Robotics

Automation Robotics
1. The use of technology to perform tasks 1. Robotics is a branch of technology that
with minimal human intervention is called deals with the design, construction,
Automation. operation, and use of robots to perform
tasks.
2. Its primary focus is on streamlining 2. It focuses on creating physical or virtual
processes and workflows. agents that can interact with the
environment.
3. It is often designed for specific, 3. It can be programmed for various tasks
repetitive tasks hence rigid. and adapt to different situations,
providing more flexibility.
4. Not necessarily embodied in a physical 4. It usually has a physical form or virtual
form. representation.
5. It increases efficiency, reduce human 5. It performs tasks that are difficult,
labor and save time. dangerous, or need high precision.
6. It Can range from simple to complex 6. Often incorporates AI for decision-
systems. making and learning.
7. Ex - Automated email responses, 7. Ex - Industrial robots, surgical robots,
software testing tools, assembly line autonomous vehicles.
automation.

 Applications of robots
Robotics has a wide range of applications across different industries and sectors. Some of the
most notable applications of robotics include:
1. Manufacturing: Robotics is widely used in manufacturing to automate repetitive tasks,
increase productivity and improve quality. Robots are used in assembly lines, welding,
painting, and other manufacturing processes.
2. Transportation: Self-driving cars, drones, and autonomous vehicles are examples of
robotics applications in transportation. They are being developed to improve safety,
reduce traffic congestion, and increase efficiency.
3. Healthcare: Robotics technology is increasingly being used in healthcare to assist with
surgeries, rehabilitation, and other medical procedures. Robots can also be used to help
with tasks such as monitoring patient vital signs and administering medication.
4. Service Industry: Robotics technology is used in the service industries such as hotels,
malls, banks, etc. to provide customer service like answering queries, providing
information, and guiding customers.
5. Military and Defense: Robotics technology is being used in military and defense to
perform tasks such as surveillance, reconnaissance, and bomb disposal.
6. Agriculture: Agricultural robots are being used to plant and harvest crops, monitor crop
growth, and perform other tasks to increase efficiency and reduce labor costs.

Forward Kinematics Inverse Kinematics

1. It calculates the position and 1. It determines the joint parameters
orientation of the end-effector based on needed to achieve a desired position and
given joint parameters. orientation of the end-effector.
2. In Forward Kinematics, the input is 2. In Inverse Kinematics, the input is
Joint parameters (angles, displacements). desired position and orientation of the
end-effector.
3. Output is Position and orientation of 3. Output is Joint parameters (angles,
the end-effector. displacements).
4. It uses direct application of the 4. It requires iterative methods,
kinematic equations using the DH optimization techniques, or algebraic
parameters or transformation matrices. solutions to solve the equations.
5. It gives unique solution for a given set 5. It can have multiple solutions, a single
of joint parameters. solution, or no solution depending on the
desired end-effector position and
orientation.
6. Generally straightforward, involving 6. Often more complex, involving solving
direct computation through the kinematic nonlinear equations and may have
chain. multiple solutions or no solution at all.
7. Ex - Simulating the trajectory of a 7. Ex - Determining the joint angles
robotic arm given its joint movements. required for a robotic arm to pick up an
object at a specific location.
 Prismatic Joint (P) Revolute Joint (R)
1. In a prismatic joint, the motion is 1. In a revolute joint, the motion is
translational (linear). rotational.
2. A prismatic joint has one degree of 2. A revolute joint has one degree of
freedom, which is linear displacement. freedom, which is angular displacement.
3. The prismatic joint moves along a 3. The revolute joint rotates around a
single axis. single axis.
4. The range of motion in a prismatic 4. The range of motion in a revolute joint
joint is limited by the length of the linear is limited by the joint design, typically 360
guide. degrees or less.
5. Prismatic joints are commonly used in 5. Revolute joints are commonly used in
linear actuators and sliding mechanisms. hinges, robotic arms, and rotational
actuators.
6. Prismatic joints generally have a 6. Revolute joints can be more complex,
simpler mechanical design, involving involving bearings and rotational
linear motion components. components.
7. An example of a prismatic joint is a 7. An example of a revolute joint is the
hydraulic cylinder. elbow joint of a robotic arm.
 Reachable Workspace Dexterous Workspace
1. In the reachable workspace, it includes 1. In the dexterous workspace, it includes
all points that the robot's end-effector can only points that the robot's end-effector
reach in at least one orientation. can reach in all orientations.
2. It represents the total volume the 2. It represents a subset of the reachable
robot can access. workspace where the robot has full
movability.
3. The size of the reachable workspace is 3. The size of the dexterous workspace is
generally larger compared to the smaller because it requires full orientation
dexterous workspace. capabilities at every point.
4. In the reachable workspace, any 4. In the dexterous workspace, every
position within this area can be achieved point within this area can be reached with
regardless of the end-effector’s any desired orientation of the end-
orientation. effector.
5. The reachable workspace is important 5. The dexterous workspace is crucial for
for applications where only position, not tasks requiring precise control of both
orientation, is critical. position and orientation, like assembly or
surgical operations.
6. An example of reachable workspace is 6. An example of dexterous workspace is
the area a robotic arm can cover to pick the area where a robotic arm can place
objects from different locations. screws at various angles during assembly.

Reachable Workspace Dexterous Workspace

Explain Links and Joints with Degrees of Freedom
Links:
 Links are the rigid segments of a robot that connect to each other through joints. They
are usually made of materials like metal or composite materials and do not change
shape.
 Each link can be thought of as a rigid body that transmits motion from one joint to the
next.
 Links can vary in shape, size, and material depending on the robot's design and purpose.
 They are typically numbered, starting from the base (link 0) to the end-effector.
Some of the common types of links are –
 Binary Link: one with two nodes
 Ternary Link: one with three nodes
 Quaternary Link: one with four nodes
 Pentagonals: one with four nodes
 Hexagonals: one with four nodes
Joints
 Joints are the connections between links that allow relative motion. They are the movable
parts that provide the robot with the ability to perform tasks by creating motion.
 Joints determine the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the robot, which defines the robot's
ability to move in space.

Degrees of Freedom (DOF):

The degrees of freedom of a robot refer to the number of independent movements it can
perform. Each DOF corresponds to one axis of motion, whether it's translational (linear) or
rotational.

Types of Joints:
• Revolute Joint (R)-Rotary joint- 1 DOF [1 angular or rotary motion]: Allows rotation about
a single axis.
• Prismatic Joint (P)-Linear joint- 1 DOF [1 linear motion]: Allows linear motion along a
single axis.
• Screw Joint (H)-Linear joint- 1 DOF [1 linear motion]: Combines rotational and
translational movements in a screw-like fashion, providing one DOF.
• Sliding Joint (S)-Linear joint- 1 DOF [1 linear motion]: Allow for sliding motion in one
direction.
• Cylindrical (C) pair- 2 DOF [1 linear motion and 1 angular motion]: Combines a rotational
and a translational motion along the same axis, providing two DOFs.
• Spherical Joint(S)-3 DOF [3 angular motions]: Allows rotation around multiple axes,
providing three DOFs.
• Planar pair (E)-[3 angular motions]: Allows two translational movements and one
rotational movement within a plane, providing three DOFs.
• Hooke Joint(T)/Universal joint (U) -2 DOF[2 angular motions]: Rotation around two non-
intersecting axes.

Relationship between Links, Joints, and DOF:

 Each joint connects two links and typically provides 1 DOF.
 The number of links in a robot is always one more than the number of joints.
 The DOF of a robot arm is usually equal to the number of its joints.
 More complex joints (like spherical joints) can provide multiple DOF.
 If a system have n links then it will have (n-1) no of joints and DOF will be (n-1).
Example: A 6-DOF robot arm typically has:
 7 links (including the base and end-effector)
 6 joints (often all revolute)
 Each joint provides 1 DOF, totaling 6 DOF for the entire arm
Q. Identify which is sensor or actuator and state their use - DHT11, Gyroscope, Thermistor,
Stepper Motor ,Relay ,PIR, Solenoid Valve, LVDT, RTD, Tachometer, Strain Gauge,
Rotameter, Thermistor, Proximity, Encoders, Servo Motor

Component Type Use

DHT11 Sensor Measures temperature and humidity.
Gyroscope Sensor Measures angular velocity and orientation.
Thermistor Sensor Measures temperature based on electrical resistance
changes, often used in temperature control systems.
Stepper Motor Actuator Provides precise control of angular position, commonly
used in robotics and CNC machines.
Relay Actuator Electrically operated switch used to control high power
devices.
PIR Sensor Detects motion by measuring infrared radiation
changes, often used in security systems.
Solenoid Valve Actuator Controls the flow of liquids or gases by opening or
closing.
LVDT Sensor Linear Variable Differential Transformer; measures
linear displacement.
RTD Sensor Resistance Temperature Detector; measures
temperature with high accuracy.
Tachometer Sensor Measures rotational speed of a shaft or disk.
Strain Gauge Sensor Measures strain (deformation) in structures or
materials.
Rotameter Sensor Measures the flow rate of liquids or gases.
Proximity Sensor Detects the presence of objects without physical
Sensor contact, often used in industrial automation.
Encoders Sensor Measures position, rotation, or movement, often used
in robotics and motor control.
Servo Motor Actuator Provides precise control of angular position, commonly
used in robotics and model aircraft.
Explain distance measurement using HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor:
The HC-SR04 is an Ultrasonic sensor that can measure the distance of an object by using sound
waves. It measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a specific frequency and waits for
that sound wave to bounce back. By recording the time taken between the sound wave being
generated and the sound wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance between
the sensor and the object.
List of components required for distance measurement –
Hardware Requirements
 NodeMCU
 HC-SR04 (Ultra-sonic Sensor)
 Bread Board
 Jumper Wires
 Micro USB Cable
Software Requirements
 Arduino IDE
SPECIFICATION of HC-SR04
1. Power supply : 5v DC
2. Ranging distance : 2cm – 500 cm
3. Ultrasonic Frequency : 40k Hz
HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor Pinout:

The sensor has 4 pins. VCC and GND go to 5V and GND pins on the Arduino, and
the Trig and Echo go to any digital Arduino pin. Using the Trig pin we send the ultrasound
wave from the transmitter, and with the Echo pin we listen for the reflected signal.
Working Principle:
1. Triggering the Sensor: In order to generate the ultrasound we need to set the Trig pin
on a High State for 10 µs. That will send out an 8 cycle ultrasonic burst which will travel
at the speed of sound.
2. Echo Reception:
 The Echo pins goes high right away after that 8 cycle ultrasonic burst is sent, and
it starts listening or waiting for that wave to be reflected from an object.
 If there is no object or reflected pulse, the Echo pin will time-out after 38ms and
get back to low state.
 If we receive a reflected pulse, the Echo pin will go down sooner than those 38ms.
3. Time Measurement: According to the amount of time the Echo pin was HIGH, we can
determine the distance the sound wave traveled, thus the distance from the sensor to
the object.
4. Distance Calculation: The distance to the object is calculated using the speed of sound
(approximately 343m/s).
The formula used is:
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2
The result is divided by 2 because the sound travels to the object and back.

Suman Shaw
Explain Joint and Cartesian space trajectory planning and generation.
(Assume Cubic Polynomial only):
Trajectory planning and generation are crucial aspects of robotic motion control. It involves
determining the path a robot’s end-effector or joints should follow to move from a start to a
goal position. Two common spaces for trajectory planning are joint space and Cartesian space.

Joint Space Trajectory Planning

Joint space refers to the space defined by the robot's joint angles. In joint space trajectory
planning, the trajectories of each joint are planned independently.
Cubic Polynomial Trajectory:
A cubic polynomial is often used for trajectory generation because it provides a smooth
motion with continuous velocity and acceleration profiles. The cubic polynomial for a joint i is
given by:
Cartesian Space Trajectory Planning
Cartesian space refers to the space defined by the robot's end-effector position and
orientation. In Cartesian space trajectory planning, the trajectory of the end-effector is
planned directly in the workspace.
Write an Embedded C Sketch for DHT11 sensor integration and Stepper
motor actuator interfacing with Arduino.
Code for DHT11 Sensor Integration:

#include <DHT.h>
#define DHTPIN 2
#define DHTTYPE DHT11

DHT dht(DHTPIN, DHTTYPE);

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
dht.begin();
}

void loop() {
delay(2000);

float humidity = dht.readHumidity();

float temperature = dht.readTemperature();

if (isnan(humidity) || isnan(temperature)) {
Serial.println("Failed to read from DHT sensor!");
return;
}

Serial.print("Humidity: ");
Serial.print(humidity);
Serial.print("%, Temperature: ");
Serial.print(temperature);
Serial.println(" Celsius");
}
Code for Stepper Motor Actuator Interfacing:

#include <Stepper.h>
#define STEPS_PER_REVOLUTION 200

Stepper stepper(STEPS_PER_REVOLUTION, 8, 9, 10, 11);

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
stepper.setSpeed(60); // 60 RPM
}

void loop() {
// Example: Rotate the stepper motor 100 steps forward
Serial.println("Rotating stepper motor forward 100 steps...");
stepper.step(100);
delay(1000);

// Example: Rotate the stepper motor 100 steps backward

Serial.println("Rotating stepper motor backward 100 steps...");
stepper.step(-100);
delay(1000);
}

Criteria for Selecting Suitable Sensor and Actuator

Sensor Selection Criteria:
1. Accuracy: Ensure the sensor provides accurate and reliable measurements required for
the application.
2. Range: The measurement range of the sensor should match the expected range of
values in the application.
3. Response Time: The sensor’s response time should be fast enough to provide real-time
data for robot’s operation.
4. Environmental Conditions: Ensure the sensor can operate under the environmental
conditions of the application, such as temperature, humidity, and exposure to elements.
5. Cost: The sensor should be cost effective considering the budget and required
performance.
Criteria for Selecting Suitable Actuator:
1. Torque and Speed: Ensure the actuator provides sufficient torque and speed for the
intended task.
2. Power Requirements: Check the voltage and current requirements to ensure
compatibility with the available power supply.
3. Durability and Reliability: Ensure the actuator can withstand the operational
environment and has a long service life.
4. Size and Weight: Consider the physical dimensions and weight, particularly for mobile
or space-constrained applications.
5. Load Capacity: The actuator must be capable of handling the expected load without
performance degradation.

Explain a general robotic mechanical system:

A general robotic mechanical system typically consists of several key components and
subsystems that work together to perform specific tasks. These components include the
structure, actuators, sensors, controllers, and end effectors.
1. Mechanical Structure:
Links: Links are rigid members that form the skeleton of the robot. They can be of
various shapes and sizes depending on the design and application.
Joints: Joints connect links and allow relative motion between them. The types of joints
commonly used are revolute (rotational) and prismatic (linear).
2. Actuators:
Motors: Actuators are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical motion.
Common types include DC motors, stepper motors, and servo motors.
 3. Controllers:
Microcontrollers/Microprocessors: Controllers process input from sensors and generate
appropriate commands for actuators. They execute the control algorithms.
Control Algorithms: Algorithms that determine the motion of the robot based on inputs
and desired outcomes. Common types include PID control, feedback control, and model
predictive control.
4. Sensors:
Position Sensors: Sensors like encoders and potentiometers measure the position or
angle of joints and links.
Proximity Sensors: These sensors detect the presence or absence of an object within a
certain range.
Force/Torque Sensors: Measure the force and torque exerted by or on the robot.
5. End Effectors:
Grippers: Devices that interact with objects, such as robotic hands or claws.
Tools: Specialized attachments for specific tasks like welding, painting, or cutting.
6. Power Supply:
Electrical Power: Provides the necessary electrical energy for actuators and control
systems.
Hydraulic/Pneumatic Power: Provides fluid power for hydraulic or pneumatic actuators.

Functionality and Operation

1. Initialization:
o The system powers on and initializes sensors and actuators.
o The controller reads initial positions from the encoders.
2. Task Execution:
o The controller receives a command to move the end effector to a specific location.
o The control algorithm calculates the required joint angles (inverse kinematics).
o The controller sends commands to the motors to move to the desired positions.
o Feedback from encoders is used to adjust motor commands for accurate
positioning.
3. Interaction:
o The end effector interacts with objects, using force sensors to adjust grip strength
as needed.
o Environmental sensors provide data to adjust the robot's actions based on external
conditions.
4. Completion:
o Once the task is completed, the robot returns to a home position or awaits further
instructions.
Explain Forward and Inverse Dynamics of Robot
Forward Dynamics:
Forward dynamics is a method used to predict the motion of a robot based on the forces and
torques applied to it. It involves solving equation of motion to determine how the system will
move over time in response to the applied forces and torques, predict the accelerations,
velocities.

Input:
 Joint torques/forces
 Current joint positions and velocities
 Robot's physical parameters (mass, inertia, link lengths, etc.)
Output:
 Joint positions and velocities over time
Applications
 Simulation: Forward dynamics is used in simulations to predict how a robot will move
under specific conditions.
 Control System Design: Helps in designing controllers by predicting the system's response
to control inputs.
 Animation: Used in robotics animation to create realistic movements.
Inverse Dynamics:
Inverse dynamics involves determining the required joint torques and forces required at the
actuators of a robotic system to produce a desired motion. This is the reverse of forward
dynamics and is used to control the robot.

Input:
 Desired joint positions, velocities, and accelerations
 Robot's physical parameters
Output:
 Required joint torques/forces
Applications
 Control Algorithms: Inverse dynamics is essential for control algorithms like computed
torque control, where desired motions are specified, and the required inputs are
calculated.
 Robotic Programming: Used in robotic programming to define precise movements and
ensure the robot follows them accurately.
 Force Control: Helps in applications requiring precise force application, like assembly and
machining.
Explain PID Control of a single link manipulator
A single link manipulator can be thought of as a simplified robotic arm with one degree of
freedom, typically rotating around a fixed pivot point. PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative)
control is a widely used feedback control technique that aims to achieve desired positions
(angles) by minimizing the error between the desired and actual positions.
Components of PID Control
1. Proportional (P) Control: The proportional term produces an output that is proportional
to the current error value.
𝑃 = 𝐾𝑝 . 𝑒(𝑡)
Where 𝐾𝑝 is the proportional gain and e(t) is the error at time t.
2. Integral (I) Control: The integral term is concerned with the accumulation of past errors.
It sums up the error over time to eliminate residual steady-state error.
𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
0
Where 𝐾𝑖 is the integral gain.
3. Derivative (D) Control: The derivative term predicts the future error based on its rate of
change. It provides a damping effect, reducing the overshoot and oscillations.
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝐷 = 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝐾𝑑 is the derivative gain.
The PID controller combines these three terms to produce the control signal.
Suman Shaw
What are the components of a robot? State with examples.
A robot is a complex system made up of various components that work together to perform
tasks. Here are the main components of a robot along with examples:
1. Manipulator: The manipulator is the main body of the robot which consists of the links,
the joints, and other structural elements of the robot.
 Links: These are the rigid parts that make up the body of the robot.
Example: The arm segments in an industrial robotic arm.
 Joints: These connect the links and allow for relative motion between them.
Example: The elbow joint in a robotic arm that allows it to bend.
2. Actuators: Actuators are known as the muscles of the manipulators. Robot joints, and
links are moved by the actuators only through the signals received from the controllers.
Servomotors, Stepper motors, Pneumatic actuators, and Hydraulic actuators are some
common types of actuators used in robots.
3. Sensors: Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or
to communicate with outside environment. These sensors are integrated with robots
every part where the actuations need to be done depends on the signal, feedback or
process.
 Position Sensors: Encoders that measure the rotational position of a robotic arm
joint.
 Proximity Sensors: Infrared sensors in mobile robots for obstacle detection.
 Force/Torque Sensors: Sensors in robotic grippers to measure the force applied to
an object.
 Environmental Sensors: Temperature and humidity sensors in agricultural robots.
4. Controller: These process sensor inputs and generate commands for the actuators.
Through controller only all the motions of the robot were processed.
 Microcontrollers/Microprocessors: Arduino or Raspberry Pi used in educational
robots.
5. End Effector: This part is connected to the last joint (Hand) of a manipulator that
generally handle objects, lift parts, makes connections to other machines, or performs
the required tasks.
 Grippers: Two-finger grippers used in pick-and-place robots.
 Tools: Welding torches in robotic welding arms.
6. Power Supply: Provides the necessary energy for the robot's operations.
 Batteries: Lithium-ion batteries in drones.
 Power Adapters: AC power adapters in stationary robots.
 Hydraulic/Pneumatic Power: Hydraulic pumps and air compressors in industrial
robots.
 7. Software: Mainly three group of software are used in robots. They are Operating
system, robotics software and applications-oriented programs.
 Operating system is used to operate the processor.
 Robotic software is used to calculate the necessary motion of each joint based on
the kinematic, inverse kinematic equations of the robot.
 Application-oriented programs were developed for the specific routine work or
tasks like assembly, machine handling, pick and place and vision systems.

Explain classification of robots based on coordinate systems

1. Cartesian Robots:
Coordinate System: Cartesian (X, Y, Z)
Structure & Characteristics:
 Consists of three linear joints (X, Y, Z).
 Simple, rigid structure with high accuracy and repeatability.
 Easy to program and visualize.
Applications: Pick and place operations, CNC machines, 3D printing, assembly operations.

2. Cylindrical Robots:
Coordinate System: Cylindrical (R, θ, Z)
Structure & Characteristics:
 Combines linear (Z-axis) and rotational (θ -axis) motions with radial extension (R-
axis).
 Suitable for tasks needing vertical and radial movements.
Applications: Spot welding, material handling, die casting, assembly tasks.

3. Spherical (Polar) Robots:

Coordinate System: Spherical (R, θ, φ)
Structure & Characteristics:
 Uses rotational (θ, φ) and radial (R) motions.
 Large working envelope and good reach around obstacles.
Applications: Spot welding, machine loading, foundry operations, material handling.

4. SCARA Robots:
Coordinate System: Combination of cylindrical and Cartesian (R, θ, Z)
Structure & Characteristics:
 Two parallel rotary joints and one vertical linear joint.
 High-speed horizontal motion, compact design.
Applications: Pick and place tasks, assembly, packaging, handling circuit boards.
5. Articulated Robots:
Coordinate System: Jointed (rotary)
Structure & Characteristics:
 Series of rotary joints (revolute), resembling a human arm.
 Highly flexible with a wide range of motion.
Applications: Welding, painting, material handling, assembly operations.

Explain link representation using Denavit Hartenberg parameter.

The Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) convention is a standardized method to represent the kinematic
chains of robotic manipulators. It simplifies the complex relationships between adjacent links
by reducing the number of parameters needed to describe each link and joint configuration.
The DH parameters allow for the systematic transformation of coordinates from one joint to
the next, enabling easier computation of the forward and inverse kinematics of the robot.

DH Parameters
Each link of a robot can be represented using four DH parameters:
1. θ (Theta): Joint angle – the angle between the previous Z axis and the current Z axis
about the previous X axis. This parameter is variable for revolute joints and constant for
prismatic joints.
2. d (Distance): Link offset – the distance between the previous X axis and the current X axis
along the previous Z axis. This parameter is variable for prismatic joints and constant for
revolute joints.
3. a (Link Length): Link length – the distance between the previous Z axis and the current Z
axis along the current X axis. It is a constant for a given link.
4. α (Alpha): Link twist – the angle between the previous Z axis and the current Z axis about
the current X axis. It is also a constant for a given link.
Explain the Position and Orientation of a rigid body
Q. Derive the Direct Kinematics Problem solution for the planar 2R serial
manipulator as shown in figure below
Explain link transformation matrix
The link transformation matrix is a fundamental concept in robotics, used to describe the
position and orientation of one link relative to another in a kinematic chain. This matrix is
derived using the Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters and provides a systematic way to
compute the pose of the end-effector given the joint parameters of the manipulator.
Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) Convention
The DH convention simplifies the process of defining the transformation matrices for robotic
links by using four parameters for each link. These parameters are:
1. θ (Theta): The joint angle, the rotation around the previous Z axis.
2. d (Distance): The link offset, the distance along the previous Z axis to the common
normal.
3. a (Link Length): The link length, the distance along the common normal (current X axis).
4. α (Alpha): The link twist, the angle between the previous Z axis and the current Z axis
about the common normal (current X axis).
Wheeled Mobile Robots
Wheeled Mobile Robots (WMR) are a class of mobile robots that use wheels for locomotion.
They are commonly used in various applications due to their efficiency, simplicity, and ease of
control.
Fundamental Concepts
1. Kinematics:
o Non-holonomic Constraints: WMRs typically have non-holonomic constraints,
meaning they cannot move directly in any arbitrary direction at a given instant.
Instead, their movement is constrained by the direction of the wheels.
o Degrees of Freedom (DOF): A WMR’s DOF is determined by the number and
configuration of its wheels. For example, a differential drive robot has two
independent drive wheels, providing two DOFs.
2. Wheels and Configurations:
o Standard Wheels: Fixed to rotate around a horizontal axis and mounted on a
vertical axis.
o Caster Wheels: Pivoting wheels that allow free rotation around the vertical axis.
o Omnidirectional Wheels: Allow movement in multiple directions without changing
orientation.
Advantages:
 Energy efficient on flat surfaces
 Simpler mechanical design compared to legged robots
 Higher speed and payload capacity
 More stable than other locomotion types

Applications of Wheeled Mobile Robots

1. Industrial Automation:
o Used in manufacturing and assembly lines for material handling and
transportation.
2. Service Robots:
o Employed in environments such as hospitals, hotels, and restaurants for delivery
and assistance tasks.
3. Research and Education:
o Used as platforms for research in robotics, control systems, and AI.
4. Agriculture:
o Used for tasks like crop monitoring, spraying, and harvesting.
5. Military and Security:
o Deployed for reconnaissance, surveillance, and bomb disposal tasks.
6. Entertainment:
o Used in theme parks, exhibitions, and as interactive toys.
Robot Programming Languages
Robot programming languages are specialized languages designed to instruct and control
robotic systems. These languages cater to the specific needs of robotics, such as real-time
control, sensor integration, and motion planning. These languages provide specific features
and syntax tailored to the unique requirements of robotic systems.
Robot Programming Languages
1. Robot Operating System (ROS)
o Description: While not a traditional programming language, ROS is a middleware
framework that provides a collection of tools, libraries, and conventions to simplify
the task of creating complex and robust robot behavior across a wide variety of
robotic platforms.
o Use: It facilitates communication between components of a robotic system,
manages hardware abstraction, provides libraries for common tasks, and supports
various programming languages such as C++, Python, and more.
2. RAPID
o Description: A proprietary programming language developed by ABB for
programming their industrial robots. RAPID (Robot Application Programming
Interface Description) is high-level and allows programmers to define robot
motions, logical operations, and process automation.
o Use: Widely used in manufacturing environments for programming ABB robots to
perform tasks such as welding, painting, and assembly.
3. Python with Robotics Libraries
o Description: Python is a versatile programming language used extensively in
robotics due to its simplicity and readability. Several robotics libraries such as
RobotPy, PyRobot, and ROS Python bindings provide APIs for controlling robots,
performing computer vision, and implementing machine learning algorithms.
o Use: Python is used in research, prototyping, and development of robotic systems
across various domains including autonomous vehicles, service robots, and
educational platforms.
4. MATLAB/Simulink
o Description: MATLAB and Simulink are high-level programming and modeling
environments used in robotics for simulation, control design, and algorithm
development. They provide toolboxes and libraries for robotics applications,
including robotics vision, control systems, and simulation.
o Use: MATLAB/Simulink is widely used in academia, research, and industry for
developing and testing robotic algorithms and control strategies.