of the next interval so that there is no
ambiguity.
ii) Cumulative frequency is the progressive total all the frequencies up to that
class interval. Interpreted in physical terms, cumulative frequency such as
123 means that there are a total of 123 persons up to that class interval.
Ease of calculation vs. loss of accuracy
Having classified all the data as above, an important question arises, from the
data can we tell the salary of any particular worker of the factory?

The only thing we can say is that his salary lies in some particular income
bracket. If we are required to calculate the entire monthly salary bill of the
workers, we cannot go so unless we make an assumption. This important
assumption is that all the persons in any particular class interval are supposed
to be drawing a salary midway between the upper and lower limits of that class
interval. This mid-value is called the “class mark” for that class.

Thus, 33 persons are supposed to be drawing a salary of Rs.(8,000 + 8,500)/2 =

Rs.8,250 each. 30 persons are supposed to be drawing a salary of Rs.(8,500 +
9,000)/2 = Rs.8,750 each, and so on.

Ask the students to guess how much inaccuracy this will lead in the total
salary. It will be difficult for them to answer it. The teacher should then point
out that 33 persons in the first class interval will include persons some of those
16 salaries would be below the class mark and some whose salaries are above.
The negative and positive deviations may balance each other to a good extent Statistics and
and only a small inaccuracy may enter in the total bill. The inaccuracy may be Probability
negligible compared to the total bill and the advantage of each calculation may
far outweigh the little error.
Histogram, Frequency Polygon, Ogive
There are alternative modes of representation of data other than the bar chart,
the pie chart and the pictogram. The histogram is closest to a bar graph. If the
bars in a graph are drawn touching each other, then we get a histogram.
Highlight the major differences between a bar chart and a histogram. They are:
i) The histogram is drawn when a frequency distribution is given.
ii) In a bar graph the lengths of the bars are proportional to the frequency,
whereas in a histogram the area of the rectangle is proportional to the
frequency. Clarify this using an example with unequal class intervals.

In a mid-points of the upper side of the bars are joined by straight lines and the
lies reach up to the base on either side, then we get a polygon. Each vertex of
this polygon has coordinates equal to the mid-value of any interval and the
corresponding frequency. In the adjoining diagram, B has coordinates (8250,
33).
Histogram and Frequency Polygon

This represents the statement that the number of persons drawing a salary of
Rs.8250 per month (as per our assumption) is 33. The polygon ABCDEFGHI
is called frequency polygon for this data (distribution).

Note that:

i) B has been joined to A and H to I in the polygon. To locate A and I, we

take the mid-points of the preceding and succeeding class intervals, i.e. of
7500-8000 and 11500-12000. Since the frequencies in these two intervals
are zero, A and I lie on x-axis.

ii) If the points from A to I are joined by a free hand curve, the curve is called
the frequency curve.

17
Content Based If both the histogram and the frequency polygon are to be drawn, then it is
Methodology-II advisable first to draw the histogram and then join the mid-points of the tops of
the rectangles of the histogram to get the frequency polygon as shown above.
However, if only the frequency polygon is to be drawn, then first represent the
class marks along the x-axis and frequencies along the y-axis and then plot the
corresponding points and finally join them.

Ogive: An ogive is a graph of cumulative frequency distribution. It is also

called frequency distribution curve.

To draw a cumulative frequency distribution curve, we plot the points with the
upper limits of the classes on the x-axis and the corresponding cumulative
frequencies on the y-axis.

Ask the students to explain why we take the upper limits and not the class-
mark (mid point of the class interval). Also ask them to explain why ogive is a
rising curve.

The reason for taking the upper limit of each class is the fact that persons
getting salaries within any class interval are actually spread over the whole
class and we take off persons who are getting salaries upto the upper limit
(cumulative frequency taken).
Ogive is a rising curve because the cumulative frequency goes on increasing
with each class.
(Note: In the foregoing diagram, the ogive looks like a straight line since the
frequencies in each class are very close to each other. But this may not always
be the case).
Ask the students to practice drawing the Ogive in all problems where they were
asked to draw a histogram. They should practice both with or without the
histogram.

Methodology Used: The discussion method is used with numerous illustrations.

18
Check Your Progress Statistics and
Probability
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.
3) Draw histogram and an ogive for the following data. Explain the steps
involved in plotting histogram and ogive.
Marks No. of students
0-100 10
100-200 18
200-300 30
300-400 35
400-500 32
500-600 20
600-700 15
Total 160

14.6 INTERPRETING DATA

14.6.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Main Teaching Points: a) Mean, b) Mode, and c) Median

Teaching-Learning Process: In the preceding sections 14.4 and 14.5, we

discussed how we collect and display information. Let us now examine some
of the ways of selecting a typical value to represent such information.
We go back to the first example in which we collected the heights of the 45
students of a class. Ask the students how they would choose one of the heights
to represent all others.
There could be a number of suggestions such as:
i) Choose the height that most students have.
ii) Let all the students stand in increasing order and choose the middle most
students, i.e. the 23rd from either side. This suggestion is equivalent to
arranging the numbers representing the heights in increasing order and
then choosing the middle-most value. 19
Content Based iii) Add all the heights and divide the sum by the number of students, i.e., 45.
Methodology-II
There might be a suggestion to choose the greatest height or the smallest height
but hopefully it will not find favour with most students. If we look at the
organized data, we notice that:
i) The height of the most students is 148 cm.
ii) The middle most height is 149 cm.
iii) The sum of heights = 6709.5 and average height is 6709.5/45 = 149.1.

The teacher should explain that the value of the variable which occurs most
number of times is called the ‘mode’ of the data or commonly occurring value
in a data is called mode. The middle-most number after rearranging in
increasing or decreasing order is called the ‘median’ and the sum divided by
the number of observations is called the ‘mean or arithmetic mean’.Or we can
say
Mean= Sum of observations / Number of observations
Let us consider an example to understand mean, median and mode:

Example1 : The numbers of children in 15 families of a locality are as follows:

2,3,2,4,2,2,2,2,0,2,1,3,3,2,0.

Calculate mean, median and mode of above data.

Sum of observations
Mean =
Number of observations
(2 + 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 0)
=
15
30
= =2
15
On arranging above data in ascending order, we get
0,0,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,4
Here total observation is 15 and 2 lies in middle of observed data. So ‘2’ is the
median value.
From the above data we can observe that 9 families have ‘2’ children. So ‘2’ is
the mode value.
Now pose the following situations:

Situation (a): If there were an even number of observations such as 40, how
would you find the middle-most value?

Explain: In case of even number of observations, we take the average of two

middle-most values.
Let us take an example
Example 2: To find median of 3,5,2,6,9,7.
On arranging this data in ascending order, we get
2,3,3,5,7,9

20
Now we have even number of observations in the above data. So we take two Statistics and
middle values to find median. Probability

Here two middle values are 3 and 5. Now there mean value is (3+5)/2 = 8/2 = 4
So 4 is the median of the above collected data.

Situation (b): If there were more than one number occurring an equal number
of times, which one would you call mode?

Explain: In case of most common values, we call it a biomodal distribution (bi

mean two).

Situation(c): If the data was grouped in class intervals, how would you
calculate the median of the data?

Explain: Let us see how to obtain the median in this situation. Consider a
grouped frequency distribution of marks obtained, out of 50 , by 50 students, in
a certain examination, as follows.

Marks in Hindi Frequency

1 – 10 8
11 – 20 14
21 – 30 12
31 – 40 9
41 – 50 7

Step 1: Construct the cumulative frequency distribution.

Step 2: Decide the median class interval.

The median class interval is the corresponding class where the median (n/2)
value falls.

Step 3: Find the median by using the following formula:

æn ö
ç - F ÷÷
hç
Median= Lm + è ø
2
fm
n = the total frequency
F = the cumulative frequency before median class interval
h = the class width
fm= the frequency of the median class interval
Lm= the lower boundary of the median class interval

Marks in Hindi Frequency Cumulative Frequency

1 – 10 8 8
11 – 20 14 22
21 – 30 12 34
31 – 40 9 43
41 – 50 7 50 21
Content Based n/2=50/2=25 so the median class is 21–30.
Methodology-II
F = 22, h = 10, fm= 12 and Lm= 20.5
æn ö
h çç - F ÷÷
Median= Lm + è ø
2
fm
10 ( 25 − 22)
= 20.5 +
12
=20.5+ 2.5
=23
Situation(d): If the data was grouped in class intervals, how would you
calculate the mean of the data?

Explain :Ifx1, x2,. . ., xn are observations with respective frequencies f1, f2, . . .,
fn, then thismeans observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2 times, and so on.
Now, the sum of the values of all the observations = f1x1 + f2x1 + . . . + fnxn,
and the number of observations = f1 + f2 + . . . + fn. So mean (which is denoted
by x ) is given by x = å i i
xf
å fi
Let us see an example.
Marks in Hindi Frequency (fi) Class mark (xi) fixi
(Class Interval)
1 – 10 8 5 40
11 – 20 14 15 210
21 – 30 12 25 300
31 – 40 9 35 315
41 – 50 7 45 315
Total 50 1180

x= åx fi i

åf i

= 1180/50
=23.6

Assign a few problems to the class to find mean, mode and median.
Explain the role of the assumed mean to facilitate calculation and explain
X = a + å i i where a = assumed mean, h is the size of class interval and
h xf
å fi
x −a
ui = i
h
xif1 as general notations for different values of x and f should be explained
when they are first introduced.

22
Ask the students about how to choose the assumed mean. Let them realize the Statistics and
importance of choosing a value somewhere mid-way in the grouped Probability
distribution data so that some u are negative and others are positive giving
å u if i equal to a very small number.
Let the students discuss the following problems:
1) If each observation of some data is increased (or decreased) by 5, what
happens to the mean and median?
2) If each observation of some data is multiplied (or divided) by 2, what
happens to the mean?
3) If one of the observations of a data consisting of 10 values is wrongly
copied as 65 in place of 25, will the true mean increase or decrease and by
how much?
4) Show that:
Mean, mode and median are called ‘measures of the central tendency’ of a
distribution.
Methodology Used: Mostly discussion method is used to transact the meaning
and calculation of Central Tendencies. However, many examples should be
given to illustrate the points.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
4) Find the mean of the first ten odd numbers.
..................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
5) Find the mode of the following data:
6, 3, 5, 6, 4, 7, 4, 6, 8, 9, 6, 3
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
23
Content Based
Methodology-II 6) a) Find the median of the following data:
36, 37, 41, 18, 17, 12, 21, 24, 33, 32, 28
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
b) Find the median of the following data:
85, 68, 63, 70, 82, 78, 64, 60
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
7) Find the mean of the following data:
Marks No. of students
0-10 7
10 - 20 10
20 - 30 15
30 - 40 8
40 - 50 10

14.6.2 Measures of Dispersion – Range, Mean Deviation,

Standard Deviation
Main Teaching Points: a) Range, b) Deviation Mean, and c) Standard
deviation
Teaching-Learning Process: Another important characteristics of new
distribution is the spread or range of data.
24
Let the students consider the performance of two students. A and B in their Statistics and
monthly tests in Mathematics. Probability

Student/Test I II III IV V Total

A 15 24 40 9 32 120
B 28 30 24 18 20 120
The mean score of each of them is 24.
The highest score of A is 40 and lowest 9.
The highest score of B is 30 and lowest 18.

Thus, the students are likely to observe that although A might be sharper, yet
he is not consistent. B may not be as sharp as A but he is consistent.

Similarly, if two classes have the same mean score but the range (or spread) of
the marks of one is largest compared to that of the other, than the latter may be
treated as a better class.

If the per capita income of two countries A and B is the same but there is a
wide variation in the highest and lowest income group of country A than in
country B, then A has more poor people and the disparities in income in A are
higher than in B.

Range or spread is an important indicator of any distribution. It is called a

“measure of dispersion” (i.e. how much the data is dispersed). We shall
consider two more measures of dispersion.

Mean Deviation: We have seen that the mean is an important representative

of any given distribution. Some observations will be less than the mean and
some will be more than if such that å (x i - x) = 0 . To find out the average
deviation from the mean we take the absolute deviation and find out its
average. In case of ungrouped data.

å (x- x)
2
i
Mean deviation =
n
Standard Deviation: Standard deviation is the most important and most
frequently used measure of dispersion. It is denoted by σ (sigma)
å(x - x)
2

s= i

However, the working formula is s = åx 2

i
æå xi ö 2
-ç
ç ÷÷
n è n ø
It can be easily shown that the first formula simplifies into the second.
To find σ we arrange the data in a tabular form as below.

Example: Find the standard deviation of the following distribution 6, 8, 9, 10,

12, 11, 7, 8, 10, 9

25
Content Based
xi x i2
Methodology-II
6 36 2 2

8 64 σ = ∑x i
−  ∑ i 
 x 
n  n 
9 81
10 100 840  90 
2

12 144 = − 
10  10 
11 121
7 49 = 84 − 9 2
8 64 = 84 − 81
10 100 = 3
9 81 = 1.732
90 840
The teacher should discuss with the students the method of finding standard
deviation for grouped data and the short cut method to minimize lengthy
calculations.
Methodology Used: Again,we mostly depend on discussion with the students
to teach the concept of dispersion and use the drill method to provide sufficient
practice in the use of the formulae.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
8. List the steps involved in finding the spread and standard deviation for
the following data:
5, 10, 12, 7, 8, 6, 15, 17, 1, 19
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9. Finding the standard deviation of the first ten natural numbers.
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
26
14.7 PROBABILITY AND ITS APPLICATIONS Statistics and
Probability

Main Teaching Point: a) Concept of Probability, b) Formula for measures of

Probability, c) Types of Events and Probability, and d) Applications of
Probability in daily life
Teaching-Learning Process: You can start this topic through a discussion or
by organizing an activity.
Ask to students that if a spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow, blue, green
and red, what are the chances of landing on yellow after spinning the spinner?

The answer you may get that the chances of landing on yellow are 1 in 4, or one
fourth. Then you can ask what are the chances of landing on red. Then students
may tell that the chances of landing on red are also 1 in 4, or one fourth.
Now you can introduce them the concept of probability. Explain them
whenever we’re unsure about the outcome of an event, we can talk about the
probabilities of certain outcomes—how likely they are. Probability is simply
how likely something is to happen. It is a branch of Mathematics that is capable
of calculating the chance or likelihood of an event will occur.Probability has a
scientific basis and if you have 10 likelihoods and you want to calculate the
probability of 1 event taking place, it is said that its probability is 1/10 or the
event has a 10% probability of taking place.
Probability of an event happening = Number of ways it can happen /Total
number of outcomes
The probability of an event is shown using ‘P’ and P(A) means ‘Probability of
Event A’.
Some words have special meaning in Probability.

Definition Example

An experiment is a situation involving In the activity 1, the experiment is

chance or probability that leads to results spinning the spinner.
called outcomes.

An outcome is the result of a single trial of The possible outcomes are landing
an experiment. on yellow, blue, green or red.

An event is one or more outcomes of an One event of this experiment is

experiment. landing on blue.

Probability is the measure of how likely The probability of landing on blue

an event is. is one fourth.
27
Content Based Let us take a few examples to understand concept of probability.
Methodology-II
Example: What is the chances of rolling a "4" with a die?
Students may come like that
Number of ways it can happen: 1 (there is only 1 face with a ‘4’ on it)
Total number of outcomes: 6 (there are 6 faces altogether)
So the probability = 1/6
Example: Tickets numbered 1 to 20 are mixed up and then a ticket is drawn at
random. What is the probability that the ticket drawn has a number which is a
multiple of 3 or 5?
Students may come like that
Number of ways it can happen: 9 (event of getting a multiple of 3 or 5 = 3, 6 ,
9, 12, 15, 18, 5, 10, 20)
Total number of outcomes: 20
So the probability=9/20

Further you can explain that probability is quantified as a number between 0

and 1 where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty. The higher
the probability of an event, the more certain that the event will occur. A
simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the coin is
unbiased, the two outcomes (‘head’ and ‘tail’) are both equally probable; the
probability of ‘head’ equals the probability of ‘tail’. Since no other outcomes
are possible, the probability is 1/2 (or 50%), of either ‘head’ or ‘tail’. In other
words, the probability of ‘head’ is 1 out of 2 outcomes and the probability of
‘tail’ is also 1 out of 2 outcomes.

You can assign individual project to students. Tell them throw a die 100 times,
record the scores in a tally table. They can record the results in this table using
tally marks and draw a bar graph and illustrate their results.
Types of Events and Probability
Now it is expected that students know that an event can include several
outcomes and getting a Tail when tossing a coin is an event; rolling a ‘5’ is an
event.

So you can further explain that an event whose chances of happening is 100 %
is called a sure event. The probability of such event is 1. In sure event, one is
likely to get the desired output in whole sample experiment. On the other hand,
when there are no chances of happening an event, the probability of such event
is likely to be zero. This is said to be an impossible event. On the basis of
quality events, these are classified into three types which are as follows:
• Independent (each event is not affected by other events),
• Dependent (also called "Conditional", where an event is affected by other
events)
• Mutually Exclusive (events can't happen at the same time)
Let's discuss at each of those types.

Independent Events: Two or more events are independent if the occurrence of

one event does not affect the occurrence of any of the others. Example: You
toss a coin three times and it comes up "Heads" each time ... what is the chance
28
that the next toss will also be a ‘Head’? The chance is simply 1/2, or 50%, just Statistics and
like any other toss of the coin. Probability

Dependent Events: Two events are dependent if the occurrence of one of the
events affects the probability of the occurrence of the other. Example:
Drawing 2 king cards from a Deck .For the 1st card the chance of drawing a
King is 4 out of 52. But for the 2nd card:
• If the 1st card was a King, then the 2nd card is less likely to be a King, as
only 3 of the 51 cards left are Kings.
• If the 1st card was not a King, then the 2nd card is slightly more likely
to be a King, as 4 of the 51 cards left are Kings.

Note:

Replacement: When we put each card back after drawing it the chances
don't change, as the events are independent.

Without Replacement: The chances will change, and the events are
dependent.

Now, you can ask them:

If 2 blue and 3 red marbles are in a bag. What are the chances of getting a blue
marble?
Student: The chance is 2 in 5.
Teacher: But after taking one out the chances change!
Student: In the next time:
• if we got a red marble before, then the chance of a blue marble next is
2 in 4
• if we got a blue marble before, then the chance of a blue marble next is
1 in 4

Mutually Exclusive Events: Mutually exclusive events are two or more events
that can not occur simultaneously. If one dice is thrown and comes up three, it
cannot come up six or any other number at the same time. If a coin is tossed
and comes up tails, it cannot come up heads on the same toss. The probability
of one or the other of two mutually exclusive events happening is the sum of
the separate probabilities of these events.

Note: What isn't Mutually Exclusive ?

• Kings and Hearts are not Mutually Exclusive, because we can have a
King of Hearts!

The following example will make the idea clear.

Example: A Deck of Cards
In a Deck of 52 Cards:
• the probability of a King is 1/13, so P(King)=1/13
• the probability of an Ace is also 1/13, so P(Ace)=1/13
When we combine those two Events:
• The probability of a card being a King and an Ace is 0 (Impossible)
29
Content Based • The probability of a card being a King or an Ace is (1/13) + (1/13) =
Methodology-II 2/13
Which is written like this:
P(King and Ace) = 0
P(King or Ace) = (1/13) + (1/13) = 2/13

The teacher should discuss with the students the method of finding probability
for independent, dependent and mutually exclusive events .

Methodology Used: Again,we mostly depend on discussion with the students

to teach the concept of probability and use the drill method to provide
sufficient practice in the use of the formulae.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
10. A die is thrown once. What is the probability that the score is a factor
of 6?
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
11. From a well shuffled deck of 52 cards, one card is drawn at random.
What is the probability that the draw card is queen?
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
12. What are various types of events?
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

30
14.8 LET US SUM UP Statistics and
Probability

This unit provides the teacher an opportunity to introduce the topic through
everyday real life situations helping the students to develop a positive attitude
towards the study of Mathematics. The student sees the importance of
collecting and organizing data to be able to answer questions about the
population from whom the data are collected. The students learn how to
present data pictorially and to interpret such data appearing in books,
newspapers, journals, etc.

The measure of the ‘Central Tendency’ and of ‘Dispersion’ is introduced to the

students as tools to make an objective assessment of the characteristics of any
data. They learn how to determine these characteristics.

You would have realized that mode is the most common observation, median is
a point below which lie exactly fifth percent of cases and mean is a value
which represents average of all observations. In the course of handling large
data, the students learn that in order to make calculations less cumbersome,
they have to make a sacrifice elsewhere (in accuracy). This is an attitude
which often comes into play in real life situations also. They are confronted
with decision-making situations such as in deciding the number of class
intervals or in making a choice of assumed mean.

The unit also provides an opportunity to teachers to help students understand

the concept of probability and its application in day-to-day life.

14.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

At the end of the unit let your students do the following:
1) Find out the age to the nearest month of each student in the class. Prepare
a list in order of age and find the total. Take your own age as a reference
point or zero. Write down the ages of everybody else as so many months
older than or younger than yourself. Add these positive and negative
values. Set up a formula to arrive at the previous total from this total.
2) Obtain the number of children in the families to which the students of your
class belong. Make a bar chart with the number of children in the family
along the x-axis and the number of families on the y-axis.
3) A family spends the following amounts monthly on the items listed below:

Food Rs.1,600/-
Clothing Rs.1,000/-
Housing Rs.2,400/-
Transport Rs.600/-
Education Rs.800/-
Misc. Expenditure Rs.200/-
Savings Rs.600/-
Total Rs.7,200/-

Represent the above information in a pie chart. Express the expenditure as

per cent. 31
Content Based 4) The heights of 21 girls in centimeters were measured and the heights were:
Methodology-II
157 160 163 157 162 162 164
165 155 147 162 162 164 156
158 156 161 164 159 162 159

Answer the following:

i) What is the great height?
ii) What is the least height?
iii) What is the median height?
iv) What is the mode?
v) What is the arithmetic mean?
5) The following table gives the distribution of total household expenditure
(in rupees) of factory workers in a city:

Expenditure Frequency

600-700 24
700-800 40
800-900 33
900-1000 28
1000-1100 30
1100-1200 22
1200-1300 16
1300-1400 7

Total 200

Find the average expenditure per household

6) Calculate deviation from the mean for the data given in Q.5. Calculate
the standard deviation also for this data.

7) A school has 4 sections in Class IX having 40, 35, 45, 42 students. The
mean marks obtained in the chemistry test by three of the sections are 50,
60; and 55 respectively. If the overall average of marks per student for
all the section is 52.3, calculate the mean marks obtained by the fourth
section.

8) Select any two concepts from the following:

a) Mean b) Mode c) Median d) Standard Deviation
How will you teach these concepts to your students? Illustrate the
methodology to explain the context.

9) An urn contains 6 red, 5 blue and 2 green marbles. If 2 marbles are

picked at random, what is the probability that both are red?

32
10) A bag contains 12 white and 18 black balls. Two balls are drawn in Statistics and
succession without replacement.What is the probability that first is white Probability
and second is black?

11) A bag contains 2 red, 3 green and 2 blue balls. Two balls are drawn at
random. What is the probability that none of the balls drawn is blue?

14.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Expenditure Angle of
Plan (inCroresRs.) sector Percentage
First 90 9 2.5
Second 160 16 4.4
Third 250 25 7.0
Fourth 400 40 11.0
Fifth 800 80 22.1
Sixth 1900 190 53.0
Total 3600 360 100

2.

33
Content Based 3.
Methodology-II

Cumulative
Marks Frequency
0-100 10
100-200 28
200-300 58
300-400 93
400-500 125
500-600 145
600-700 160

4. Mean = 10
5. Mode = 6
6. (a) Median = 28 (b) Median = 69
34
 Statistics and
Probability
7.
a = 25 h = 10
Marks x f x–a u = x – a/h u.f
0-10 5 7 –20 –2 –14
10 - 20 10 10 –10 –1 –10
20 - 30 15 15 0 0 0
30 - 40 25 8 10 1 8
40 - 50 35 10 20 2 20
Total – 50 4

hå u i fi
Mean = a+
fi
4
= 25 + × 10
50
= 25 + 0.8
= 25.8
8. Range = 19 – 1 = 18
S.D.
X = 10
X : 5, 10, 12, 7, 8, 6, 15, 17, 1, 19
d = X – X : –5, 0, 2, –3, –2, –4, 5, 7, –9, 9
2

S.D. = ∑d =
294
= 5.42
N 10

2 2
∑x i
−  ∑ i 
 x 
9. S.D. = n  n 
2
385  55 
= − 
10  10 

= 38 .5 − 30 .25

= 8.25
= 2.87
2
10.
3
1
11.
13

35
Content Based 12. Independent (each event is not affected by other events), Dependent
Methodology-II (also called ‘Conditional’, where an event is affected by other events),
Mutually Exclusive (events can't happen at the same time)

14.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
• Aggrawal,Y.P. (1998). Statistical Methods: Concepts Applications and
Guidance, Sterling,New Delhi.
• Backhouse, J.K. (1967). Statistics, Longman, London.
• Chambers, Paul. (2010). Teaching Mathematics – Developing as a
Reflective Secondary Teacher, Sage South Asia Ed., New Delhi.
• Goodman, R. (1967).Teach Yourself Statistics, The English Language Book
Society, London.
• Moroney, M.J. (1961). .Facts from Figures, Penguin Books, Baltimore,
USA.
• NCERT (2005). Position Paper National Focus Group on Teaching of
Mathematics, New Delhi: NCERT.
• Servais, W. and Varga, T. (1971). Teaching – School Mathematics : A
UNESCO Source Book, Penguin Books, UNESCO.
• https://www.mathisfun.com>data>probabiity
• https://en.m wikipedia.org>wiki;>probability
• https://www.probability formula.org

36
 Parallel Lines,
UNIT 15 PARALLEL LINES, PARALLELOGRAMS Parallelograms and
Triangles
AND TRIANGLES
Structure

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Basic Concepts
15.4 Parallel Lines
15.5 Parallelograms
15.6 Comparison of Two Figures
15.7 Similarity
15.8 Congruence
15.8.1 Definition
15.8.2 Line Segments and Angles
15.8.3 Correspondence and Congruence
15.8.4 Congruence of Triangles
15.9 Constructing Triangles with Available Information
15.9.1 Three Sides (SSS)
15.9.2 Two Angles and a Side (ASA, AAS)
15.9.3 Two Sides and the Included Angles (SAS)
15.9.4 The Hypotenuse and one Side of a Right Triange (RHS)
15.10 Triangle – A Rigid Figure
15.11 Congruence of Triangles
15.12 Let Us Sum Up
15.13 Unit End Activities
15.14 Answers to Check Your Progress
15.15 Suggested Readings

15.1 INTRODUCTION
The notions of plane Geometry originated in ancient times. They arose out of
the necessity to solve practical problems. Egyptians used Geometry to
determine the lengths, areas or volumes of various objects. Ancient Hindus
used it to design altars (Vedis) for worship. Later, Greeks formulated the
logical or deductive aspects of Geometry and developed it as a discipline. Most
of the ancient civilizations used Geometry only for practical purposes and not
much was done to make it a systematic study.

We find ample application of Geometry in daily life. A learner can be helped to

appreciate the use of geometrical forms in nature and architecture all around.
He/she may also use the concept of Geometry to construct figures or develop
designs. Geometrical propositions can be understood through practical
applications and logical reasoning. These approaches are reflected in this Unit.

The Unit deals with the investigation and study of the concepts of elementary
Geometry; correspondence and congruence in geometrical figures and
construction of triangles. Practical methods, intuition and deduction have been
freely employed to demonstrate their truth. The unit is designed to enable you 37
Content Based to get a greater understanding of the concept of parallel lines, parallelogram
Methodology-II and triangles and to proceed to a logical treatment of the subject.

15.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• explain the basic concepts of Geometry;
• create interest in studying parallel lines and parallelogram;
• demonstrate geometric discussions:
• explain the concept of equality and similarity together with illustrations;
• explain and apply the concept of congruence to geometric figures in
general;
• understand the symbols for these concepts;
• put across the importance of 1-1 correspondence;
• understand that given SSS, SAS, ASA (AAS), RHS we always get
triangles of the same size and shape; and
• develop an activity-based and problem-based approach for teaching-
learning various concepts covered in this unit.

15.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

Main Teaching Points: a) Concepts of point, line, plane and angle, and b)
Related axioms

Teaching-Learning Process: The topic should be introduced by reviewing

fundamental concepts on points, lines and planes in such a manner that the
practical aspect of Geometry is realized. You can organize following activities
in your class to review fundamental concepts of Geometry.

Ask : Hold a matchbox in your hand. Tell students to examine the

outside cover of the match box. And ask them how many
faces are there in a matchbox?
Bring out that the box has six sides or faces, each of which is
a rectangle.

Explain : The box may be represented by drawing it in two ways: In the

first drawing (Figure 15.1(a)), we can see only three faces of
the box. The other three faces are hidden from view.
If we were to construct a box of the same shape using a piece
of wire for the outline of each face, it will look as in Figure
15.1(b). All faces of this box can be seen. The hidden part of
Figure 15.1(a) has been shown by dotted lines.

38
 Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Triangles

Fig. 15.1(a) Fig. 15.1(b)

Ask : Which faces have the same shape and size in Figure 15.1?
Faces ABCD and HGFE are two such faces. Similarly,
AHED and BGFC is another pair of such faces. ABGH and
CFED is a third pair. They are on opposite sides of each
other.

Explain : In Geometry, we are concerned only with the study of the

shape and size of objects. We are not concerned with the
matter or material which they may contain.
A solid body is conceived as occupying space and the
amount of this space is called its volume.

Ask : Where do the two adjacent faces meet?

Write: The two adjacent faces meet in a straight line which is
called an edge.

Explain : The faces ABCD and CFED meet in a straight line CD. In the
whole box there are 12 straight lines or edges.

Ask : What is the intersection of two edges called?

The intersection of two edges is a point.

Explain : The edges AD and DC meet at the point D. Explain that there
are eight such points which are called corners. Each of these
points indicates the meeting points of three edges. Thus, D
indicates the intersection of edges DE, DA and DC.

Ask : What, in your opinion, should be taken as basic terms which

we shall accept as undefined and proceed to define other
terms using these basic terms?
There may be different suggestions made by learners, or may
be there is no response.

Explain : The terms ‘point’, ‘straight line’ and ‘plane’ are difficult to
explain in simple words or in terms of the relatively simpler
notions. We take them as undefined. Explain that points such
as D, E, F, etc., have corresponding positions in space. We
frequently mark a position on a piece of paper, or a map, or
on a picture by marking a small dot which indicates some
particular position. Thus, a point indicates a position in
space and has no size or magnitude.
39
Content Based
Methodology-II
Ask : How can we explain the formation of a line using points?
Mark P and Q as two points on the surface of the paper as
shown in Figure 15.2. Suppose point P moves to position Q.

Fig. 15.2

Explain : There are a number of paths which P may take such as

PRQ and PSQ. Measure the length of different paths using
thread. We will find these paths vary in length. The most
direct path will be along the straight line PQ which joins
the points. Thus, a straight line or a line may be described
as: the shortest path between two points P and Q.

Explain : The straight line which marks the path of a moving point
has length but no width. Hence, a line is said to have one
dimension only.
Explain that from the geometrical point of view a line is a
set of points and extends endlessly in both directions. The
symbol PQ or QP is used for the line l as shown in Figure
15.3.

P Q
Fig. 15.3

Ask : How many points are there on a line?

: May be there is no response.

Explain : If you see points as :

P Q
Now you may keep on proceeding from P to Q or Q to P
through points as
P ……… ….. .…. Q
In case you cover the whole distance you will find many
points which you may not count if they are very close to
each other and form a line.
Thus we may conclude that there are infinite number of
points on a line. We may consider it as the first axiom on
lines and points.
Ask : How may lines can pass through a given point?
Bring out that infinite number of lines can pass through a
given point.
40
Explain : It is the second axiom on lines and points. Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Ask : How many lines can be drawn through two given points? Triangles

Bring out one and only one line can be drawn through two
given points.
Explain : It is the third axiom on lines and points.
: Explain that as a consequence of the third axiom, it is
deduced that if two lines intersect, this intersection is
exactly one point.
Let us consider a line as a number line, then each point of
the line corresponds to a real number.The number
associated with a point is called the coordinate of the point,
and the point associated with a number is called the graph
(or graphical representation) of that number.
Ask : Can you think of any characteristic of the relationship
between the two points of a line and real numbers?
Write: To every real number, there corresponds exactly
one point of the line and vice-versa.
Explain : The correspondence described here is called a one-to-one
correspondence between the points of a line and the set of
real numbers.
It is called the ‘Ruler axiom’.
Explain that if the coordinate of a point P is X and the
coordinate of the point Q is Y, then the distance between P
and Q is |Y – X| which is equal to |X – Y|. We will accept
this as one of our basic assumptions.
Ask : How many positive real numbers can be assigned to the
distance function for a pair of distinct points?
Show that corresponding to every pair of distinct points,
there is one and only one positive real number that can be
assigned for the distance function.
Explain : This real number is called the distance between two points.
This distance is the absolute value of the difference of the
real numbers corresponding to the two points. Explain that
symbol PQ is used to refer to the number which is the
distance between points P and Q.
Ask : Can you think of objects with flat surfaces?
Bring out that table tops, mirrors, papers, walls, etc., are
objects with flat surfaces.
Explain : Flat surfaces are examples of planes. But these are
physical models of planes. A plane is a mathematical
abstraction.
Explain that collinear points are points that lie on the same
line. Similarly, coplanar points are points that are on the
same place.
Explain the following pyramid as in Figure 15.4.

41
Content Based
Methodology-II

Fig. 15.4

A2 and A3 are collinear; A1, A4 and A2 are non-collinear;

A1, A2 and A4 are coplanar; A1, A2, A3 and A4 are non-
coplanar.

Ask : How many planes pass through three non-collinear

points?
Bring out that there is exactly one plane containing three
non-collinear points.

Explain : This is the first axiom on lines and planes.

Ask : Think of any two points in a plane.
Bring out that the line containing them is contained in
the plane.
Explain : This is the second axiom on lines and planes.
Ask : How many lines can be formed by the intersection of
two planes?
Bring out if two planes intersect, then their intersection
is exactly one line.
Explain : It is third axiom on lines and planes. Using these axioms
many theorems can be proved.
Ask : Take two distinct points P and Q on line l (Figure 15.5).
Bring out that P and Q determine a line segment, or
simply a segment.

l P Q P Q

Fig. 15.5

Explain : The union of the set containing two points P and Q of line
l and the set of all points of l between P and Q is called a
segment denoted by PQ. The length or measure of PQ is
the distance between P and Q and is denoted by PQ. Thus,
42
 Parallel Lines,
PQ = {P} ∪ {Q} ∪ {points between P and Q}
Parallelograms and
Triangles
Explain : A line may be named by any two of its points but a
segment is always named by its end-points.

Ask : Take O on line l (Figure 15.6).

Bring out that O separates all the other points of the line
into two sets of points. Point O does not belong to the set
of points on either side of O.

C O B
Fig. 15.6

Explain : The set of all points on either side of O, excluding O, is

called a half-line. To describe the two half-lines on either
side of O consider two points B and C on either side of O.
Consider P as a moving point on the line.
-®
Denoting half-line on the side of B by OB .

l
C O B
Fig. 15.7

-®
OB = {all points P between O and B} ∪ {B} ∪ {all
points P such that B is between O and P}.

Explain that the half-line does not contain the end point O.

Ask : What is the union of the set containing the point O and a
-®
half-line OB .
-®
Bring out that it is a ray denoted by OB (Figure
15.8).Point O is called the end point of the ray.
l
· ·
A O B
Fig. 15.8

Explain : Explain that the rays OA and OB are called opposite rays
if and only if O is between A and B.

Ask : Draw Figure 15.9 on the board. Identify a line, several

rays and several segments.
-® -®
Ask what is OPÈ OQ .
Bring out it is the union of two rays which is subsets of
the same line.

43
Content Based
Methodology-II

Fig. 15.9 below shows OP ∪ OQ

Explain : An angle is the union of two non-collinear rays having a

common end point. The two rays are called the sides or
arms of the angle. The common end point is called the
vertex of the angle.

Ask : What is Adjacent angles

Explain : Explain that two angles which have a common vertex, a
common arm and which lie on opposite sides of the
common arm form a pair of adjacent angles.

Ask : Think of a ray standing on a line.

Bring out that the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is
180°. Conversely, if the sum of two adjacent angles is
180°, the non-common arms of the angles are two
opposite rays.

Fig. 15.10(a) Fig. 15.10(b)

Explain : In figure 15.10 (a), PQ is a line and a ray OS standing

on it which forms two angles at point O. The sum of these
two angles ∠SOQ and ∠SOP is 180º.
44
 In Fig 15.10 (b), OX and OY are two lines perpendicular Parallel Lines,
to each other and a ray ON generates at O. The two angles Parallelograms and
thus generated are such that ∠YON + ∠NOX = 90º. Triangles

This is an axiom on the angle.

Further explain that two angles are called supplementary
angles if their sum is 180°, and two angles the sum of whose
measures is 90° are called complementary angles. For
example 70° and 110° are a pair of supplementary angles and
55° and 35° are a pair of complementary angles. Explain
that ray PS is said to be the “bisector” of ∠QPR, and ∠QPS
= ∠SPR. Here, ∠RPS = 1/2 ∠QPR. (Fig. 15.11).

Methodology : Intuitive, deductive, analytical and experimental approaches

Used form the essential features of teaching geometry.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
1) Take three collinear points A, B and C. How many triangles can you
draw with A, B as the vertices?
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2) How many edges does a cube have? Illustrate.

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Content Based 3) Explain how to find the measure of an angle which is equal to its
Methodology-II supplement.
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4) How many lines can you draw passing through:
a) One point
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b) Two points
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c) Three points
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15.4 PARALLEL LINES

Main Teaching Point: The concept of parallel lines and related axioms
Teaching-Learning Process: We have seen in the preceding section that when
two lines intersect, we get a number of geometric figures such as rays and
angles. What happens if two lines do not intersect? In this section, we shall
consider certain properties of non-intersecting lines.

Ask : Examine the ruled printed lines on an exercise book.

Bring out two facts:
a) the distance between any pair of lines is always the same;
b) even if the lines are produced to any extent beyond the
page of the exercise book, they never meet.

Explain : Such straight lines drawn in a plane are called parallel

straight lines.
Explain that two lines are parallel if and only if they are
coplanar and they do not intersect.

46
Ask : Think of two coplanar lines and a line which Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
intersects each of the two given lines.
Triangles
Bring out two distinct points.

Explain : A line which intersects two coplanar lines at two

distinct points is called a transversal line. Explain
that in Figure 15.13,l1 and l2 are coplanar lines and
are cut by a transversal m at two distinct points A
and B. Although another line n intersects both l1
and l2 at the intersection point C, n is not a
transversal as it does not intersect the lines l1 and l2
at two distinct point.

Explain that transversals and the lines they intersect

form alternate angles, interior angles, corresponding
angles, etc. These pairs of angles are of special
importance in our investigation of geometric properties.

Ask : Think of a line l and a point A it on.

Ask how many lines can be drawn through A and
parallel to l.
Help them explore that there is one and only one line
which passes through A and is parallel to l. (Figure
15.14).

Explain : This is the first parallel axiom.

Help them explore, that if a transversal intersects two
parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding angles are
equal. Conversely, if a transversal intersects two lines
making a pair of corresponding angles equal, then the
lines are parallel. This is the second parallel axiom.
47
Content Based Let them verify that if two lines are intersected by a
Methodology-II transversal such that two alternate interior angles are
equal, then the lines are parallel. It can also be proved
using the parallel axioms.
Explain that, using parallel axioms, several theorems on
parallel lines and constructions involving parallel lines
can be proved. The theorems and their proofs may be
seen in any standard book on Geometry.
Distance between two parallel straight lines.

Ask : Draw two parallel straight lines PQ and RS. (Figure

15.15). Take a point A on PQ. Take AB as a straight
line which is perpendicular from A to RS.
Bring out that AB is the distance between the two
parallel straight lines, which remains the same
throughout.

Ask : Give examples from their day to day life where

they see parallel lines.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit .
5) If l||m in the following figure and ∠1 = 60° then find the value of ∠8.
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48
 Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
6) Observe the given figure and answer the following: Triangles
Is S1|| S2? Give reason for your answer.

…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
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15.5 PARALLELOGRAMS
Main Teaching Point: Different types of quadrilaterals and their interrelations.
Teaching-Learning Process:

Ask : What is a plane figure?

Bring out that a part of plane surface which is excluded by
line segments or by a closed curve is called a region and the
outline of the region (boundary) is called a plane figure.

Explain : If the boundary lines are all line segments, the figure is called
a rectilinear figure. If four straight lines in a plane intersect in
pairs, the figure formed is a quadrilateral. In Figure 15.16 the
points P, Q, R, S are four vertices of the quadrilateral.
Explain lines that join two opposite vertices are called
diagonals. In Figure 15.16 PR and QS are diagonals of
quadrilateral PQRS.

49
Content Based The sum of the angles of any quadrilateral is equal to four
Methodology-II right angles. i.e. ∠P +∠Q +∠R + ∠S = 4 (∠90°) or 360°.

Ask : Think of a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are

parallel and one of its angles is a right angle.
Bring out that it is a rectangle (Fig. 15.17).

Fig. 15.17

Ask : Take the outer cover of an ordinary match box without its inner open
box. Squeeze gently so that two opposite edges come closer. The
rectangular shape of open ends changes. Angle between two edges is
no longer a right angle but the opposite edges are still parallel. A
quadrilateral with each pair of opposite sides parallel is called a
parallelogram. (Figure 15.18)

Ask : What about the shape of the open end of the match box if it
had been a square instead of a rectangle? Bring out that it
would still be changed to a parallelogram, but its sides will
all be equal. It is called a rhombus which is again a special
form of a parallelogram.

Explain : A quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel, and

both adjacent sides equal is called a rhombus. (Figure 15.19)

Fig. 15.19

50 Ask : Think of a quadrilateral whose both pairs of opposite sides are

 parallel, one of its angles is a right angle and both adjacent Parallel Lines,
sides are equal. Parallelograms and
Triangles
Explain : Bring out that it is a square (Figure 15.20)

Ask : What about a quadrilateral in which two opposite sides are

parallel but the other sides are not parallel?

Explain : Bring out that it is a trapezium (Figure 15.21).

Ask : Can you think of a chart in the development of the properties

of quadrilaterals.
Facilitate students so that they come out with the following
definitions on their own.
Quadrilateral is a plane figure made up of four sides (line
segments).
Trapezium is a quadrilateral whose one pair of opposite sides
is parallel.
Parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are
parallel.
Rectangle is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel
and one angle is a right angle.
Rhombus is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel
and adjacent sides are equal (or a rhombus is a parallelogram
whose all sides are equal in length).
Square is a rectangle whose all sides are equal.
Using the above definitions let them draw a chart
interconnecting different types of quadrilaterals mentioned
above. Give them time to discuss these definitions with their
peers. Appreciate them if they give some alternate definition
or establish the relation between any two figures in some other
way.
51
Content Based
Methodology-II
Ask : Can you think of a way of learning by using a geobard?

Explain : A geoboard maybe made of 66mm or 8 mm ply board of

size 6”X6” is divided into 36 equal squares with one pin
fixed vertically at the centre in each square.(Figure15.22)
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Fig. 15.22

Explain : Using ‘rubber bands’ of different colours, various

geometrical figures can be made on the board. Explain:
Several geometrical patterns viz., Parallelogram,
rectangle, square, rhombus etc. can be made on the
geoboard (Figure 15.23).

Ask : Using a geoboard can you think of providing result like

(a) diagonal of a parallelogram bisect each other; and
(b)diagonals of rhombus bisect each other at right
angle.
Bring out that answer is yes and draw result on
geoboard. (Figures 15.24 and 15.25).

Methodology Used: While teaching Geometry, more stress should be on

intuitive and experimental approach. Analytic and synthetic approach is
suitable while doing proofs of standard theorems. Conclusion of proofs may be
drawn through activity method.
52 .
Check Your Progress Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. Triangles

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
7) State whether true or false.
(i) Every rectangle is a square but the converse is not true.
(ii) Every rhombus is a square but the converse is not true.
(iii) Every parallelogram is a quadrilateral but the converse is not true.

15.6 COMPARISON OF TWO FIGURES

Main Teaching Points: a) Comparing shapes and sizes; and b) The size
determined by area
Teaching-Learning Process: Before actually starting the topic, you may share
learning experiences of the students by asking them which objects do they use
in pairs in their day-to-day life. It may be discussed with them whether these
objects have same shape and size or only their shape is same? Do they overlap
each other? Hold in your hands two cut-outs of the same shape.

Ask : Look at these two cut-outs. What can you tell about these
cut-outs? (In case there is no response in the beginning, you
may bring in leading suggestions like : they look alike, their
sizes are not the same, what else …. There may be response
regarding their volumes, their corners, their sides, … these
are ruled out).

Repeat this line of interaction with 3 or 4 pairs of cut-out.

Ask : When we look at two things or articles, what questions

come to our mind regarding their shapes, size or any other
characteristics?

Ask : Do we try to know which one is bigger? Which one is

smaller?

Ask : What are we comparing?

When we say that one is bigger than the other, what are we comparing?
Is it their weight?
Or is it their length?
Or is it the space each over?

53
Content Based
Methodology-II

Ask : Which one is bigger?

How do you know?

Explain : By covering them with squared transparent papers.

Repeat the same questions with the following figures:

Fig. 15.27
Conclude:
Two figures can be different in shape and different in size.
Two figures can be different in shape and same in size.
Two figures can be same in shape and different in size.
Two figures can be same in shape and same in size.
Size of the figures is measured by their area.
Methodology Used: Demonstration combined with proper discussion is used
to illustrate the point.
Note: We can use transparencies to show movement of one figure into another
(super positions).

15.7 SIMILARITY
Main Teaching Points: a) Geometrical figures of the same shape are called
similar; and b) The size of similar figures may be same or different.
Teaching-Learning Process: Here we are concerned with the shape of the
figures. Hold in your hand two circles.

Ask : What can you say about the shapes of these two figures?
Repeat with pairs of squares and equilateral triangles. You
may even consider pairs of regular figures.
54
Ask : Do the two have the same size/area/ (the figures chosen must Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
include those of different sizes and the same sizes).
Triangles

Activity 1 : Draw two line segments of 5 cm and 7.5 cm length. Name

them AB and XY.
On A and X draw angles of 60° with AB and XY
respectively.
Similarly on B and Y draw angles of 75°.
Let the arms of the two angles (other than the common arm)
intersect in C and Z respectively.

Ask : What shapes do you get?

Place the two triangles such that A falls on X and AB on XY.
Next repeat the same thing with B falling on Y and BA on
XZ.
What can you say about the positions of AC and XZ?
Do the two triangles have the same shape? Do they have
same size?

Bring out the two triangles have the same shape but different
sizes.

Ask : What will happen if AB and XY both are of the same length?
Will you get two triangles of the same shape?
What about their sizes?

: Bring out the triangles are of the same shape and the same
size.

Activity 2 : Hold a triangular template in front of a candle. Form an

image on a plain sheet of paper.
Now move the template towards the flame and away from
the flame.

. Ask : What happens to the shadow?

Do you have the same shape always? What care you have to
take it get a sharp image?

Activity 3 : Repeat Activity 2 with a template of some different

figures/shapes.

Ask : What can you say about your passport size photograph and
the same in the post-card size?

Explain : We get figures of the same shape. But their sizes may be
same or different.

When the shapes of two figures A and B are alike we say that figures A is
similar to figures B.
In particular
55
Content Based If ∆ABC is similar to ∆ XYZ.
Methodology-II
We write it as:∆ABC ~ ∆ XYZ.
Conclusion: Two figures are similar if they are of the same shape. Their sizes
may or may not be the same.
Methodology Used: Learning by doing to be the best approach. Let the
students draw the figures and help them to reach the conclusions.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
8) Draw a triangle of sides measuring3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm and another one of
sides 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm. What can you say about their shapes?
Measure their angles and compare. How will you demonstrate that the
triangles are similar?
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9) Draw a triangle having two sides of 4 cm and 5 cm and their included
angle of 45°. Draw another triangle having sides measuring 6 cm and
7.5 cm and their included angle of 45°.
Compare the two triangles.
What can you say about their angles?
Find the ratio of the third side of one triangle with the third side of the
other. Compare it with ratios of other two pairs of corresponding sides.
How will you demonstrate that the triangles are similar?
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15.8 CONGRUENCE
15.8.1 Definition
Main Teaching Point: Congruent figures have same shape and same size.

56
Teaching-Learning Process: Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
You have seen above that we can have two figures of the same size and also we
Triangles
can have two figures of the same shape.

Ask : Are the triangles ABC and XYZ of the same shape? Can you
confirm it by turning around ∆ ABC or ∆ XYZ and then
comparing?

What can you say about their sizes?

Repeat with the following pairs of triangles:

In all the above parts the size of one triangle is equal to the other and also the
shape of one triangle is same as the shape of the other.
In other words the triangles have the same size and are also similar. You may
note that if two figures completely cover each other when super imposed, these
are of same size and similar too.
The concept of equality of size and similarity of shape is combined in
congruence. We say that one figure is congruent to the other.
Symbol ≅ is used to denote congruence of two figures.
Methodology Used: Demonstration-cum-discussion leading to the conclusion.

15.8.2 Line Segments and Angles

Main Teaching Points: a) Line segments of equal length are congruent; and b)
Angles of the same measures are congruent.

57
Content Based Teaching-Learning Process:
Methodology-II
Ask : Given two line-segment what information will you need to
decide whether they are congruent?

Draw : Two line-segments of 3 cm each. Do they look alike

(similar)? Do they have the same length?

Explain : So you have a pair of congruent line-segment. Try with as

many pairs.

Ask : What do we conclude?

Line-segments of Equal Length are congruent

Ask : In the same way let us consider a pair of angles. What

information will you need to say that the pairs of angles
are congruent?
Draw two angles of 60° each.
Are these angles of the same measure?

Explain : So, you have a pair of congruent angles.

You may try with more pairs.
What do we conclude?

Two angles are congruent if they have the same measure.

Methodology Used: Demonstration-cum-discussion is used to lead the
students to conclusion.

15.8.3 Correspondence and Congruence

Main Teaching Points: a) There are many correspondences possible between
two figures; and b) Some of them may be congruences and others may not.
Teaching-Learning Process: In two sets (consider two teams participating in
a hockey match) there is element-to-element (a man-to-man) matching or
association. This association in mathematics is termed as 1 – 1 correspondence.

.Ask : In how many different ways can the vertices, A, B, C or ∆ABC

is set in 1-1 correspondence with vertices P, Q, R of ∆ PQR?
We can set up 1 -1 correspondence in six different ways,
namely:
58
 Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
(1) A – P (2) A – P (3) A – R (4) A – R (5) A – Q (6) A – Q Triangles

B–Q B–R B–Q B–P B–P B–R

C–R C–Q C–P C–Q C–R C–P

Explain : 1-1 correspondence between vertices of the triangles

determine the 1-1 correspondence between angles
and sides of the two triangles.
e.g. in A – P
B–Q
C–R
∠A – ∠P and AB – PQ
∠B – ∠Q and AC – PR
∠C – ∠R and BC – Q R
We also call this correspondences as ABC ↔ PQR

Activity 1: Let us superimpose ∆PQR on ∆ABC according to the 1 -1

correspondence described above.

Fig. 15.31
Draw figures for other correspondences also. In how many cases a
correspondence results in completely covering one figure over the other. (This
happens only in ABC ↔ PQR).
Activity 2: Take a ∆ABC in which AB = AC. Make a carbon copy of this
triangle and name it ∆PQR. Superimpose and find out how many
correspondences result in covering one figure over the other completely. In
case of ABC ↔ PQR and ABC ↔ PRQ, one ∆ covers the other completely.
Activity 3: Take a ∆ABC which is equilateral.
Make ∆ PQR which is a carbon-copy of ∆ABC.
Superimpose and investigate in this case also as to how many correspondences
result in covering one triangle over the other completely.

Explain : In all correspondences, one triangle covers the other

completely.
59
Content Based Methodology Used: This is purely on activity-based method. Let the students
Methodology-II do themselves and arrive at the conclusion.
15.8.4 Congruence of Triangles
Main Teaching Point: Defining congruence of triangles.
Teaching-Learning Process: This leads us informally to state that “If there
exists at least one correspondence between two triangles such that if we
superimpose one triangle over the other, and they cover each other completely,
then the two triangles are congruent.”
Under activity (1) we found that ∆ABC ≅∆ PQ R which implies that
∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q, ∠C = ∠R, AB = PQ, BC = Q R, AC = PR.

Explain : We frequently use the symbol = in place of ≅ for line-

segments and angles. This usage is widely prevalent
and it does not cause any misunderstanding.
We name the triangles according to the correspondence
which results in a congruence. This helps in
immediately pointing out the pairs of corresponding
angles and corresponding sides which are congruent (or
equal). We conclude that, “If three angles of a triangle
are congruent (equal) to three angles of another triangle
each to each and their corresponding sides are
congruent (equal), then the two triangles are said to be
congruent”.
Including the converse of the above statement we
define correspondence of triangles as below.

Definition : Two triangles are congruent if and only if their

corresponding angles and corresponding sides are
equal.

Reinforcement : Cut-out the following pairs of figures and discover the

corresponding vertices. Write the corresponding part(s)
that are equal.

Fig. 15.32

Correctly name the triangles which are congruent. You may device more
activities of this type.
Methodology Used: Deductive reasoning is used. From the activities of the
60 previous sections, the students can deduce the definition.
 Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Check Your Progress Triangles

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
10) Write the corresponding sides and corresponding angles in the following
figures if ∆ABC ≅∆MNO.

...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

15.9 CONSTRUCTING TRIANGLES WITH

AVAILABLE INFORMATION
If a triangle is given, one can find out measures of angles and sides of the
triangle. Conversely, if data about sides and angles of a triangle are given, let
us investigate whether we can construct the triangle.

Ask : Do you think you need to know data about all sides and
angles of a triangle to be able to construct it.
What data is required so that you can construct a unique
triangle?

Explain : We can construct a triangle uniquely if we can fix its three

vertices. Generally, this is possible if measurements of three
parts of which one must be a side are given. (The teacher
should remember that ambiguous case is an exception to this
rule).

15.9.1 Three Sides (SSS)

Main Teaching Point: We get a unique triangle if we know its sides.
Teaching-Learning Process: Let us construct a triangle whose sides measure
3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm using ruler and compass only.
61
Content Based
Methodology-II

Fig. 15.33
Let every student draw BC = 5 cm

Now Ask : How can you locate A such that A is 3 cm from B and 4 cm
from C?
Lead the response till you have the answer. By drawing
arcs (parts of a circle) with radius 3 cm and 4 cm and
centres B and C respectively.

Ask : What do you observe about the triangle drawn by you and
the one drawn by your neighbouring student?

Expected : They are all similar and equal in size, i.e., they are
Response congruents.
Ask them to verify by measuring and writing the
corresponding angles.
You may repeat by having another set of sides.

Conclusions:
1. Given the measures of the three sides of a triangle, we can construct the
triangle uniquely.
2. Triangles drawn with the same measures of sides will be congruent.
3. Given two triangles measures of whose corresponding sides are equal,
the triangles are congruent. This is called SSS Congruence.

Methodology Used: It is purely on activity-based method. Let the students

work it out for themselves and reach the desired conclusion.

15.9.2 Two Angles and a Side (ASA, AAS)

Main Teaching Points: Two angles and an include side determines a triangle
uniquely.
Teaching-Learning Process: Let us construct a triangle ABC which has BC =
4.5 cm, ∠C = 50° and ∠B = 70°.

62
 Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Triangles

Fig. 15.34

Every student draws a line-segment (BC) equal to 4.5 cm. Then he draws ∠B =
70° and ∠C = 50°, the non-common arms of the two angles intersect at A.

Ask : What can you say about triangle drawn by you and the ones
drawn by your neighbours?

Explain : They are congruent.

You may repeat by changing the measures.

Conclusions:
1) Given the measures of two angles and the included side, we can construct
the triangle uniquely.
2) Triangles drawn with the same measures of two angles and the included
side will be congruent.
3) Given two triangles such that the measures of one of their sides and the
two angles on these sides are equal, the triangles are congruent.
This is called ASA congruence.
Methodology Used: It is purely an activity-based method. Let the students
work it out for themselves and reach the desired conclusion.

15.9.3 Two Sides and the Included Angle (SAS)

Main Teaching Point: Two sides and an included angle determines a unique
triangle.
Teaching-Learning Process: Let us construct a triangle XYZ which has XY =
3.5 cm, ∠Y = 45°, YZ = 4.5 cm.
[Repeat the steps as in 15.9.1 and 15.9.2].
Draw XY = 3.5 cm, measure ∠Y = 45°, on this arm from Y take 4.5 cm and
mark the point as Z, join XZ.
Conclusions:
1) Given the measures of two sides and the included angle of a triangle, we
can construct a unique triangle.
2) Triangles drawn with the same measures of two sides and the included
angle will be congruent.
3) Given two triangles such that the measures of two of their sides and the
included angle are correspondingly equal, the triangles are congruent.
63
Content Based This is called SAS congruence.
Methodology-II
Methodology Used: It is purely an activity-based method, let the students
work it out for themselves and reach the desired conclusion.

15.9.4 The Hypotenuse and one side of a Right Triangle

(RHS)
Main Teaching Point: If in a right triangle, one side and hypotenuse are given
then we get a unique triangle.
Teaching-Learning Process: Let us construct a triangle ABC right angled at B
which has its hypotenuse AC = 5 cm and side BC = 4 cm.

Fig. 15.35

Every student draws a line-segment BC = 4 cm, then at B makes an angle

∠ABC = 90°.

Ask : How can you locate A on BX such that CA = 5 cm?

Lead the responses till you have the answer : By drawing an
arc (part of a circle) with centre at C and radius = 5 cm.
Now repeat the comparison and construction as in the case of
previous sections.

Conclusions:
1) Given the measures of hypotenuse and a side of a right triangle we can
construct the triangle.
2) Right triangle drawn with the same measure of hypotenuseand a side are
all congruent.
3) Given two right triangles whose hypotenuse and one side each are equal,
the triangles are congruent.
This is called RHS congruence.

Methodology Used: It is purely an activity-based method. Let students work

out themselves and reach the desired conclusion.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
11) Measurement of how many parts should be given for constructing the
following triangles:
64
 (i) Equilateral triangle Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
(ii) Isosceles triangle
Triangles
Justify your answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

15.10 TRIANGLE – A RIGID FIGURE

Main Teaching Point: A triangle cannot be deformed.
Teaching-Learning Process:

Ask : What is the geometric figure that you see when you look at
a bridge, an electric pole or any other heavy structure.

Ask : Why do you think the triangle is used for this purpose?
Let us conduct an experiment.

Experiment : Take four strips of wood long enough to be joined to form a

four-sided figure.

Fig. 15.36(a)
Fix these sticks, as shown in the figures with nails and screws.
Now try to flex the figure to change its shape.
What do you observe?
Now repeat by forming a five sided figures.

Fig. 15.36(b)
65
Content Based What do you observe?
Methodology-II
Let us now form a triangle shape.

Fig. 15.36(c)
What do you find?
Now you must have understood why in structures we employ a triangle.

Explain : The three sticks cannot be moved even slightly.

Therefore, the triangle is the most rigid structure
which cannot be deformed.

Methodology Used: The students can learn this concept best by performing the
activities themselves.

15.11 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

Main Teaching Point: To list out the four conditions under which two
triangles are congruent.
Teaching-Learning Process: You have seen in section 15.9 that we have
congruent triangles in four cases:

SSS : When the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding three sides of another triangle.

SAS : When two sides and the included angle of one triangle i.e.
equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle.

ASA : When two angles and the included side of one triangle are
equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle.
OR

AAS : When one side and any two angles of one triangle are equal to
the corresponding parts of the other triangle.

RHS : When the hypotenuse and one side of one right triangle are
equal to the corresponding parts of the other right triangle.

Methodology Used: Deductive logic is used. The students have already

reached the conclusions in section 15.9.

66
Check Your Progress Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. Triangles

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
12) In the following diagrams are the triangles in each pair congruent?
Why? Equal parts are shown by similar markings. Explain

15.12 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you have learnt:

Straight line is the shortest path between two points.

An Infinite number of lines can pass through a given point.

An angle is the union of two non-collinear rays having a common end
point. The two rays are called the sides or arms of the angle. The common
end point is called the vertex of the angle.

If the boundary lines are all line segments, the figure is called a rectilinear
figure.

Quadrilateral is a plane figure made up of four sides (line segments).

Trapezium is a quadrilateral whose one pair of opposite sides is parallel.

Parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.

Rectangle is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and one angle
is a right angle.

Rhombus is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and adjacent
sides are equal (or a rhombus is a parallelogram whose all sides are equal in
length).

Square is a rectangle whose all sides are equal

Figures of the same shape but not necessarily of the same size are similar.

Similarity of triangles is dependent on the equality of the corresponding
angles.
67
Content Based
Figures of the same shapes may be of different sizes.
Methodology-II

Triangles of the same shape and same size are congruent.

a unique triangle can construct when we are given:
• measures of three sides SSS
• measures of two sides and the included angle SAS.
• measures of any two angles and one side AAS or ASA.
• a right triangle with hypotenuse and one side RHS.

A triangle is a rigid figure.

Two triangles are congruent when:
• their corresponding sides are equal SSS.
• they have two pairs of corresponding sides and the included angle
equal
• two angles and a side of one triangle are equal to the corresponding
parts of the other.
• the triangles are right angled and the hypotenuse and one side of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of the other.

15.13 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1) Draw a picture of three collinear points, P, Q and R.
2) Draw a picture of three non-collinear points, A, B and C.
3) If P, Q and R are three non-collinear points.
i) How many different lines are determined by choosing a distinct pair
of points each time?
ii) How many different planes would contain the three points?
4) We proved that if two lines intersect, their intersection is a point.
Consider the possible intersection of two distinct planes. Can two planes
intersect in:
i) exactly one point?
i) exactly two points?
iii) exactly three non-collinear points?
iv) exactly one line?
5) If lines PQ, PR, PS and PT are parallel to a line l, what can be said about
the points P, Q, R, S and T?
6) Given two points P and Q, how many line segments do they determine?
7) Given three collinear points, P, Q and R, name all the line segments they
determine.
8) Discuss each of the following briefly. Support your argument by
appropriate axioms or theorems:
i) Three points P, Q and R are in plane P. These same three points are in
68 plane Q. Is it certain that plane P is equal to plane Q?
 ii) If a line and a plane not containing the line intersect, then the intersect Parallel Lines,
is a unique plane containing two intersecting lines. Parallelograms and
Triangles
iii) There is a unique plane containing two intersecting lines.
9) If S lies in the interior of ∠QPR,
∠QPR = 80° and ∠QPS = 45°
What is the measure of ∠SPR?

10) An angle of 28° more than its complement. What is its measure?

11) The measure of an angle is thrice the measure of its supplementary angle.
Find its measure.
12) In the following figure L is the mid-point of side PS of a trapezium PQRS,
with PQ || SR . A line through L parallel to PQ meets QR in M. Show that
M is the mid-point of QR.

S R

L M

P Q
Fig. 15.30

13) In the following figure of parallelogram PQRS if SL ⊥ PQ and QM ⊥ SR

, prove that SL is congruent to MQ.

S M R

P L Q

Fig. 15.31

14) Prove that in a parallelogram, the sum of the squares of the lengths of the
diagonals is equal to twice the sum of the squares of the lengths of any
two adjacent sides.
15) Given the information in each part of the question, fill up the blanks:
For ∆ABC and ∆ DEF

69
Content Based
The corresponding is Two triangle(s) Why
Methodology-II
are similar or
congruent
a) ∠A = ∠D ABC ↔ __________ ______________ _________
∠B = ∠E
b) AC = DE ABC ↔ __________ ______________ _________
AC = DE
∠B = ∠E
c) ∠A = ∠F ___________ ↔ DEF ______________ _________
∠B = ∠D
d) ∠F = ∠B ___________ ↔ DEF ______________ _________
∠E = ∠C
FE = BC
e) ∠D = ∠A ABC ↔ __________ ______________ _________
= 90°
EF = BC
DE = AB
16) Segments AB and CD insect each other at O. Prove that:
a) ∆OAC ≅∆OBD
b) AC = DB
17) BP bisects ∠ABC. PE and PD make equal angles with BP and meet AB
and AC at D and E respectively prove that ∆BPE ≅∆BPD.

18) AE = ED
EF = EF
Prove that AB = CD

D
19) DA = DC, BA = BC
Prove that EA = EC

70
 20. DC = AB Parallel Lines,
Parallelograms and
∠1 = ∠2 Triangles

∠3 = ∠4
Prove AE = CF

21. AD = BC
∠1 = 50°
∠2 = 50°
Prove ∆ABC ≅∆BAD

22. AB = AD
AC = AE
Prove AF bisects
∠BAD.

23. AC = AD
BC = BD
AP = AQ
Prove ∠3 = ∠4.

15.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) None
2) 12
3) 90°
4) i) Infinite
ii) One line
iii) Three lines
5) ∠8 = 60°
6) S1 is not parallelogram to S2 because corresponding angles are not equal.
7) i) False
ii) False
iii) True
8) The two triangles are similar. Their corresponding angles are equal.

71
Content Based 9) The two triangles are similar. Their corresponding angles are equal. The
Methodology-II ratio of the third pair of sides is same as the ratio of the first two pairs of
sides.
10) ∠A = ∠M AB = MN
∠B = ∠N BC = NO
∠C = ∠O CA = OM
11) i) For equilateral triangle, the measurement of any one side will be
sufficient.
ii) For Isosceles triangle the measurement of one of the equal side
and the included angle .
12) a) Triangles are not congruent because angles are not included
between the sides.
b) ∆ PQ T ≅∆SRT –– (ASA)
c) ∆ PQ R ≅∆SUT –– (AAS)
d) ∆ ABF≅∆CDE –– (AAS)
e) ∆ BCM ≅∆CBN –– (AAS)
f) ∆ XYL ≅∆XZK –– (AAS)

15.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

• Artin, E. (1957). Geometric Algebra, Inter-Science, New York.
• Blumenthal, L.M. (1961). A Modern View of Geometry, W.H. Freeman,
San Francisco.
• Clements, D. and M. Battista. (1992). Geometry and Spatial Reasoning. In
D. Grouws.(Ed). Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and
Learning. Macmillan Publishing Co., NewYork
• Chambers, Paul. (2010). Teaching Mathematics – Developing as a
Reflective Secondary Teacher, Sage South Asia Ed., New Delhi.
• Crowley, M.L. (1987). The van Hiele Model of the Development of
Geometric Thought. In Lindquist, Mary (Ed.) Learning and Teaching
Geometry, K-12. Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
• Dodge, C.W. (1972). Euclidean Geometry and Transformations, Addison
Wesley, Reading, Mass.
• Eves, Howard, (1964). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics,
Rev. Ed., New York.
• Meserve, B.E. (1955). Fundamental Concept of Geometry, Addison
Wesley, Reading, Mass.
• Rainich, G.Y. and Dowdy, S.M. (1968).Geometry for Teachers, An
Introduction to Geometrical Theories, John Wiley, New York.

72
 Trigonometry and
UNIT 16 TRIGONOMETRY AND ITS its Application

APPLICATION
Structure

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Trigonometric Ratios
16.3.1 Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios
16.3.2 Trigonometric Ratios of some Specific Angles
16.3.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles
16.4 Trigonometric Identities
16.5 Height and Distance
16.6 Let Us Sum Up
16.7 Unit End Activities
16.8 Answers to Check your Progress
16.9 References and Suggested Readings

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever thought how we can find the height at which the kite is flying or
the height of QutabMinar or the distance of a ship from a light house.

In all the situations given above, the distance or height can be found by using
some mathematical technique which come under a branch of mathematics
called trigonometry.
The word Trigonometry is derived from the Greek words ‘tri’ meaning three,
‘gon’ meaning sides and ‘metron’ meaning measure. These three words
together mean triangle measurement. Thus trigonometry is the study of
relationships between the sides and angles in a triangle. Trigonometric
ratios of angles which always have a unique value for any given angle form the
basic tool for the study of these relationships. So in this unit we will study
about trigonometric ratio and identities. We will also study about how to apply
this knowledge to solve problems on heights and distances. Knowledge of
trigonometry is useful in many situations such as navigation of ships or
movements of aeroplanes, rockets, astronomical sciences, engineering surveys
etc. Thus we will also discuss how trigonometry can be used in our real life
situations.

73
Content Based
Methodology-II
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:-
• make the students understand the importance of Trigonometry;
• demonstrate to the students how the concepts of similarity form the basis
of trigonometric ratios;
• develop among students the skill of manipulating trigonometric ratios and
appreciate their relationship;
• help the students in using Pythagoras thereom to solve problems involving
trigonometric ratios;
• help the students in finding the trigonometric rations of complementary
angles and applying them;
• develop among students the skill of proving trigonometric identities; and
• develop problem solving skills as required to solve problems of height and
distance;

16.3 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

16.3.1 Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios
Ask student to consider a right triangle ABC
right angled at B as shown in the figure.
They know, that side opposite to the right
angle is always called the hypotenuse.

Ask students to consider ÐA or in brief

angle A.
It is an acute angle.

Now, for the remaining two sides AB and

BC they will see that BC is the side opposite
to Angle A , which is perpendicular to point
B and AB is the side of the Angle A (Angle A is formed by two sides - AB and
the hypotenuse). They can say that side AB as the side adjacent to Angle A.

Students we have already studied the concept of ratio. You can now define
certain ratios involving the sides of a right triangle and call them Trigonometric
Ratios. These trigonometric ratios express the relationship between the angle
and the lengths of its sides. Trigonometric ratios of angle A are defined as:
side opposite to angle A BC
sine of ÐA = =
hypotenuse AC
side adjacent of angle A AB
cosine of ÐA= =
hypotenuse AC
side opposite to angle A BC
tangent of ÐA= =
side adjacent to angle A AB

74
In abbreviated form, these ratios are sin A, cos A, tan A. The ratios cosecant A, Trigonometry and
secant A and cotangent A are the reciprocals of ratios sin A, cos A and tan A its Application
respectively and are written as cosec A, sec A and cot A.
1 hypotenuse AC
cosec A= = =
sin A side opposite to angle A BC
1 hypotenuse AC
sec A = = =
cos A side adjacent to angle A AB
1 side adjacent to angle A AB
cot A = = =
tan A side opposite to angle A BC
Students can observe that
BC BC AC sin A
tan A = = = and
AB AB AC cos A
1 cos A
cot A = =
tan A sin A
Now if you define the trigonometric ratios for
angle C in the same right triangle, you will
see that AC remains the hypotenuse as the
right angle B is fixed.
Now in place of angle A, you can take angle
C. So the side opposite to angle C is AB and
side adjacent to angle C is BC.
Ask your student to write the
trigonometricratios for angle C yourself.

Note:-
1 Note that sinA is not the product of sin and A, sin separated from A
has no meaning. Sin is always of some angle. The same follows for
other Trigonometric ratios also.

2 For the sake of convenience, we may write sin2A, cos2A, etc. in place
of (sin A)2, (cos A)2 etc. respectively. But we should not write cosec A,
which is the reciprocal of sin A as cosec A= sin-1 A. We can however
write cosec A = (sinA)-1
i. e. (sinA)-1
sin-1A.

3 Greek letter θ(theta) is also sometimes used to denote angle.

4 The trigonometric ratio of an angle is always a real number and so it

does not have any unit.

5 The word ‘trigonometric ratios’ is sometimes written briefly as t-

ratios.

6 In this unit, you shall always assume that

0⁰ ≤ θ ≤ 90⁰

75
Content Based Ask your students that if, they keep the angle A same but change the lengths of
Methodology-II the sides, will the value of trigonometric ratios of that angle change?
For this, ask them to consider again a right ∆ ABC right angled at B.

Take a point P on the hypotenuse AC.

Draw PM  AB
Now we want to find whether trigonometric ratios of angle A differ in
AMP and A ABC.
BC
Student already know that in DABC, sin A = _____ (1)
AC
PM
and they can see that in ∆AMP, sin A = _____ (2)
AP
Now, ∆AMP ∼ ∆ABC (AA criterion of similarity).
MP BC
So, = __________(3)
AP AC
So, from (1), (2) and (3) students can conclude that
sin A in ∆ABC = sin A in ∆AMP
In the same way, you can check that if students take any point Q on extended
AC and QN ⊥ AB extended, the value of sinA remains the same in ∆ AQN
also. Similarly, we can show for other trigonometric ratios, so from the above
you can conclude that values of the trigonometric
ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of
the sides of the triangle, if the angle remains the
same.
When you know any one trigonometric ratio
supposesinA in the figure, you also know the
lengths of two sides BC and AC.
If yourstudents are able to find the third side they
can find the value of all the other trigonometric
ratios.
Ask students, do they remember Pythagoras thereom for a right ∆ ABC ?

76 Student, may reply AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2

From this, they can find side AB = AC2 − BC2 Trigonometry and
its Application
So, now, students know the length of all the three sides AB, BC and AC and
so, they can obtain all other remaining five trigonometric ratios. Also note that
as hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, the value of sinA and cosA
is always less than 1 (or in particular equal to 1). The following examples will
make the idea clear.
Example-1:
In ∆PQR , right angled at Q, if PQ = 20 units and PR= 29 units, find sinP,
cosR, cotR.
Solution:-
By Pythagoras theorem students will have
PR 2 = PQ 2 + QR 2
292 = 202 + QR 2
or QR 2 = 292 − 20 2 = 841 − 400 = 441

So, QR = 21 units
QR 21
Therefore, sin P = =
PR 29
QR 21
cosR = =
PR 29
QR 21
cot R = =
PQ 20
Example 2:
3
Given cos A = , Find other t-ratios of angle
5
Solution:
Take a right ∆ABC (Figure)
3 AB
cos A = =
5 AC
AB 3
Note that = does not necessarily mean AB=3
AC 5
units and AC=5 units. In general, this means AB = 3k units and AC = 5k units,
where K is some constant.
By Pythagoras thereom, AC2=AB2+BC2
So,(5k)2=(3k)2+BC2
Or, BC 2 = (5k) - (3k) = 25k 2 - 9k 2 = 16k 2
2 2

So, BC=4k
BC 4k 4
Therefore, sin A = = =
AC 5k 5
1 5
cosec A = =
sin A 4
77
Content Based 1 5
Methodology-II sec A = =
cos A 3
sin A 4
tan A = =
cos A 3
1 3
cot A = =
tan A 4
Example 3:
In right ∆ABC , right angled at A, in which AB=5 units, BC=13 units and
∠ABC = θ , determine the value of sin 2 θ − cos 2 θ .
Solution:-
In ∆ABC,
BC2= AB2+AC2
So, AC2 = BC2 – AB2= 132 – 52 = 169 – 25 =144
So, AC =12 units
AC 12
Therefore, sin θ = =
BC 13
AB 5
cos θ = =
BC 13
2 2
2 212 5
so, sin θ − cos θ = −
13 13

144 − 25
=
169
119
=
169

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .

1) From the figure, write

sin P =
cosP =
tanR =
cosecR =

78
 Trigonometry and
2) From the figure, find tanP–cotR its Application

…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
13 1 - tan 2 q
3) Given sec θ = , find the value of
12 1 + tan 2 q
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

16.3.2 Trigonometric Ratios of some Specific Angles

In this section we will find the values of Trigonometric Ratios of 0⁰,30⁰, 45⁰,
60⁰ and 90⁰.
Trigonometry ratio of 45⁰could be introduced by
the following way.
Ask students to consider ∆ ABC, right angled at
B, if ∠ A = 45⁰ what can you say about ∠ C?
Students may respond that ∠ C will also be 45⁰.
The teacher can give measurent of each side to
be ‘a’. so
AB= BC =a (say)
To find the value of all t-ratios of A, you will
have to find the third side, Using
Pythogorasthereom we have
AC2= AB2 + BC2
AC2= a2 + a2 = 2a2
So, AC = a 2
Ask students by using the definitions of t-ratios, workout the different trigonometric
ratios for angle 45⁰
They may bring out that
BC a 1
sin 45° = = =
AC a 2 2
AB a 1
cos 45° = = =
AC a 2 2
BC a
tan 45° = = =1
AB a

79
Content Based 1
Methodology-II Also, cos ec45° = = 2
sin 45°
sec 45° = 2
cot 45° = 1
T-Ratios of 30⁰ and 60⁰
You can take an equilateral ∆ ABC
So, ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°
Draw, ADBC
Now ∆ABD ≅ ∆ACD (by RHS)
So, BD =CD
(cpct.)
and ∠ BAD = ∠ CAD

You know that to find the value of all the t-ratios, you must know all the three
sides of the triangle.
In ∆ ABD, let AB = 2a
1 1
As BD= CD So BD = BC = × 2a = a
2 2
By Pythagoras theorem,
AD 2 = AB2 − BD 2
2
= ( 2a ) − a 2 = 3a 2
so, AD = a 3

Therefore, in D ABD, AB = 2a, BD =a and AD = a 3

Now you as well as your students can find all the t-ratios for angle 60⁰ and
∠ BAD = 30⁰
Ask student to all find the t –ratios yourself.
T-Ratios of 0⁰ and 90⁰
In the figure, in right ∆ABC ,
If ∠ A is made smaller and smaller, the
length of the side BC goes on decreasing and
point C gets closer and closer to point B and
finally when ∠ A becomes very close to 0⁰,
BC gets very close to 0 and AC becomes
almost the same as AB.

80
 BC Trigonometry and
So, sin A = is very close to 0.
AC its Application
AB
cos A = is very close to 1.
AC
So, you define
sin 0⁰=0
cos 0⁰=1
Using these, you have
sin 00
tan 00 = =0
cos 00
1
cot 00 = = ¥ which is not defined as division by 0 is not
tan 00
defined.
1
sec 00 = =1
cos 00
1
cos ec 00 = = ¥ which again is not defined.
sin 00
Similarly, when ∠ A is made larger and larger in ∆ ABC till it becomes 90⁰,
point A gets closer to point B and side AC almost coincides with side BC.

Thus, you have

sin90⁰ =1 and cos90⁰ =0
Ask student to find the other Trigonometric ratios of 90⁰.
Note:
It should be noted that there exist values of all the trigonometric ratios for
angles other than these angles also. The values can be obtained from
trigonometric tables which your student will study in higher classes.
Values of all t- ratios of 0⁰, 30⁰ , 45⁰ , 60⁰ and 90⁰.
∠A 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º
sin A 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2
cos A 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2
tan A 0 1 1 3 Not
3 defined

81
Content Based cosec A Not 2 2 1
Methodology-II
2
defined 3
sec A 1 2 2 2 Not
3 defined
cot A Not 3 1 1 0
defined 3
From the above table, students can observe that as ÐA increases from 0⁰ to
90⁰, sinA increases from 0 to 1 and cosA decreases from 1 to 0 and also that
0 ≤ sinA ≤ 1
1≤ cosA ≤ 0
Example 4:-
Evaluate cot2 45⁰- sec260⁰ + sin2 60⁰ + cos2 90⁰
Solution: Given expression
2
2 2 3
=1 − 2 + + 02
2

3
= 1− 4 +
4
9
=−
4
In previous section, you have found all the t-ratios when any two side of the
right triangle are given. Now if, your students are given one side of the triangle
and one angle of the right triangle, then they can find the other two sides of the
triangle. Let us see an example.
Example 5:-
In ∆ ABC, right angled at B, if AB= 5cm,
∠ C = 30⁰, determine the sides BC and AC.
Solution:-
You are given AB and we want to
find BC. So we will choose that-ratio, which
involves these two sides. Here, it is tanC (or
cotC)
AB
tan 30° =
BC
1
Ask student, as they know that tan 30° =
3
1 5
So, =
3 BC
Or , BC = 5√3 cm
To determine AC, you have

82
 AB Trigonometry and
sin C =
AC its Application
5
sin 30° =
AC
1 5
i.e., =
2 AC
Or, AC = 10 cm
To determine AC you could have used cosC, secC or Pythagoras theorem also.
Now, if your students are given two sides of right triangle they can find its
angles also. Let us an example.
Example 6:-
In right ∆ PQR, right angled at Q, PQ = 3 cm and PR = 6cm, determine ∠ P,
∠ R.
Solution:
You choose that t-ratio which involves the
two given sides.
PQ 3 1
So, sin R = = =
PR 6 2
So, ∠ R = 30⁰
and so, ∠ P = 60⁰
From the above, you must have noticed that if one of the sides and any other
part either an acute angle or any side of a right triangle are given, you can find
the remaining sides and angles of the triangle.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
4. Evaluate 4 cot 2 45° − sec 2 60° + sin 2 60° + cos 2 90°
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
5. In ∆ PQR, right angled at Q,
if PQ = 12cm, ∠ P = 60⁰,
determine PR and QR.
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………

83
Content Based 6. In ∆ ABC right angled at B, if AB = 3cm, AC = 2 √3 cm, find ∠ A and ∠ C.
Methodology-II
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
16.3.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles
Ask your student to recall that two angles are complementary angles, if their
sum is 90⁰.
In right ∆ ABC right angled at B,
∠ A + ∠ C = 90⁰.
For convenience, you can write
A + C = 90⁰
i.e. C = 90° − A
BC AB
Now, sin A = , cos A =
AC AC
AB BC
sin C = , cos C =
AC AC
You can see that
sin A = cos C and cos A = sin C
i.e. sin A = cos (90° − A ) , cos A = sin (90° − A )
Similarly, you can show other t-ratios.
So, for angles lying between 0⁰ and 90⁰, you have
sin (90° − A ) = cos A
cos (90° − A ) = sin A
tan (90° − A ) = cot A
cos ec (90° − A ) = sec A
sec (90° − A ) = cos ecA
cot (90° − A ) = tan A
so, you have
sin30⁰ =cos60⁰
cos30⁰ =sin60⁰
tan30⁰ =cot60⁰
cosec30⁰=sec60⁰
sec30⁰ =cosec60⁰
84 cot30⁰ =tan60⁰
Angle 45⁰ is its own complement. Hence Trigonometry and
sin45⁰ =cos45⁰ its Application

tan45⁰ =cot45⁰
sec45⁰ =cosec45⁰
Example 7
Evaluatecos48⁰ − sin42⁰
Solution
cos48⁰ − sin42⁰= cos48⁰ − sin (90⁰ − 48⁰)
=cos48⁰ − cos48⁰
=0
Example 8
If sec4A = cosec (A − 20⁰), where 4A is an acute angle, find A.
Solution
since, sec4A =cosec (90⁰ − 4A)
So, cosec (90⁰ − 4A) =cosec (A − 20⁰)
As 90⁰ − 4A and A − 20⁰, both are acute angles, you have
90⁰ − 4A = A − 20⁰
Or 5A = 110⁰
Or A = 22⁰
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
sin18°
7) Evaluate
cos 72°
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
8) Prove that
cos 20° cos θ
+ =2
sin 70° sin (90° − θ )
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
9) If sin 3A = cos ( A − 26°) , where 3A is an acute angle, find the value of A.
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….

85
Content Based
Methodology-II
16.4 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Can you recall what is an identity ?
An equation which is true for all the values of the variables is called an
identity.
A trigonometric identity is an equation, which involves Trigonometric ratios
and is true for all the values of the angles involved.
Consider ∆ ABC right angled at B
AB² + BC² = AC² ____ (1)
Dividing each term of (1) by AC²
You will have
AB2 BC 2
+ =1
AC 2 AC2
æ AB ö 2 æ BC ö 2
i.e. çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = 1
è AC ø è AC ø
2 2
or (cos A ) + (sin A ) = 1
or cos2 A + sin 2 A = 1
This is true for all A such that 0⁰ ≤ A ≤ 90⁰,
So, this is a Trigonometric Identity.
In (i) above, dividing by AB², you will have
æ AB ö 2 æ BC ö 2 æ AC ö 2
çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = ç
ç ÷÷
è AB ø è AB ø è AB ø
i.e. 1 + tan2A = sec²A _________ (2)
As tanA and secA are not defined for A =90⁰, so (2) is true for all A such that
0⁰ ≤ A < 90⁰.
Similarly, dividing (i) by BC² , you can get
æ AB ö 2 æ BC ö 2 æ AC ö 2
çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = ç
ç ÷÷
è BC ø è BC ø è BC ø
i.e. cot²A+1 = cosec²A ________ (3)
(3) is true for all A such that 0⁰< A ≤ 90⁰.
Thus, you will have
sin²A+cos²A = 1
sec²A=1+tan²A
cosec²A=1+cot²A
These three relations are all identities and are called fundamental identities.
Each of these identities can be obtained from the other.
If your students know one t-ratio, they can determine other t-ratios using these
identities.

86
Suppose you are given sinA. From the identity sin²A+cos²A=1 you canfind Trigonometry and
sin A its Application
cosA.AlsotanA will be obtained from the relations tan A =
cos A
So, now you know sinA, cosA and tanA and the other t-ratio are reciprocals of
these.
Example 9
Express cosec θ in term of cos θ .
Solution:
Since, sin² θ + cos²θ =1
So, sin² θ = 1 − cos²θ
1
or, = 1 − cos 2 θ
cos ec 2θ
1
or, cos ec2θ =
1 − cos 2 θ
1
or, cos ecθ = ±
1 − cos 2 θ
As θ is an acute angle, you have
1
cos ecθ =
1 − cos 2 θ
Example 10
2 1 − cos θ
Prove that (cos ecθ − cot θ ) =
1 + cos θ
Solution:
2
1 cos θ
L.H.S. = −
sin θ sin θ

æ1 - cos q ö 2 (1 - cos q )
2

= çç ÷÷ =
è sin q ø sin 2 q

=(
1 - cos q )
2

1 - cos 2 q
(1 - cosq )
2
1 - cos q
= = = R.H.S.
(1 - cosq )(1 + cosq ) 1 + cos q

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
10) Express secA in terms of sinA.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
87
Content Based
Methodology-II
1 + tan 2 A
11) Simplify
1 + cot 2 A
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
12) Prove that
tan⁴A +tan²A= sec⁴A − sec²A
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

16.5 HEIGHT AND DISTANCE

In the earlier section you have studied about trigonometric ratios. In this
section, you will study how trigonometry is used in finding the heights and
distances of various objects without actually measuring them.
Whenever, an engineer faces problem in determining the width of a river or
height of a tower etc., which may not be easily possible to measure with a
measuring tape, she/he imagines a big right triangle. Knowing a side and an
angle by using any surveying instrument she/he can use the knowledge of
trigonometric ratios to calculate the unknown side i.e. width of the river or
height of the tower.
Let us consider an observer viewing a certain object

(i) (ii)
The line drawn from the eye of the observer to the point in the object being
viewed is called the line of sight. The angle made by the line of sight with the
horizontal is called the angle of elevation or angle of depression depending
upon the object viewed is above the horizontal line or below the horizontal
line.
88
If the object being viewed is above the horizontal line, the angle ∠ BAC is the Trigonometry and
angle of elevation as in fig (i). its Application
If the observer is standing on a balcony and viewed the object C on the road the
∠ BAC is the angle of depression as in the figure (ii). Note here ∠ CAD is not
the angle of depression.
Now let us solve problems.
Example 11
An Electrician has to repair an electric fault on
a pole height 5 m. He needs to reach a point
1.3m below the top of the pole to undertake
the repair work what should be the length of
the ladderthat he should use which, when
inclinedat an angle of 60⁰ to the horizontal,
would enable his to reach the required
position?Also, how far from the foot of the
pole should he place the foot of the ladder?
(take 3 =1.73 )
Solution:-
The electrician has to reach to point B on the pole AD
So, BD = AD – AB = (5 - 1.3) m = 3.7 m
Here, BC represents the ladder in the right ∆BCD and we wants to find its
length.
Which t-ratio should be used?
It should be Sin60⁰
BD 3.7 3
So, = sin 60 2 or =
BC BC 2
3.7 × 2
or, BC = = 4.28m (approx )
3
i.e. length of the ladder should be 4.28m.
We also want to find how far from the foot of the pole should be the foot of the
ladder.
DC 1
= cot 600 =
BC 3
DC 1
Or, =
3.7 3
3.7
So, DC = = 2.14m (approx )
3
Therefore, she should place the foot of the ladder at a distance of 2.14m from
the pole.
Example 12
From a point on the ground 40 m away from the foot of a tower, the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower is 30⁰. The angle of the elevation to the top of
89
Content Based a water tank on the top of the tower is 45⁰. Find the height of the tower and the
Methodology-II depth of the tank.
Solution

In right ∆ ACB, we have

BC 1
= tan 300 =
AC 3
BC 1
or =
40 3
40 40 3
or BC = = = 23.1m approx
3 3
Thus, height of tower is 23.1m (approx).
To find the depth BD of the water tank you require the length CD
In ∆ ACD , you have
CD CD
= 1 or = 1 or, CD = 40m
AC 40
Hence, depth of the water tank = BD Þ CD − CB Þ (40 − 23.1)m Þ 16.9m
(approx.)
Example 13
A tree stands vertically on the bank of a river. From a point on the other bank
directly opposite the tree, the angle of the elevation of the top of the tree is 60⁰.
From a point 20m behind this point on the same bank, the angle of elevation of
the top of the tree is 30⁰. Find the height of the tree and the width of the river.
Solution

90
Let AB be the height of the tree and let C and D be the two points on the other Trigonometry and
bank opposite to the tree so that BC measures the width of the river, you want its Application
to find AB and BC.
In ∆ ABC
AB
= tan 60°
BC
Or AB = BC 3 ----------------(i)
Now in ∆ ABD
AB 1
= tan 30° =
BD 3
AB 1
i.e. =
(20 + BC) 3
20 + BC
or AB = − − − − (ii)
3
From (i) & (ii) you will have
20 + BC
BC 3 =
3
or 3BC = 20 + BC
or, 2BC = 20
or, BC = 10
So, by (i) AB = 10√3 =17.3m (aprox.)
Hence, height of the tree is 17.3 m approx. and width of the river is 10m.
Example 14
The angels of depression of the top and
bottom of an 8m tall building from the top of
a multistoried building are 30⁰ and 45⁰
respectively. Find the height of the multi-
storied building and the distance between the
two buildings.
Solution
In the figure, AB denotes the multi-storied
building and CD the 8m tall building.
You want to find out AB and BD.
∠ FAC = ∠ ACE
and Alternative angles
∠ FAD= ∠ ADB
So, ∠ ACE = 30⁰ and ∠ ADB = 45⁰
Now in right ∆ ACE ,
AE 1
= tan 30° =
CE 3
So, CE = AE √3 --------- (1)
91
Content Based In right ∆ ADB,
Methodology-II
AB
= tan 45° = 1
BD
So, BD=AB -----------(2)
Also BD=CE -----------(3)
So, by (1), (2) & (3) you have,
CE= AE√3 = BD = AB = AE + BE = AE +8
so, AE 3 = AE + 8
i.e, AE ( )
3 −1 = 8

8 8 ( 3 +1 ) 8 ( 3 +1 )=4
so, AE = =
(
= ( )
3 +1
3 −1 3 −1 )( 3 +1 ) 3 −1

So, height of the multi –storied building

= AB =AE + BE = 4 (√3 +1) + 8 = 4 (√3 +3) m
Distance between two buildings = BD = AB = 4 (√3 +3) m

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit .
13) The length of the shadow of a man is equal to the height of the man. The
angle of depression is?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
14) From a point 20m away from the foot of the tower the angle of elevation
of the top of the tower is 30⁰. The height of the tower is:
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
15) A circus artist is climbing from the ground along a rope stretched from
the top of vertical pole and tied at the ground. The height of the pole is
12m and the angle made by the rope with ground level is 30⁰. Calculate
the distance covered by the artist in climbing to the top of the pole.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

92
16) From a point on a bridge across a river, the angles of depression of the Trigonometry and
banks on opposite sides of the river are 30⁰ and 45⁰ respectively. If the its Application
bridge is at a height of 3m from the banks, find the width of the river.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

16.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have defined six Trigonometric ratios. These ratios are unique
for any given angle and form the basic building blocks in the study of
trigonometry. T-ratios of some specific angles and the t-ratios of
complementary angles are derived. Three fundamental identities using
Pythagoras theorem and inter relationship of t-ratios has been used to solve
problems on trigonometric identities.
An important use of trigonometry has been illustrated by solving problems on
height and distances. You would have realized that for solving height and
distance problems, it is very necessary to draw a diagram as per the given
information. Thus an elementary treatment of Trigonometry has been provided
in this unit since it lays a foundation for further study of subject.

16.7 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

3
1) In ∆ PQR, Q=90⁰ and sin R = , write the value of cosP.
5
sin A + cos A
2) Given that 16cotA = 12, find the value of
sin A − cos A
3) Simplify
tan²60⁰ + 2cos² 45⁰ + 3 (sec² 30⁰ + cos² 90⁰ )
4) Evaluate
cos 58° cos 38° cos ec52°
2 − 3
sin 32° tan15° tan 60° tan 75°

5) ( )
If sin 2θ = cos θ − 36° , 2θ and θ − 36° are acute angles, then find the
value of θ .
6) Prove that:-
cos A cos A
+ = cos A, A ≠ 45°
1 − tan A 1 − cot A
7) From a point P on the ground the angle of elevation of the top of a 10m
tall building is 30⁰. A flag is hoisted at the top of the building and the
angle of elevation of the top of the flagstaff from P is 45⁰. Find the length
of the flagstaff and the distance of the building from the point P. (√3 =
1.732)

93
Content Based 8) The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of the tower
Methodology-II is 30⁰ and the angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of
the building is 60⁰. If tower is 50m high, find the height of the building.
9) As observed from the top of a 75m high lighthouse from the sea level, the
angles of depression of two ships are 30⁰ and 45⁰. If one ship is exactly
behind the other on the same side of the lighthouse, find the distance
between two ships.

16.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4 3 3 5
1) , , ,
5 5 4 3
2) 0
119
3)
169
3
4)
4
5) 24cm, 12√3cm
6) 30⁰, 60⁰
7) 1
9) 29⁰
1
10)
1 − sin 2 A
11) tan²A
13) 45⁰
14) 20 3
15) 24m
16) 3 (√3+1)m

16.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

• IGNOU. (2000). Teaching of Mathematics: ES-342, IGNOU, New Delhi
• NCERT. (2014).Mathematics, Textbook for Class VIII. New Delhi:
NCERT.
• NCERT. (2014).Mathematics, Textbook for Class IX. New Delhi: NCERT.
• NCERT. (2014).Mathematics, Textbook for Class X. New Delhi: NCERT.

94
 Mensuration and
UNIT 17 MENSURATION AND COORDINATE Coordinate
Geometry
GEOMETRY
Structure

17.1 Introduction
17.2 Objectives
17.3 Measurement of Perimeter and Area
17.3.1 Perimeter of Rectangle, Square and Triangle
17.3.2 Circumference of the Circle
17.3.3 Area of Trapezium, Quadrilateral and Polygon
17.3.4 Surface Area of Cuboid, Cube, Cylinder, Cone and Sphere
17.4 Measurement of Volume
17.4.1 Volume of Cuboid and Cube
17.4.2 Volume of Cylinder
17.4.3 Volume of Cone
17.5 Coordinate Geometry: Basics and Use
17.6 Distance Formula
17.7 Section Formula
17.8 Let Us Sum Up
17.9 Unit End Activities
17.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
17.11 References and Suggested Readings

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Children are familiar with objects like notebook, pencil, lunch box, writing
table, bench, desk and so on. When children think of such objects, generally the
shape comes to their mind. In addition, the grown ups think about their
boundaries, space covered, area, etc. In the case of objects mentioned, each of
these objects is in the form of certain geometrical figures i.e. square, rectangle,
cylinder, circle, etc. In Mathematics the study of shapes occupies a prominent
role as it has relevance in construction of building, houses, bridges, play
grounds, etc. While constructing a new home, the shape and size matters. The
same is experienced when children arrange their bench and desks in the
classroom. In such situations, we do take measurements and the plan is
executed accordingly. The area concerning measuring various dimensions of
geometrical figures is termed as Mensuration. So in first section of this unit, we
will discuss concepts of perimeter, area and volume. Then of this unit we will
try to explore deductive methods for arriving at formula for perimeter, area and
volume for different objects. Further, we will study about basics of co-ordinate
geometry and its applications in day-to-day life*.

* Few examples and figures of this Unit has been adopted from Mathematics NCERT
Textbooks

95
Content Based
Methodology-II
17.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• help students understand the meaning of area , perimeter and volume;
• use of the methods of measuring area and perimeter;
• determine the volume of various objects;
• appreciate the beauty of doing geometry in algebraic way;
• recall the basics of Cartesian system;
• develop the skill of proving distance formula and section formula;
• apply them in different situations; and
• help students to develop problem solving skills.

17.3 MEASUREMENT OF PERIMETER AND AREA

Meena, a student of eighth class asked her Mathematics teacher, “Madam, each
day I am running two rounds in our school play ground. But I don’t know how
much distance I cover each day? Could you please help me to calculate it?”
The teacher had used this question to initiate chapter on Mensuration in some
other classes. To this question, teacher started responding, “Students, we have
seen various geometrical shapes such as squares, rectangles, circles, etc.”
(Teacher draws various geometrical shapes on black board)

Fig 17.1: Geometrical Shapes

After drawing the figures, she continued asking questions, “Students, how will
you list the difference among these figures? Is there something common among
the figures? Are they similar?” Few of the students responded but many kept
silent. Then teacher continued, “Children, we need to have idea about various
geometrical figures and its related dimensions, to compare the figures which
would enable one to distinguish.” In the case of geometrical figures, to assess
them, we find its dimensions and measurements. Few of such measurements
are perimeter, area, surface area and volume. As you know, generally we find
two types of figures (shapes) i.e. plane figures and solid figures. The formula
for calculating perimeter, area and volume of plane figures and solid figures are
different and we would discuss the same in today’s class.
You have seen how the Mathematics teacher has made her first move to
introduce the chapter on Mensuration. In Mensuration, the different aspects
concerning plane and solid figures are discussed. Being a teacher you may also
think of alternative strategies to introduce the topic Mensuration that would
create an attention grabbing atmosphere in the classroom. As discussed above,
one of the measurements concerning plane figures is the perimeter of the
figure. What is perimeter? Perimeter is the distance covered along the
boundary forming a closed figure when you go round the figure once.
Suppose you start from point A and travel as shown (Figure 17.2) to reach the
96 same point, the distance covered is equal to perimeter of the figure. The
perimeter of the plane figure is the distance of the outer boundary of the figure. Mensuration and
The knowledge of perimeter is helpful in the following situations: Coordinate
• Construction of compound wall for houses, educational organizations, etc. Geometry

• Partition of cabins and rooms in buildings

• To mark tracks in play grounds

Fig 17.2
How will you calculate the perimeter of plane figures? Let us start with a
simple figure. In order to calculate the perimeter, you need to have
understanding of units and its conversion from one to the other (For example
converting cm to m, mm to cm, etc.). In the Figure 17.3, first the distances
AB,BC,CD,DE ,EF and FA are calculated and they are added. The resulting
value would be the perimeter of the figure. The calculation is given below:

Perimeter= AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FA = 3cm + 5cm + 5cm + 2cm + 2cm

+ 3cm = 20cm

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Suggest a learning activity to introduce the concept of Mensuration.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2) What is perimeter? How will you calculate the perimeter of plane figures?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
97
Content Based 17.3.1 Perimeter of Rectangle, Square and Triangle
Methodology-II
Consider a rectangle with measurements as shown in the Figure17.4. In this
case the perimeter is found out as follows:
Perimeter of the rectangle= Sum of the lengths of its four sides
= AB+BC+CD+DA Opposite sides
of a rectangle
=AB+BC+AB+BC (Since CD=AB and AD=BC) are equal
So AB=CD
=2 × AB+2 × BC and BC=AD
=2 × (AB+BC)
=2 × (7 cm+ 3cm)
=2 × (10cm)
=20cm

Fig 17.4
Thus we can say that;
Perimeter of the rectangle = length+ breadth+ length+ breadth
Or Perimeter of a Rectangle = 2× (Length+ Breadth)
Now let us calculate perimeter of few regular closed figures. What is the
peculiarity of regular closed figures? Figures that have all sides equal length
and all angles of equal measure are known as regular figures. For example,
square, equilateral triangle,etc. In the below given box, the perimeter of a
square and an equilateral triangle are calculated:

Fig 17.5
Perimeter of Square = Sum of the lengths of Fig 17.6
its four sides
=AB+BC+CD+DA(Since AB=BC=CD=DA) Perimeter of equilateral triangle = Sum of the lengths of

=4×AB its three sides

=4×4cm = AB+BC+CA
=AB+AB+AB (Since AB=BC=CA)
=16cm
=3×AB
Therefore we can say that, instead of adding
the sides four times, multiply one side by 4, =3×(3cm)
which would give the perimeter of the square. =9cm
Thus Therefore we can say that, instead of adding the sides
Perimeter of Square = 4×Length of one side three times, multiply one side by 3, which would give the
perimeter of an equilateral triangle. Thus
Perimeter of Equilateral Triangle = 3×Length of one
side
98
In the above section we have derived the formula for finding perimeter of a Mensuration and
regular figure. Now the question is what would be the perimeter of a regular Coordinate
closed figure having five sides? For example, a pentagon. In the case of Geometry
pentagon or figures having equal sides (regular polygons), we may deduce that,
the perimeter is:
Perimeter of a regular polygon= Number of sides × Length of one side.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
3) Find the perimeter of the following figure:
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..

17.3.2 Circumference of the Circle

So far we discussed perimeter of few shapes such as rectangle, square,
equilateral triangle etc. Now let us investigate the question put forwarded by
Meena. She wants to know the distance covered as she takes two rounds in the
play ground (The play ground is circular in shape).
The distance around a circular region is called
circumference of the circle. So if we want to
calculate the distance covered by Meena, we need to
calculate the circumference of the circular ground
and then multiply by two. How circumference of
circle is calculated? We may use a string for the
same. Stretch the string from point A and move
along till it reaches the same point (Fig 17.7).
Then measure the length of the string using a scale
(cm or m scale may be used) which would give the circumference. Such a
measurement is practically impossible, if the circle is big and hence we have to
arrive at a formula which can be used to find the circumference of the circle.
In order to arrive at the formula for the circumference of the circle, let us
examine the following table:

Radius Diameter Circumference Ratio of

Circle Circumference to
in cm in cm in cm Diameter
1 3.5 7 22 22/7=3.14
2 7 14 44 44/14=3.14
3 10.5 21 66 66/21=3.14
4 21 42 132 132/42=3.14
5 5 10 32 32/10=3.2
6 15 30 94 94/30=3.13
(Source: 7th Class Mathematics Text Book, NCERT)
99
Content Based Here the circumference is calculated using string method. From the table, it is
Methodology-II found that, the circumference is approximate three times diameter and the ratio
of circumference to diameter is constant. This constant is denoted by the term π
(pi) and its approximate value is 22/7=3.14. Thus we can deduce that;
C/d= π (Where ‘C’ is the circumference of the circle and‘d’ is the diameter)
Therefore, C= πd= π2r (Since d= 2r i.e. diameter of the circle is twice the
radius)
Or C= 2πr
Thus circumference of the circle is given by the formula, C= 2πr
Now let us discuss a practical application of measuring perimeter. Consider the
following example:
Example 1: A farmer wishes to fence his farmland. The length of the sides of
the land is 82m, 222m, 104m and 282 m. If it costs 50 per metre to fence,
what will be total cost required to fence the farmland?

Solution
In this case, firstly, we have to find the perimeter of the farmland and then it
has to be multiplied with the money required for one metre. The calculation
goes like this:
Perimeter of the farmland= 82m+222m+104m+282 m=690m
Cost required= 50 × 690= 34500

17.3.3 Area of Trapezium, Quadrilateral and Polygon

You as a teacher have the knowledge that, children studied few facts related to
the concept area in their earlier classes and they have understood area as the
region occupied by the closed figure or amount of surface enclosed by a
closed figure. How will you start the topic measurement of area? A simple
method would be, you may distribute different leaves to students and ask them
to find the area. Or else even you can ask children to measure area of their
notebook/textbooks. A more interesting strategy would be, split children into
different groups, provide them objects of different shapes and direct them to
find the area of each these objects. At this point, you may help your students to
recall the following points;
• Area is the amount of surface enclosed by a closed figure.
100
• To calculate area using squared paper/graph paper, following conventions Mensuration and
are used: Coordinate
a) Ignore portions of the area that are less than half a square. Geometry

b) If more than half a square is in a region,count it as one square.

c) If exactly half the square is counted, take its area as ½ sq. units.
• Area of rectangle=length × breadth
• Area of square=side × side
• Area of parallelogram=base × height
• Area of triangle=1/2(area of the parallelogram generated form it)
=1/2 × base × height
• All the congruent triangles are equal in area but the triangles equal in
area need not be congruent.
• Area of circle=πr2(where r is the radius of the circle)
Let us recall, the following facts (Teacher shows the following chart in the
classroom)
Diagram Shape Area

Rectangle axb

Square axa

Triangle ½ bxh

Parallelogram bxh

Circle πr2

In the coming sections we will explore formula to find area of few other
shapes. Let us do it one by one and later look at its practical applications. 101
Content Based Area of Trapezium
Methodology-II
Consider a trapezium as shown in the Figure 17.9. To find the area of the
trapezium, draw EC‫׀׀‬AB. Then we get a rectangle ABCE and triangle ECD
right angled at C.
Therefore, Area of trapezium ABDE = Area of triangle +Area of rectangle
Area of trapezium= Area of ∆ ECD+ Area
of ABCE
1
=
2
(h ´ c) + (h ´ a)
æc+2aö æc+a +aö
= hç
ç ÷÷ = hç
ç ÷÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø

= h(
b + a)
2
i.e. Area of Trapezium =
height × (
sum of parallel sides)
2
Or Area of trapezium =

perpendicular distance between the parallel sides × (

sum of parallel sides)
2
So to find the area of a trapezium we need to know the length of the parallel
sides and the perpendicular distance between these two parallel sides. Half the
product of the sum of the lengths of parallel sides and the perpendicular
distance between them gives the area of trapezium.
Let us see an example to make idea clear about it.
Example 2. Find the area of the following figure ABCD.
Solution:
Area of trapezium =
height × (
sum of parallel sides)
2

= 3´ (
8 + 6)
= 21 cm 2
2

Area of General Quadrilateral

Consider a quadrilateral ABCD (children
should be convinced that parallelogram is
also a quadrilateral). To find the area,
draw any diagonal to get two triangles as shown in the Figure 17.10. This
process is known as ‘triangulation’. At this stage children should made to recall
the process of triangulation, which they have come across in their previous
classes.

102
Thus area of quadrilateral ABCD= Area of ∆ABC+ Area of ∆ADC Mensuration and


Coordinate
= ( AC × h1)+ ( AC × h2)
Geometry


= AC × (h1+ h2)


=  (h1+ h2)
Where d= Length of the diagonal AC
Area of Special Quadrilateral (Rhombus)
Consider a rhombus ABCD as shown in the Figure 17.11. To calculate the area
of rhombus, draw two diagonals resulting in ∆ABC and ∆ACD. The two
diagonals are perpendicular bisectors.
Then, area of rhombus = Area of ∆ADC+ Area of ∆ABC
1 1
= (AC × OD) + (AC × OB)
2 2
1
= AC × (OD+OB)
2
1
= AC × BD
2
1
= d1 × d2
2
1
Area of Rhombus= (d1 × d2)
2
where d1 and d2 are length of diagonals
Area of a Polygon
Apart form the general shapes, children come across various shapes that have
multiple sides and we call them polygon. In order to calculate area of any
polygon, we divide them into various triangles
and quadrilateral and area is separately
calculated for each of the triangles and
quadrilateral. Then after, these areas are added
to get the final area. For example, consider a
polygon as shown in the Figure 17.12 Here the
polygon ABCDE is divided into three
triangles namely ∆ABC, ∆ACD and ∆AED.
Thus the area of the polygon ABCDE is given
by

Area of polygon ABCDE= Area of ∆ABC+ Area of ∆ACD + Area of ∆AED

We have explored formula for the finding area of various
geometrical figures. Let see few practical applications.
Example 3. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Solution:
1
Area of quadrilateral = d (h1 ×h2)
2
Here d = 6 cm, h1 = 3cm, h2 = 2.5 cm
103
Content Based 1
Methodology-II \ Area of quadrilateral ABCD = 6 (3 + 2.5)
2
= 16.5 cm2
Example 4: Find the area of the given
rhombus.
Solution:
1
Area of rhombus = (d1 ×d2)
2
Here d1 = 8 cm, d2 = 7 cm
1
\ Area of rhombus = (8´ 7) = 28 cm2
2
Example 5: Find the area of given polygon,
Solution:
Area of polygon PQRST = Area of ∆PXQ + Area of Trapezium QRYX +
Area of∆ RYS + Area of∆ PST

1 1
Area of ∆PXQ = PX × QX = 2.5 × 2.5 = 3.125 cm2
2 2

Area of Trapezium QRYX = XY

(QX + RY ) = 3 ( 2.5 + 3) = 8.25 cm2 .
2 2
1 1
Area of ∆RYS = ´ YS´ RY = ´ 2.5´ 3 = 3.75cm 2
2 2
1 1
Area of ∆PST = ´ PS ´ ZT = ´ 8 ´ 2.5 = 10cm 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
\ Area of Polygon PQRST = 3.125 cm + 8.25 cm + 3.75 cm + 10 cm =
25.125 cm2
Example 6: The area of a rhombus is 360cm2. If the length of one of the
diagonals is 26cm, what will be length of the second diagonal?
Solution:
1
We know, area of rhombus is given by the formula
2
(d1 ´ d 2 )
Here area = 360 cm2, d1=26 cm and d2 = x (to be found out).
Substituting values, we get,
1
360 = (26 ´ x)
104 2
 26x Mensuration and
360 =
2 Coordinate
360 ´ 2 Geometry
x= = 27.69 cm » 28cm
26
Length of second diagonal = 28 cm
So far we have discussed the formula to find the area of quadrilateral and
polygons and mostly these are plane figures. Remember that children must
have seen match boxes, text books, lunch boxes and many such objects. Are
they plane figures? Of course not! Such objects are solid objects and we
classify them into solid figures which are three dimensional in nature. Unlike
area for plane figures, we use the term surface area for solid figures. Now let us
establish the formula used for finding surface area of solid shapes such as
cuboids, cubes and cylinders.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
4) ‘To calculate the area of any polygon, one should have mastery in
calculation of area of triangles’. Prove the statement with an example.
………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

17.3.4 Surface Area of Cuboid, Cube, Cylinder, Cone and Sphere

Surface Area of Cuboid
A cuboidal box (Fig 17.13a), when opened will look similar to the figure (Fig
17.13b) shown below. In Fig 17.3 b, we can see that, the outer surface of
cuboidal box is made out of six rectangles (Rectangle I to VI) and there are
three pairs of identical faces. The rectangular regions are called as the faces of
the cuboid. In order to find the surface area of cuboidal box, find the area of
each of the rectangles from 1 to VI and add them.

Fig. 17.13 a Fig. 17.13b

(Source: Mathematical Textbook for class VIII, pp 180, NCERT)
105
Content Based Surface area of the cuboid= Area of I+ Area of II+ Area of III+Area of IV+
Methodology-II Area of V+ Area of VI
=h ×l+b ×l+b × h+l× h+b × h+l× b
=2(h ×l+ b × h+ b ×l)
=2(lb+bh+hl)
Surface Area of Cuboid= 2(lb+bh+hl);
Where l=length, b= breadth and h=height

Lateral Surface Area of Cuboid

In the case of cuboids, the area corresponding to four faces (Area I to IV in Figure 17.13b) is
referred to as lateral surface area. Lateral surface are of a cuboid of length ‘l’, breadth ‘b’ and
height ‘h’ is given by the formula;
Lateral Surface Area=2lh + 2bh or 2h(l + b)

Surface Area of Cube

As we have done in the case of cuboids, children must be asked to open up a
cube and the resulting figure would be one shown in Figure 17.14b.

Fig. 17.14b

What will be the surface area of cube then? Students must be provided learning
experiences to recognize that; cube is a form of cuboid with all six faces having
same length. Thus the surface area (or we call total surface area) of cube is
given by the formula 2(l× l+ l× l+ l× l) =2(3l2)
i.e. Surface area of Cube = 6l2
Let us solve some examples.
Example 7: Calculate the surface area of a matchbox having height 5cm,
length 2cm and width 3.5cm.
Solution: The match box is in cubiodal shape.
Area of match box = 2 (lb + bh+ hl)
Here, h = 5 cm, l = 2 cm, b = 3.5 cm
Surface Area = 2 (2 × 3.5 + 3.5 × 5 + 5 × 2)
= 2(7+17.5+10) = 69 cm2
Example 8: What is the surface area of the cube measuring each side 6cm?
Solution:
Surface area of cube = 6l2
Here l = 6 cm
Surface Area = 6 × (6) 2 = 216 cm2

106
Surface Area of a Cylinder Mensuration and
Students have seen objects like tins, lunch boxes, oil bottles, water bottles, Coordinate
water pipes, etc. Such objects may be used as teaching aids to transact the Geometry
concept of surface area of cylinder. You may ask them to draw the picture of
water pipe and compare with that given below in Figure 17.15a. Then after,
you may explain that, the same picture can be drawn as shown in Fig 17.15b.
Teacher continues that a cylinder has two circular faces (whose radius is ‘r’)
and a rectangular area (whose height is ‘h’). Thus the total surface area of the
cylinder (or we call total surface area) will be the area of two circular faces
plus area of rectangle.
i.e. Surface Area of Cylinder= Area of Circle 1 + Area of Rectangle+ Area of
Circle 2
= πr2+2πrh+ πr2
=
2πr2+2πrh
=2πr(r+h)
Surface Area of Cylinder=2πr(r+h); Where r= radius of cylinder, h=height
of the cylinder
(Note: Similar to cuboid, cylinders do
have lateral surface area. Lateral Curved surface area of the cylinder= Area of the
surface area is also known a curved Rectangular sheet= Lenghth x Breadth
surface area. Lateral (curved) surface =Perimeter of the base of the cylinderx h
area of cylinder is the surface area of =2πrxh
the curved part of the cylinder and is
given by the formula 2πrh)

17.15a 17.15 b
(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class VIII, pp 184, NCERT)
Example 9: Rajeev brought a cylindrical pipe having radius 2cm and total
surface are 2640cm2. Calculate the height of the cylinder pipe.
Solution:
Radius of the cylindrical pipe r = 2cm
Total surface area of the cylindrical pipe = 2640 cm2
Height of the cylindrical pipe = h (to be found out)
Total surface area of cylinder = 2πr (r + h)
22
\ 2640 = 2´ ´ 2 (2 + h)
7
88
2640 =
7
(2 + h)
107
Content Based 2640 × 7
Methodology-II 2+ h =
88
2 + h = 210
h = 208 cm
Or height if cylindrical pipe = 208 cm = 2.08 m
Surface Area of Right Circular Cone
Let us move on our discussion to finding area of right circular cone. Generally
we find right circular and non right circular cones. You may start by showing
the following figures. The Figure 17.16 a is right circular cone; where ‘A’ is
vertex, ‘AB’ the height, ‘BC’ radius and ‘AC’ is the slant height of the cone.
The height, radius and slant height are usually denoted by ‘h’, ‘r’ and ‘l’
respectively and ‘B’ is the centre of circular base of the cone. Figure 17.16b is
not a right circular cone because the base is not circular. After brainstorming
about preliminary knowledge of circular cones, you may help children to arrive
at formula for finding surface area of cone.

Fig. 17.16(a) Fig. 17.16(b)

(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class IX, pp 218, NCERT)
To find the surface are of cone we may redraw a cone as shown in Figure
17.17(a). If we touch points A and B, it forms the circular base of the cone. As
shown in Figure 17.17(b), the curved surface of the cone is made of tiny
triangles and hence the curved surface area will be the sum of areas of each
triangle.
Thus, surface area of right circular cone = Surface area of curved surface+
Surface area of circular region
1 1 1
= b1l+ b2 l+ b3l+…………….. + πr2
2 2 2
1
= l(b1+b2+b3+…)+ πr2
2
1
= l×2πr+ πr2
2
=πrl+ πr2
=
πr(l+r) ( Since l = r 2 + h 2 , By applying Pythagoras Theorem in Fig 17.17c)
i.e Total Surface Area of Cone=πr(l+r)

108
 Mensuration and
Coordinate
Geometry

Fig. 17.17a Fig. 17.17b Fig. 17.17c

(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class IX, pp 218, NCERT)
Example 10: The diameter of the base and height of a cone are 24cm and
16cm respectively. Calculate the following (Take value of π =3.14)
a) Curved surface area of cone.
b) Surface area of the cone.
Solution:
Curved surface area of cone =πrl
Surface area of cone = πrl +π r2
We have diameter, d = 24 cm so radius r=12 cm
Also l2 = h2 + r2

So l = h 2 + r 2
l = 162 + 12 2 =20cm
So curved surface area = π rl=3.14×12×20=753.6cm2
Surface Area=πrl +π r2=753.6+3.14(12)2=1205.76 cm2
Surface Area of Sphere
Students of secondary classes have come across various spherical shapes in
their life. Being a Mathematics teacher, you may elicit few of such shapes
before you arrive at the formula for measuring its surface area. Also, you may
ask your students to define sphere, which would help them in deducing its
surface area. How will you define sphere? A sphere is a three dimensional
figure (solid figure), which is made up of all points in the space,
which lie at a constant distance called the radius, from a fixed point
called the centre of the sphere.

How can we teach children the formula to find surface area of sphere? The
following activity will help you. Ask them to take a long string and rubber ball.
Then measure the diameter of the ball from which you may calculate the
radius. After that, fix a nail and start winding the string over the ball as shown
in Fig. 17.18a. Then mark the start and end point of the string. Now draw four
circles with radius equal to the radius of the ball. Unwind the string and fill
each circle with the string that have been used (as given in Fig. 17.18b).
Through this activity, children will realise that, the string that completely
covered the surface of the ball is completely used to fill four circles. Thus we
can deduce that ,

The surface area of sphere= 4 times the area of a circle of radius r = 4 × (πr2)
Or Surface Area of Sphere= 4πr2
(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class IX, pp 223, NCERT)
109
Content Based
Methodology-II

Fig. 17.18a Fig. 17.18b

(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class IX, pp 223, NCERT)

Note that, the formula for finding surface area of

sphere, may be used to final formula for surface
area of hemisphere. You may do it as an
exercise. Hemisphere is half portion of the
sphere and is obtained if we cut sphere along its
centre. Hemisphere consists of a flat and curved
surface. Thus the total surface area of
hemisphere is obtained by adding surface area of
curved surface and area of circular region. Fig. 17.19
(Source: Mathematics Textbook for class IX, pp 223, NCERT)
i.e. Surface area of hemisphere= 2πr2+ πr2=3πr2
Example 11: Find the surface area of the sphere in the following cases:
a) Sphere with radius 12 cm
b) Sphere with diameter 49 cm
Solution:We know that the Surface Area of Sphere= 4πr2
Case (a) r=12 cm
Surface Area of Sphere= 4πr2
= 4×3.14×(12)2 =1810.28 cm2

Case (b) diameter=49 cm so radius=diameter/2=49/2=24.5 cm

Surface Area of Sphere= 4πr2
= 4×3.14×(24.5)2 =7546 cm2

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
5) How will you help your students to realise surface area of cylinder
is2πr(r+h)? Where r= radius of cylinder, h=height of the cylinder.
Suggest one learning activity.
110 ……………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………… Mensuration and
…………………………………………………………………………… Coordinate
Geometry
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
6)If the radius of a hemisphere is 8 cm, find its surface area.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

17.4 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME

As students reach secondary stage, they hear about volume and later
distinguish among volume and capacity. You can think of interesting situations
and examples to introduce the concept volume. Here is one. Sangeeta, a
secondary Mathematics teacher brought two containers, almost similar in size
but really not. Then she raised a question to her students, if I keep the
containers in an Almirah, which one would consume more space? It was so
simple to answer. Children said the big container. Then Sangita asked, why do
think that big container would consume more space. This time few students
struggled, but in between Stephen said, “If the container is big in size and it
would require more space”. After discussions, teacher concluded saying ‘space
occupied by a three dimensional object is called volume’. We will explore
the formula for finding volume of various solid figures in today’s class.

You may start with simple solid shapes as shown below. As students start
finding volume, the point that, ‘cubic units’ are used to find the volume of
objects unlike ‘square units’ for area. To find the volume of the given figure, it
is divided into different cubit units measuring 1cm
each side. Thus the volume of the given figure 17.20
is 8 cubic units. Also students should be made aware
of the point that, the commonly used cubical units
are;

1 cubic cm=1cm × 1cm × 1cm=1cm3

1 cubic mm=1mm × 1mm × 1mm=1mm3 Fig. 17.20
Source: Mathematics Textbook

1 cubic m=1m × 1m × 1m=1m3 for class IX, pp 187, NCERT)

A word of caution: Take a glass container and keep

it in shelf. In such case, the space occupied by the container is called volume.
We know that, the interior of the glass bottle can be filled with any fluids and
imagine presently it is filled with water. Then the volume of the substance that
can fill the interior is called the capacity of the container. In short, the volume
of an object is the measure of the space it occupies, and the capacity of an
object is the volume of substance its interior can accommodate. As a teacher,
111
Content Based you need to provide learning activities to distinguish the concept of volume and
Methodology-II capacity.

17.4.1 Volume of Cuboid and Cube

Show a cuboid; constructed out of 36 cubes (of equal size) to your students and
ask them to find the volume. Probably they may not be finding difficulty to
arrive at the answer 36 cubic units. After that, you may pose the question, “Can
you deduce a formula (which connect length, breadth and height of the cuboid)
that will give you result 36”? You may show the Figure 17.21b as a clue. This
may be practised as a group exercise. At the end of discussions, students would
come up with the formula i.e. l x b x h=36. As concluding remark, teacher can
say, “Yes, you are right, the formula you have found is correct. Thus we can
say that, the formula for finding the volume of a cuboid is given by the formula
l x b x h. Since lxb gives area of base, we can also say that, volume of cuboid is
area of base x height.”

Volume of Cuboid= l× b × h=Area of Base × Height

Fig. 17.21a Fig. 17.21b

(Source: NCERT, Mathematics Textbook, class IX, pp 188)
Students know that cube is a form of cuboid with all the faces having same
length (l). Thus the volume of cube is deduced form the formula for volume of
cuboid by substituting ‘l’.
i.e. Volume of cuboid = l × b × h = l × l × l = l3 (Since l = b = h = l). Therefore,
volume of cube is;
Volume of Cube = l3; Where l= Length of the side of cube
17.4.2 Volume of Cylinder
Vinod, a Mathematics teacher was teaching the formula required to find the
volume of cylinder. Suddenly, one of his students asked, “Sir, can we use the
formula of cuboid to find the volume of cylinder”? Yes of course! Vinod
replied. Then Vinod asked the student to explain the procedure of arriving at
the formula for volume of cylinder. The explanation of the student goes like
this;
“Sir, similar to cuboid, cylinders do have a base and particular height. I will
draw it on the board. For cuboid we use the following formula;
i.e. Volume of Cuboid= l× b × h=Area of Base × Height
In the case of cylinder, we can write volume= Area of Base × Height
=πr2× h= πr2h( Since Area of base of cylinder = πr2)”.
112
After finding at the formula, Vinod appreciated his student. Then after, he Mensuration and
concluded the class by restating the formula. Thus the volume of cylinder is Coordinate
given by the formula; Geometry
Volume of cylinder= πr2 h; Where r=radius of cylinder, h=height of cylinder

Fig. 17.22
Source: NCERT Textbook, Class IX)
Let see an example to make idea clear about it.
Example 12: If the lateral surface area of cylindrical vessel is 34 cm2 and its height is 3
cm. Then find the following:
a) Radius of the cylindrical vessel
b) Volume of the cylindrical vessel
Solution :
a) We have lateral surface area of cylindrical vessel = 34 cm2
Height of cylindrical vessel=3 cm
We know that the lateral surface area of cylinder = 2πrh
34=2×3.14×r×3
34
r=
2´ 3.14´ 3
34
r=
18.84
=1.80 cm
b) Volume of the cylindrical= πr2h; Where r=radius of cylinder, h=height of cylinder
= 3.14 × (1.8)2 × 3= 34.00cm3
17.4.3 Volume of Cone
Now let us discuss about the volume of cone. You may think of interesting
activities to achieve the same. One of such activity for cone is discussed
below:

Fig. 17.23
(Source: NCERT Textbook class IX, pp 188)
113
Content Based Ask children to bring a hollow cone and a cylinder having same base area.
Methodology-II Then fill the cone with water and empty it an to the cylinder. They may
observe that it fills up only a part of cylinder. Tell them to repeat the same
exercise. Now they may observe that the cylinder is not full. Tell them to
repeat the same exercise. Now they can find that cylinder is full with water.
Thus we come to the conclusion that, three times the volume of cone is equal to
the volume of the cylinder. Therefore volume of cone is three times the volume
of cylinder, i.e.

1 2
Volume of Cone= πr h ; Where r= base radius, h=height of the cone
3
Now you can give few practical applications to your students.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
7) What are the probable mistakes children commit as they find the volume
of cone?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
8) A cuboidal water tank is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 4 m deep. Find its
volume.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
9) Find the volume of circular cone of radius 4 cm and height 8 cm.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

17.5 COORDINATE GEOMETRY: BASICS AND

USE
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), the great French Mathematician of the
seventeenth century described the position of a point in a plane. This has given
rise to a very important branch of Mathematics known as Coordinate
Geometry. In honour of Descartes, the system used for describing the position
of a point in a plane is also known as the Cartesian system.
114
Coordinate Geometry has been developed as an algebraic tool for studying Mensuration and
Geometry of figures. It helps us to study by using Algebra. Coordinate Coordinate
Geometry is widely applied in various fields such as Physics, Navigation, Geometry
Seismology, art etc
In Algebra, you were introduced to the coordinate system, plotting ordered
pairs, graphing lines and solving equations. These tools are used in geometry as
well. Algebra and Geometry are used hand-in-hand to solve many real world
problems. Points, lines, line segments and angles as well as other geometric
shapes can be graphed on the coordinate plane. Let us recall some basics.
In the Cartesian or coordinate plane, the two perpendicular lines are the
coordinate axes – x axis and y-axis. The point of intersection of these axes is the
origins and these axes divide the plane in four quadrants. Each point in the
Cartesian system has an x-coordinate or abscissa representing its horizontal
distance and a y-coordinate or ordinate representing its vertical positions. These
are typically written as the ordered pairs (x, y) and are the coordinates of that
point. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are in the form (x, 0) and of the
point on the y-axis in the form (0, y) and the coordinates of origin are (0, 0). The
coordinates of a point are of the form (+, +) in the first quadrant, (–, +) in the
second quadrant, (–, –) in the third quadrant and (+, –) in the fourth quadrant
where + denotes a positive real number and – denotes a negative real number.

Check Your Progress

Note:
Choose the correct answer and compare your answer with those given at the
end of the Unit.
10. P is a point on x-axis at a distance of 3 units from y-axis to its left. The
coordinates of P are:
(a) (3, 0) (b) (0, 3) (c) (–3, 0) (d) (0, –3)
11. The distance of point P (3, –2) from y-axis is:
(a) 3 units (b) 2 units (c) –2 units (d) 13 units
12. If the coordinates of two points are P(–2, 3) and Q (–3, 5), then (abscissa
of P) – (abscissa of Q) is
(a) –5 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) –2

17.6 DISTANCE FORMULA

Discuss the following situation with the students, if Neha’s house is situated at
point A and her school is situated at Point B as in the figure. Her house is
located at A(2, 1) and the school is located at B(6, 4) then how far is her school
from her house if 1 unit = 1 km.

⋅B

⋅A

Fig. 17.24
115
Content Based To give answer to this question, let us first consider two points lying on the x-
Methodology-II axis say P(2, 0) and Q(6, 0). Then the distance between P and Q is the length of
line segment PQ.
So, PQ = OQ– OP = 6 – 2 = 4 units

O
P Q

Fig. 17.25
Similarly, R is (0, 1) and S (0, 4) lying on y-axis then the distance between
them is
RS = OS – OR = 4 – 1 = 3 units.
Thus, we see that if two points lie on the x-axis or the y-axis we can easily find
the distance between them.
Now, what if two points do not lie on the
coordinate axes. How can we find the
distance between them?
Take coordinate axes and mark two such
points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q (x2 , y 2 ) .
Draw PA and QB perpendicular to x-axis
and PR ⊥ QB as in the figure. We want to
find the distance between P and Q i.e.
length of the line segment PQ. In ∆PQR,
right angled at R, we can apply Pythagoras
theorem to find PQ.
For that we must have PR and QR. Fig. 17.26
Now A and B are points on x-axis. So,
OA = x1 , OB = x2
and so, AB = OB – OA = x2 − x1
PR = AB = x2 − x1
Also, QR = QB – RB = QB – AP = y2 − y1
Using, Pythagoras theorem, we have
PQ 2 = PR 2 + QR2
2 2
= (x 2 − x1 ) + ( y 2 − y1 )

So, PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .... (1)

Note that here we have taken only the positive square root. It is so because PQ
is the length of line segment and so will always be non-negative. Thus, we
have - :

Distance between P and Q = PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2

116
This result is known as Distance Formula. Mensuration and
Remarks: Coordinate
Geometry
1) We can also write PQ as (x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2 .

2) In particular, the distance between the origin and P ( x, y ) = OP = x2 + y2 .

3) The points P and Q may lie in any quadrant, the distance PQ is given by
the same formula as given in (1) above.
Now, we come back to the situation which we considered in the beginning of
this section. For distance of Neha’s school from her house.

AB = (6 − 2 )2 + (4 − 1)2 = 4 2 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5 units.
As 1 unit = 1 km., the distance of her school from her house is 5 km.
Example 13
Find the distance between A (1, – 2) and B(3, –5).
Solution:

AB = (3 − 1)2 + (− 5 − ( −2) )2 = 2 2 + ( −5 + 2) 2 = 2 2 + ( −3) 2 = 4 + 9 = 13

Example 14
Raghav’s grandmother, mother and himself visited a temple. The priest asked
them to sit in a line. They occupied the seats at A (– 3, 2), B(1, –2) and C(9, –
10). Do you think they are seated in a line? Justify.
Solution:
Three points will be collinear or lie in a line of sum of lengths of the two line
segments is equal to the third.
Here,

AB = (1 + 3)2 + (− 2 − 2 )2 = 4 2 + ( − 4) 2 = 4 2

BC = (9 − 1)2 + (− 10 + 2 )2 = 8 2 + ( − 8) 2 = 8 2

AC = (9 + 3)2 + (− 10 − 2 )2 = 12 2 + ( −12) 2 = 12 2

As AB + BC= 4 2 + 8 2 = 12 2 = AC , the points A, B, C are collinear i.e.

grandmother, mother and himself are seated in a line.
Example 15
Find a point on the x-axis which is equidistant from the points (5, 4) and (–2,
3).
Solution:
Let P(x, y)be the required point. Since it is on the x-axis, its ordinate is zero.
So, coordinates of P are (x, 0)
Let A and B denote the points (5, 4) and (–2, 3) respectively.
We are given that AP = BP
So, AP2 = BP2
117
Content Based i.e., (x – 5)2 + (0 – 4)2 = (x + 2)2 + (0 – 3)2
Methodology-II
or, x2 – 10x + 25 + 16 = x2 + 4x + 4 + 9
or, –14x = –28 or, x=2
Thus, the required point is (2, 0).
Example 16
What type of quadrilateral do the points A(2, – 2), B(7, 3), C(11, –1) and D(6,
–6) taken in that order form?
Solution:

AB = (7 − 2 )2 + (3 + 2 )2 = 52 + 52 = 5 2

BC = (11 − 7 )2 + (− 1 − 3)2 = 4 2 + ( −4 ) 2 = 4 2

CD = (6 − 11)2 + (− 6 + 1)2 = ( − 5) 2 + ( − 5) 2 = 5 2

AD = (6 − 2 )2 + (− 6 + 2 )2 = 4 2 + ( − 4) 2 = 4 2

As, AB = CD and BC = AD i.e. opposite sides are equal, so ABCD is a

parallelogram.

Diagonal AC = (11 − 2 )2 + (− 1 + 2 )2 = 9 2 + 12 = 81 + 1 = 82

Diagonal BD = (6 − 7 )2 + (− 6 − 3)2 = ( −1) 2 + ( −9) 2 = 1 + 81 = 82

As diagonals AC = BD, therefore, parallelogram ABCD is a rectangle.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
13. Find distance between the points:
(i) A(1, –3), B(4, 1)
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
(ii) A(5, –8), B(–7, –3)
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
14. Determine whether the points (8, 4), (5, 7) and (–1, 1) are the vertices
of a right triangle.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

15. Check whether the points (1, 2), (5, 3) and (18, 6) are collinear.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
118
17.7 SECTION FORMULA Mensuration and
Coordinate
Suppose two friends Aditya and Guninder are seated at A and B (Figure). Their Geometry
third friend Akhtar wants to sit in between Aditya and Guninder at P in such a
way that the distance of Akhtar from Guninder is three times his distance
Aditya.

P•
A
O

Fig. 17.27
Points A, B and P lie on the same line so we can say that P divides AB in the
ratio 1 : 3. We know the coordinates of A and B and we want to know the
coordinates of P where their third friend should sit.
For that, let us consider the following:
Consider two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) and assume that P(x, y) divides AB
internally in the ratio m1 : m2 i.e.
PA m1
=
PB m 2
By internal division we mean that the point of division P lies on the line AB
between A and B. If point P lies on the line AB outside of the line segment AB
PA m1
and = we say that P divides externally the line segment joining the
PB m 2
points A and B.
In this section, we will study the section formula for internal division only.
Draw AR, PS, BT perpendicular to x-axis and AQ, PC parallel to x-axis.

B (x 2 , y2 )

P (x,y) C

A Q
(x1,y1)

O R S T

Fig. 17.28

Then, ∆PAQ ~ ∆BPC(AA similarity criterion)

PA AQ PQ
So, = = .... (1)
BP PC BC
119
Content Based Here,
Methodology-II
AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT – CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
PA m1
Also, =
PB m 2

Putting these values in (1) we have

m1 x − x1 y − y1
= =
m 2 x2 − x y 2 − y
Solving for x we have
x − x1 m
= 1
x2 − x m 2
or, m 2 x − m2 x1 = m1 x2 − m1 x
or, (m 2 + m1 )x = m1 x2 + m 2 x1
m1 x2 + m2 x1
x=
m1 + m2
Similarly, solving for y we have
y − y1 m
= 1
y2 − y m2
m1 y 2 + m2 y1
X= y=
m1 + m 2

 m x + m2 x1 m1 y 2 + m 2 y1 
So, P(x, y) is  1 2 , 
 m1 + m 2 m1 + m2 

So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining
the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) internally in the ratio m1: m2 are:
 m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y 2 + m 2 y1 
 , 
 m1 + m 2 m1 + m2 

This is known as Section Formula.

As a special case, if P is the midpoint of AB then the ratio is 1 : 1. So,
coordinates of the midpoint P will be
 1 × x1 + 1 × x 2 1 × y1 + 1 × y 2   x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
 , = , 
 1+1 1+1   2 2 
Example 17
Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (7, – 4) and (1, 5) in
the ratio 1: 2 internally.
Solution:
Let P(x, y) be the required point.
120 Using Section formula, we have:
 1 × 1 + 2 × 7 15 Mensuration and
x= = =5
1+ 2 3 Coordinate
Geometry
1 × 5 + 2(−4) 5 − 8 − 3
y= = = = −1
1+ 2 3 3
So, (5, –1) is the required point.
Example 18
Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points A (–3, 10) and B(6,
–8) as divided by (–1, 6).
Solution:
Let (–1, 6) divide AB in the ratio m1: m2 internally using section formula, we
have
 6 m − 3m 2 − 8m1 + 10 m2 
(–1, 6) =  1 , 
 m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 
6 m1 − 3m 2 − 8 m1 + 10 m 2
or, = − 1, =6
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
or, 6 m1 − 3m 2 = − m1 − m 2 , − 8 m1 + 10 m2 = 6 m1 + 6 m2
or, 7 m1 = 2 m2 − 14 m1 = − 4 m 2
m1 2 m1 4 2
or, = , = = ,
m2 7 m2 14 7
or, m1: m2 = 2 : 7
Thus, the point (–1 , 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(–3, 10)
and B(6,– 8) in the ratio 2: 7.
Alternatively
The ratio m1: m2 can also be written as
m1
: 1 or k : 1. Thus, we have
m2
æ 6k - 3 - 8k + 10 ö
(–1, 6) = çç , ÷÷
è k +1 k +1 ø
6k − 3
So, = −1
k +1
or, 6 k – 3 = – k – 1
or, 7 k = 2
2
or, k =
7
2
Thus, the ratio is : 1 or 2 : 7.
7
We could have checked for coordinate also. We see that it is convenient to find
the ratio by assuming the ratio to be k : 1.

121
Content Based Example 19
Methodology-II
Find the coordinates of point A where AB is the diameter of a circle whose
centre is (2, –3) and B is (1, 4).
Solution:
Let A be (x, y). AB is the diameter of the circle and centre is the midpoint of
the diameter.
Thus, the midpoint of the diameter AB is :
x +1 y + 4 
(–1, 6) =  ,  = ( 2, − 3)
 2 2 
x +1 y+4
So, = 2, = −3
2 2
Or, x = 4 − 1 = 3, y = −6 − 4 = −10
So, coordinates of A are (3, –10).
Thus, from the above examples we observe that in section formula of any three
out of the following four are given we can find the fourth.
Two points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2)
Point of division P (x, y)
Ratio m1: m2

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
16. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
the points (–7, 4) and (–6, –5) internally in the ratio 7 :2.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
17. Coordinates of A and B are (1, 2) and (2, 3). Find the coordinates of R
AR 4
so that = .
RB 3
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
18. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining the
points (22, –20) and (0, 16).
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
122
 Mensuration and
19. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (6, 4) and Coordinate
(1, –7) is divided internally by the x-axis. Geometry
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

17.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed briefly how the need for Mensuration arose as
civilisation progressed. We discussed the concept of perimeter and area of
plane figures and shown usefulness of deductive approach in arriving at areas
of different plane figures . We also derived formulas for measuring volume of
cuboid, cube, cylinder, sphere and cone.
In the other section of this unit, we introduced how Algebra and Geometry go
hand-in-hand in Coordinate Geometry. We recalled some basics of Coordinate
Geometry studied in Algebra. We derived distance formula for obtaining
distance between two points and in particular, obtained the formula for distance
of a point from origin. We also derived formula known as section formula and
as its special case obtained the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment
joining the two given points.

17.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1) Find the length of the longest road that can be placed in a room 12 m
long, 9 m broad, 8 m high.
2) A wire when bent in the form of an equilateral triangle encloses an area
of 121 cm2. If the same wire is bent into the form of a circle then find
the diameter of the circle.
3) Find the surface area and volume of a sphere whose diameter in 21 m.
Find the diameter of a sphere whose surface area in 5544 cm square.
4) The diameter of a roller120m long is 84 m. If it takes 500 complete
revolutions to level a ground. Find the cost of levelling the ground at
the rate of 30 paise per square meter.
5) The fourth vertex D of a parallelogram ABCD whose three vertices are
A(–2, 3), B(6, 7) and C(8, 3) is
(a) (0, 1) (b) (0, –1) (c) (–1, 0) (d) (1, 0)
6) The houses of Khyati and Shahnaz are situated at the points with
coordinates (7, 3) and (4, –3) respectively. They study in the same
school which is situated at a point (2, 2). Both start for the school at the
same time in the morning and reach the school at the same time. Who
walks fast?
7) State whether the following statement is true or false. Points A (3, 1),
B(12, –2) and C (0, 2) cannot be the vertices of a triangle.
8) The points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are the vertices of ∆ABC.
AD is the median and P is a point on AD such that AP : PD = 2 : 1.
Find the coordinates of P. 123
Content Based 9) If C is a point lying on the line segment AB joining A(1, 1) and
Methodology-II B(2, –3) such that 3AC = BC. Find the coordinates of C.
10) Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment
joining the points A(2,–2) and B (–7, 4).

17.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Bring card boards of different sizes and ask children to find the bigger
one among them.
2) Do it yourself (Hint: Section 17.3)
3) Perimeter of a Rectangle = 2× (Length+Breadth) =2(5+5)=20cm
4) Draw a polygon having any number of sides. Then calculate the area by
dividing into different rectangles (Refer section 17.3)
5) Refer the sub section describing “Surface area of cylinder” in section 17.3
6) 603.72 cm2
7) List the mistakes from your own experiences.
8) 60 m3


9) Volume of Cone= πr2h; Where r= base radius, h=height of the cone
=(3.14×42×8)/3 =133.97 cm3
10) (c)
11) (a)
12) (b)
13) (i) 5 (ii) 13
14) Yes
15) No
− 56
16)  
,−3 
 9 
 11 18 
17)  , 
 7 7 
18) (11, –2)
19) 4 : 7

17.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
• IGNOU. (2000). Teaching of Mathematics: ES-342, New Delhi: IGNOU.
• NCERT.(2014). Mathematics, Textbook for Class VIII. New Delhi:
NCERT.
• NCERT.(2014). Mathematics, Textbook for Class IX. New Delhi: NCERT.
• NCERT.(2014). Mathematics, Textbook for Class X. New Delhi: NCERT.
• http://epathshala.nic.in/e-pathshala-4/flipbook/

124