Mathematics

Grade 12

Term 2

Learner Book

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SESSION CONTENT PAGE

Session 1 Circle Geometry 3

Session 2 Proportionality and similarity theorems 20

Session 3 Analtical geometry of straight lines 31

Session 4 Analytical geometry of circles 40

Session 5 Limits & Differentiation by First Principles 49

Session 6 Differentiation by Rules 61

Session 7 Applications of Differentiation: The Cubic Function 66

Session 8 Rates of Change & Maxima / Minima 74

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SESSION 1

CIRCLE GEOMETRY

After studying and completing session 1, you will be able to:

➢ Prove and apply the Theorems, Converses and Corollaries of the Geometry of Circles

Terminology

The following terms are regularly used when referring to circles:

• Arc — a portion of the circumference of a circle.

• Chord — a straight line joining the ends of an arc.
• Circumference — the perimeter or boundary line of a circle.
• Radius (r) — any straight line from the centre of the circle to a point on the circumference.
• Diameter — a special chord that passes through the centre of the circle. A diameter is a
straight line segment from one point on the circumference to another point on the
circumference that passes through the centre of the circle.
• Segment — part of the circle that is cut off by a chord. A chord divides a circle into two
segments.
• Tangent — a straight line that makes contact with a circle at only one point on the
circumference.

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REVISION OF GRADE 11 THEOREMS

THEOREM

The line segment joining the centre of a circle to the

midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

If AM = MB, then OM ⊥ AB, which means that

Mˆ 1 = Mˆ 2 = 90

THEOREM CONVERSE

The perpendicular line drawn from the centre of the circle to a

chord bisects the chord.

If OM ⊥ AB, then AM = MB

THEOREM

The angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre of a circle is twice the angle it subtends at
the circumference of the circle.

For all three diagrams above

Oˆ1 = 2Cˆ

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THEOREM

The angle subtended by a diameter at the circumference is a

right angle. We say that the angle in a semi – circle is 90.

In the diagram Cˆ = 90 .

THEOREM CONVERSE

If the angle subtended by a chord at the circumference of a

circle is 90  , then the chord is a diameter.

If Ĉ = 90  , then the chord subtending Ĉ is a diameter.

THEOREM

An arc or line segment of a circle subtends equal angles at the

circumference of the circle. We sat that angles in the same
segment are equal.

In the diagram Aˆ = Bˆ and Cˆ = Dˆ .

THEOREM

The opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are

supplementary (add up to 180°).

In the diagram Aˆ + Bˆ = 180  and Cˆ + Dˆ = 180 

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THEOREM CONVERSE

If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is a cyclic

quadrilateral.

THEOREM

An exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the

interior opposite angle.

If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral then Cˆ1 = A

THEOREM CONVERSE
If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle, then that quadrilateral
is a cyclic quadrilateral.

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THEOREM

A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the

point of contact.

If ABC is a tangent to the circle at point B, then the radius

OB ⊥ ABC. This means that Bˆ1 = Bˆ 2 = 90 

THEOREM CONVERSE

If a line is drawn perpendicular to the radius, at the

point where the radius meets the circle, then that line is
a tangent to the circle.

If line ABC ⊥ OB, then line ABC is a tangent to the circle

at point B

THEOREM

If two tangents are drawn from the same point outside a

circle, they are equal in length.

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THEOREM

The angle between the tangent to the circle and a chord drawn from the point of contact is equal to

an angle in the alternate segment.

THEOREM CONVERSE

If a line is drawn through the end point of a chord, making the angle between them equal to an angle

in the alternate segment then that line is a tangent to the circle.

If Bˆ 2 = Eˆ or if Bˆ1 = Dˆ , then ABC is a tangent to the circle passing through points B, D and E.

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ACCEPTABLE REASONS: EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

Always use the following shortened versions of the theorem statements.

In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum Pythagoras OR
of the squares of the other two sides. Theorem of Pythagoras
If the square of the longest side in a triangle is equal to the sum of the Converse Pythagoras
squares of the other two sides, then the triangle is right-angled. OR
Converse Theorem of
Pythagoras
If three sides of one triangle are respectively equal to three sides of SSS
another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
If two sides and an included angle of one triangle are respectively equal to SAS OR S∠ S
two sides and an included angle of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.
If two angles and one side of one triangle are respectively equal to two AAS OR ∠∠
angles and the corresponding side in another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.
If in two right-angled triangles, the hypotenuse and one side of one RHS OR 90 HS
triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and one side of the other,
the triangles are congruent.

QUADRILATERALS
The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360. Sum of ∠s in quad
The opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel. Opp. sides of ∥m
If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, then the quadrilateral is Opp. sides of quad are ∥
a parallelogram.
The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length. Opp. sides of ∥m
If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, then the quadrilateral is a Opp. sides of quad are =
parallelogram. OR
converse opp. sides of a
parm.
The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal. Opp. ∠s of ∥m
If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal then the quadrilateral is a Opp. ∠s of quad are = OR
parallelogram. converse opp. angles of a
parm.
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. Diag. of ∥m
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is Diags. of quad bisect each
a parallelogram. other
OR
Converse diags. of a parm
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal and parallel, then Pair of opp. sides = and ∥
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect its area. Diag. bisect area of ∥m
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect at right angles. Diags. of rhombus
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect the interior angles. Diags. of rhombus
All four sides of a rhombus are equal in length. sides of rhombus
All four sides of a square are equal in length. sides of square
The diagonals of a rectangle are equal in length. diags of rect.
The diagonals of a kite intersect at right-angles. diag of kite
A diagonal of a kite bisects the other diagonal. diag of kite
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A diagonal of a kite bisects the opposite angles. diag of kite

CIRCLES
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius/diameter of the circle tan ⊥ radius
at the point of contact. tan ⊥ diameter
If a line is drawn perpendicular to a radius/diameter at the point where the line ⊥ radius OR
radius/diameter meets the circle, then the line is a tangent to the circle. converse tan ⊥ radius OR
converse tan ⊥ diameter
The line drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is line from centre to midpt
perpendicular to the chord. of chord
The line drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a chord bisects line from centre ⊥ to chord
the chord.
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of the perp bisector of chord
circle;
The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double the size of ∠ at centre = 2 × ∠ at
the angle subtended by the same arc at the circle (on the same side of the circumference
chord as the centre).
The angle subtended by the diameter at the circumference of the circle is ∠s in semi-circle OR
90. Diameter subtends right
angle OR
1
∠ in 2°

If the angle subtended by a chord at the circumference of the circle is 90, chord subtends 90 OR
then the chord is a diameter. converse ∠s in semi-circle
Angles subtended by a chord of the circle, on the same side of the chord, ∠s in the same seg
are equal.
If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two points on line subtends equal ∠s OR
the same side of the line segment, then the four points are concyclic. converse ∠s in the same
seg
Equal chords subtend equal angles at the circumference of the circle. equal chords; equal ∠s
Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle. equal chords; equal ∠s
Equal chords in equal circles subtend equal angles at the circumference of equal circles; equal chords;
the circles. equal ∠s

THEOREM STATEMENT ACCEPTABLE

REASON(S)
Equal chords in equal circles subtend equal angles at the centre of the equal circles; equal chords;
circles. equal ∠s
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary. opp ∠s of cyclic quad
If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary then the opp ∠s quad supp OR
quadrilateral is cyclic. converse opp ∠s of cyclic
quad
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite ext ∠ of cyclic quad
angle.
If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle ext ∠ = int opp ∠ OR
of the quadrilateral, then the quadrilateral is cyclic. converse ext ∠ of cyclic
quad
Two tangents drawn to a circle from the same point outside the circle are Tans from common pt OR
equal in length. tans from same pt

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 The angle between the tangent to a circle and the chord drawn from the Tan chord theorem
point of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
If a line is drawn through the end-point of a chord, making with the chord Converse tan chord
an angle equal to an angle in the alternate segment, then the line is a theorem OR ∠ between
tangent to the circle. line and chord

THEOREM STATEMENT ACCEPTABLE

REASON(S)
The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel Midpt Theorem
to the third side and equal to half the length of the third side.
The line drawn from the midpoint of one side of a triangle, parallel to line through midpt ∥ to
another side, bisects the third side. 2nd side
A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides line ∥ one side of ∆
proportionally. OR
prop theorem; name ∥
lines
If a line divides two sides of a triangle in the same proportion, then the line Line divides two sides of
is parallel to the third side. ∆ in prop
If two triangles are equiangular, then the corresponding sides are in III ∆ OR equiangular ∆s
proportion (and consequently the triangles are similar).
If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then the Sides of ∆ in prop
triangles are equiangular
If triangles (or parallelograms) are on the same base (or on bases of equal Same base; same height
length) and between the same parallel lines, then the triangles (or OR equal bases; equal
parallelograms) have equal areas. height

Tips to succeed in circle Geometry:

• Never assume that an angle is 90o if it looks like it

• Never assume that a line is a diameter
• Never assume that a line is a tangent
• Never do construction when solving riders, unless you are proving a theorem
The following will also enable you to answer geometry problems successfully:

• To be able to understand the given statement, at least read the statement more than once

• Highlight or underline Geometry terms (such as parallel, tangent, diameter, and so on) in the given
statement

• Transfer/ highlight the given information onto the given diagram

• Identify theorems and axioms on the diagram and mark them

• Trace the shapes, theorems and axioms with your fingers

• You may move the book or question paper in a ‘comfortable’ position so that you can easily read
the information on the diagrams
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 • Use coloured pens as much as possible

CLASSWORK ACTIVITY

1.

For the above diagram, determine, giving reasons, the size of:

1.1. K̂ 2 (2)

1.2. N̂ 2 (3)

1.3. Tˆ (2)

1.4. L̂ 2 (2)

1.5. L̂ 1 (1)

2. In the diagram below, AB and DC are chords of a circle. E is a point on AB such that
̂B = 1080 and DA
BCDE is a parallelogram. DE ̂ E = 2𝑥 + 400 .

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 Calculate, giving reasons, the value of x .

(5)

3. In the diagram, PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral. ST is a tangent to the circle at S and

chord SR is produced to V. PQ = QR, 𝑆̂1 = 420 and 𝑆̂2 = 1080 .

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Determine, with reasons, the size of the following:

3.1. Q̂ (2)

3.2. R̂ 2 (2)

3.3. P̂2 (2)

3.4. R̂ 3 (2)

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4. In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and P, Q, S, and R are points on the circle.
̂ S = y. The tangent at P meets SQ produced at T. OQ intersects PS at
PQ = QS and QR
A.

4.1. Give a reason why 𝑃̂2 = 𝑦. (1)

4.2. Prove that PQ bisects 𝑇𝑃̂𝑆. (4)

4.3. Determine 𝑃𝑂̂ 𝑄 in terms of 𝑦 (2)

4.4. Prove that PT is a tangent to the circle that passes through points P, O and (2)
A.

4.5. Prove that 𝑂𝐴̂𝑃 = 900 . (5)

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HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. PON is a diameter of a circle centred at O. TM is a tangent to the circle at M, a point

on the circle. R is another point on the circle such that OR ‖ PM. NR and MN are
drawn. Let 𝑀1 = 660 .

Calculate with reasons, the size of EACH of the following angles:

1.1. 𝑃̂ (2)

1.2. ̂2
𝑀 (2)

1.3. ̂1
𝑁 (1)

1.4. 𝑂̂2 (2)

1.5. ̂2
𝑁 (3)

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2. In the diagram, a smaller circle ABTS and a bigger circle BDRT are given. BT is a
common chord. Straight lines STD and ATR are drawn. Chords AS and DR are
produced to meet in C, a point outside two circles. BS and BD are drawn. 𝐴̂ = 𝑥 and
𝑅̂1 = 𝑦.

2.1. Name, giving a reason, another angle equal to:

2.1.1 𝑥 (2)

2.1.2 𝑦 (2)

2.2. Prove that SCDB is a cyclic quadrilateral. (3)

2.3 ̂2 = 300 and 𝐴𝑆̂𝑇 = 1000 . Prove that SD is not a

It is further given that 𝐷 (4)
diameter of circle BDS.

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SESSION 2

PROPORTIONALITY AND SIMILARITY THEOREMS

After studying and completing this session, you will be able to:

Prove that:

1. A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides proportionally

2. The Mid-point Theorem as a special case of the converse of this theorem

3. That equiangular triangles are similar

4. That triangles with sides in proportion are similar

5. The Pythagorean Theorem by similar triangles

PROPORTIONALITY THEOREM

DEFINITION: A ratio describes the relationship between two quantities which have the same units.
𝑥
𝑥: 𝑦 or or 𝑥 to 𝑦
𝑦

NOTE: If two or more ratios are equal to each other, then we say that they are in the same proportion.
Proportionality describes the equality of ratios.
𝑎 𝑐
For example, if = 𝑑, then we say 𝑎 and 𝑏 are in the same proportion as 𝑐 and 𝑑.
𝑏

1. ad = bc
b d
2. =
a c
a b
3. =d
c
c d
4. =b
a

If the lines, AB and BC are in the same proportion as DE and EF, then the following statements are also

true:

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 Proportion Reciprocal proportion Cross Multiplication
𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐴𝐵. 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐵𝐶. 𝐷𝐸
= =
𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸
𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐹 𝐴𝐵. 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐷𝐸. 𝐴𝐶
= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐹 𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐸
𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐹 𝐵𝐶. 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐴𝐶. 𝐸𝐹
= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐹 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐸
We can also substitute AB by 𝑥 and BC by 𝑦.

THEOREM 1:

A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides of the triangle in the same
proportion

PA PB
In △ PQR, If AB//QR then AQ = BR

CONVERSE: If a line divides two sides of a triangle in the same proportion, then the line is parallel to the
third side of the triangle.

AE AF
If = FC , then EF//BC
EB

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The following proofs of theorems are examinable:

1. A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides proportionally.

2. If two triangles are equiangular, their sides are in proportion, and therefore the triangles are similar.
3. In a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the
other two sides.

Notation

1. The symbol for congruency is ≡.

2. The symbol for similarity is │││
3. Always remember to label similar triangles correctly.
4. Triangles that are similar also indicates which of the sides of these triangle are in proportion. E.g.
𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑃𝑅
If 𝛥𝐵𝑄𝑅 │││ 𝛥𝐵𝐴𝐶 then 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶

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CLASSWORK ACTIVITY

1. In the diagram below, EO bisects side AC of 𝛥 𝐴𝐶𝐸. EDO is produced to B such that
BO = OD. AD and CD produced meet EC and EA at G and F respectively.

1.1. Give reasons why ABCD is a parallelogram. (1)

1.2. 𝐸𝐷 (4)
Write down, with reasons, TWO ratios each equal to 𝐷𝐵

1.3 Prove that 𝐴̂1 = 𝐹̂2 . (5)

14. It is further given that ABCD is a rhombus. Prove that ACGF is a cyclic (3)
quadrilateral.

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2. ̂=̂
In the diagram below, △ ABC and △ PQR are given with A ̂=Q
P, B ̂ and Ĉ = R
̂

DE is drawn such that AD = PQ and AE = PR.

2.1. Prove that 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐸 ≡ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑅 (2)

2.2. Prove that DE ║ BC. (3)

2.3 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
Hence, prove that 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑅 (2)

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3. In the diagram below, VR is a diameter of a circle with centre O. S is any point on the
circumference. P is the midpoint of RS. The circle with RS as diameter cuts VR at T.
ST, OP and SV are drawn.

3.1. Why is OP ⊥ PS? (1)

3.2. Prove that 𝑂𝑃 │││ 𝛥𝑅𝑉𝑆. (4)

3.3 Prove that 𝛥𝑅𝑉𝑆 │││ 𝛥𝑅𝑆𝑇 (3)

3.4. Prove that ST2 = VT . TR. (6)

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4. In the diagram, PQRS is a quadrilateral with diagonals PR and QS drawn. W is a
point on PS. WT is parallel to PQ with T on QS. WV is parallel to PR with V on RS.
TV is drawn. PW : WS = 3:2.

4.1. Write down the value of the following ratios.

4.1.1 𝑆𝑇 (2)
𝑇𝑄

4.1.2 𝑆𝑉 (1)
𝑉𝑅

4.2. Prove that 𝑇̂1 = 𝑄̂1. (4)

4.3 Complete the following statement: 𝛥𝑉𝑊𝑆 is │││ 𝛥 … (1)

4.4. Determine WV : PR. (2)

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5. In the diagram, DEFG is a quadrilateral with DE = 45 and GF = 80. The diagonals GE
̂ 𝐸 = 𝐹𝐸̂ 𝐺 and 𝐷𝐺̂ 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹̂ 𝐺.
and DF meet in H. 𝐺𝐷

5.1. Give a reason why 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐺 │││ 𝛥𝐸𝐺𝐹. (1)

5.2. Calculate the length of GE. (3)

5.3 Prove that 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐻 │││ 𝛥𝐹𝐺𝐻. (3)

5.4. Hence, calculate the length of GH. (3)

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6. In the diagram, the circle with the centre F is drawn. Points A, B, C and D lie on the
circle. Chords AC and BD intersect at E such that EC = ED. K is the midpoint of
chord BD. FK, AB, CD, AF, FE and FD are drawn. Let 𝐵̂ = 𝑥.

6.1. Determine, with reasons, the size of EACH of the following in terms of 𝑥:

6.1.1 𝐹̂1 (2)

6.1.2 𝐶̂ (2)

6.2. Prove with reasons that AFED is a cyclic quadrilateral. (4)

6.3 Prove with reasons that 𝐹̂3 = 𝑥. (6)

6.4. If the area of 𝛥𝐴𝐸𝐵 = 6,25 x area 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐶, calculate 𝐸𝐷

𝐴𝐸 (5)

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HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow:

1.1. Explain why FC ║ GH. (1)

1.2 Calculate, with reasons, the length of DM. (5)

2. In the diagram, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral such that AC ⊥ CB and DC = CB. AD

is produced to M such that AM ⊥ MC. Let 𝐵̂ = 𝑥.

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2.1. Prove that:

2.1.1 MC is a tangent to the circle at C. (5)

2.1.2 𝛥𝐴𝐶𝐵 │││ 𝛥𝐶𝑀𝐷. (3)

2.2 Hence, or otherwise, prove that:

2.1.1 𝐶𝑀2
=
𝐴𝑀 (6)
𝐷𝐶 2 𝐴𝐵

2.1.2 𝐴𝑀 (1)
= sin2 𝑥
𝐴𝐵

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SESSION 3

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF STRAIGHT LINES

Description Formula
Distance/Length 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Gradient 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Midpoint 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1
𝑀(𝑥; 𝑦) = ( ; )
2 2
Collinear points Collinear points are points which lie on the same straight line. Thus A, B

and C on PQ are collinear points.

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Equation of straight y − y1 y2 − y1
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) or =
line x − x1 x2 − x1
Parallel lines
Parallel lines have equal gradients. If the gradient one line is m1 and the

gradient of the other line is m2 , then m1 = m2 if the two lines are

parallel.

Perpendicular lines 0
Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at right angles or at 90 . The
product of the gradients of perpendicular lines always equals − 1 . If the
2 3
gradient of one line is then the gradient of the other line will be − .
3 2
2 3
This is true because  − = −1.
3 2

Angle of inclination
The angle of inclination is often denoted as  and the gradient of a line is
equal to the tangent of the angle of inclination. (i.e. m = tan  )

If m  0 , then the angle of inclination is an acute angle (i.e.   90  )

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If m  0 , then the angle of inclination is an obtuse angle (i.e.
90     180  )

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CLASSWORK ACTIVIY

1. In the diagram, Q(3 ; 0), R(10 ; 7), S and T(0 ; 4) are the vertices of a parallelogram
QRST. From T a straight line is drawn to meet QR at M( 5 ; 2). The angles of
inclination of TQ and RQ are α and β respectively.

1.1. Calculate the gradient of TQ. (1)

1.2 Calculate the length of RQ. Leave your answer in surd form. (2)

1.3. 𝐹(𝑘 ; −8) is a point in the Cartesian plane such that T, Q and F are (4)
collinear. Calculate the value of 𝑘.

1.4. Calculate the coordinates of S. (4)

1.5. Calculate the size of 𝑇𝑆̂𝑅. (6)

1.6 Calculate, in the simplest form, the ratio of:

1.6.1 𝑀𝑁 (3)
𝑅𝑄

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 1.6.2 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑇𝑄𝑀 (3)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑅𝑄𝑇𝑆

2. In the diagram, P, Q(-7 ; -2), R and S(3 ; 6) are vertices of a quadrilateral, R is a point
on the 𝑥 axis. QR is produced to N such that QR = 2RN, SN is drawn. 𝑃𝑇̂𝑂 =
71, 570 and 𝑆𝑅̂ 𝑁 = 𝜃.

Determine:

2.1. The equation of SR. (1)

2.2 The gradient QP to the nearest integer. (2)

2.3. The equation of QP in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (2)

2.4. The length of QR. Leave your answer in surd form. (2)

2.5. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90° − 𝜃) (3)

2.6 The area of ∆𝑅𝑆𝑁 without using a calculator. (6)

3. In the diagram below, A(-1 ; -3), B and C are the vertices of a triangle. P(2,5 ; 1) is
the midpoint of AB. CA extended cuts the 𝑦-axis at D. The equation of CD is 𝑦 =

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−3𝑥 + 𝑘. 𝐶𝐴̂𝐵 = 𝜃. α and β are the angles that AB and AC respectively make with
the 𝑥-axis.

3.1 Determine the value of k. (2)

3.2 Determine the coordinates of B. (2)

3.3. Determine the gradient of AB. (2)

3.4. Calculate the size of θ. (5)

3.5. Calculate the length of AD. Leave your answer in surd form. (2)

3.6 If AC = 2AD and AB = √113, calculate the length of CB. (5)

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HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. 1
In the diagram, A, B(-6 ; -5) and C(8 ; -4) are points in the Cartesian plane. 𝐹(3; 3 2 )

and G are points on the line AC such that AF = FG. E is the 𝑥-intercept of AB.

1.1 Calculate:

1.1.1 The equation of AC in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. (4)

1.1.2 The coordinates of G if the equation of BG is 7𝑥 − 10𝑦 = 8 (3)

1.2 Show by calculation that the coordinates of A is (2; 5). (2)

1.3. Prove that EF║ BG. (4)

1.4. ABCD is a parallelogram with D in the first quadrant. Calculate the (4)
coordinates of D.

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2. ̂𝑁 =
In the diagram, K(-1 ; 2), L and N(1 ; -1) are vertices of ∆𝐾𝐿𝑁 such that 𝐿𝐾
78,69°. KL intersects the 𝑥-axis at P. KL is produced. The inclination of KN is θ. The
coordinates of M are (-3 ; -5).

2.1 Calculate:

2.1.1 The gradient of KN (2)

2.1.2 The size of θ, the inclination of KN. (2)

2.2 Show that the gradient of KL is equal to 1. (2)

2.3 Determine the equation of the straight line KL in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. (2)

2.4 Calculate the length of KN. (2)

2.5 It is further given that KN=LM.

2.5.1 Calculate the possible coordinates of L. (5)

2.5.2 Determine the coordinates of L if it is given that KLMN is a (3)

parallelogram.

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 2.6 T is a point on KL produced. TM is drawn such that TM=LM. Calculate
the area of ∆𝐾𝑇𝑁. (4)

3. In the diagram, A(4 ; 2), B(6 ; 4) and C(-2 ; -3) are the vertices of ABC . T is the
midpoint of CB. The equation of line Ac is given by the equation 5 x − 6 y = 8. The
angle of inclination of AB is  . DCT is drawn such that CD║BA. The lines AC and
DT intersect at S, the y − intercept of AC. P, F and R are the x − intercepts of DC, AC
and AB respectively.

3.1 Calculate:

3.1.1 The gradient of AB (2)

3.1.2 The size of  (2)

3.1.3 Co-ordinates of T (2)

3.1.4 Co-ordinates of S (2)

3.2 Determine the equation of CD in the form y = mx + c (3)

3.3 Calculate:

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 3.1.1 The size of DCˆ A (4)

3.1.2 The area of POSC (5)

SESSION 4

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

After studying and completing this section, you will be able to:

➢ Prove the properties of polygons by using analytical methods

➢ The concept of collinearity must be understood
➢ To be able to integrate Euclidean Geometry axioms and theorems into Analytical Geometry
problems

To calculate the length of a tangent from a point outside the circle

Formula Description
x2 + y 2 = r 2 Equation of the circle radius ( r ) and centre (0; 0).

(x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = r 2 Equation of the circle radius ( r ) and centre (a; b ) .

(x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = (a − c )2 + (b − d )2 The radius of this circle is given by the formula:

r= (a − c )2 + (b − d )2

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WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1
Determine the equation of the circle with centre (− 3;4 ) and radius 2 units.

Solution:
The question is asking you to find the equation of a circle with centre (a; b). The radius of the circle is given.
The following formula should be used:

(x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = r 2 Circle Formula

Substitute a by − 3 and b by 4

(x + 3)2 + ( y − 4)2 = 22
Simplify the equation into
x 2 + 6 x + 9 + y 2 − 8 y + 16 = 4
Collect the like terms:
x 2 + 6 x + y 2 − 8 y = −21

Example 2

Determine the centre and the radius of the circle with the equation

x2 + 2x + y2 − 6 y = 6

Solution
Using the completing the square methods, we convert the given equation: to the standard form:
(x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = r 2

x 2 + 2 x + (1) 2 + y 2 − 6 y + (−3) 2 = 6 + (1) 2 + (−3) 2

x2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 − 6 y + 9 = 6 + 1 + 9

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(x + 1)2 + ( y − 3)2 = 16

Therefore, the centre of the circle is

(− 1;3)
The radius of the circle equals 4

INTERSECTION OF CIRCLES
Two circles can intersect each other. Let us look at three scenarios discussed below to get a better
understanding of this.

OPTION 1:
CIRCLES INTERSECTING AT TWO POINTS

For the above condition:

d  r1 + r2

OPTION 2:
CIRCLES INTERSECTING AT ONE POINT OR TOUCHING

For the above condition:

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 For the above condition:

d = r1 + r2

OPTION 3:
CIRCLES THAT DO NOT INTERSECT

For the above condition:

d  r1 + r2

• Sometimes reference will be made to the clearance between two circles.

• This refers to the shortest distance between the two circles.
• This can be found by :

Clearance = d − r1 − r2

TANGENTS AND STRAIGHT LINES TO CIRCLES

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 From the previous study of circle
geometry we have learnt that a tangent to
a circle is always perpendicular ( ⊥ ) to
radius the radius at the point of contact.
We must be able to use this knowledge to
answer the questions in this section.
Always remember NO SECTION IS IN
ISOLATION AND WE MUST BE ABLE
TO INTEGRATE ALL THAT WE HAVE
tangent LEARNT.

How to find the equation of the tangent when the point of contact is given?
• Find the gradient of the radius. We may have to sometimes first find the centre of the circle.
Using the centre and the point of contact that will be given we can then easily find the gradient of
the radius.
• From the gradient of the radius we can find the gradient of the tangent. Using the knowledge of
the theorem shown above, mradius  mtan gent = 1 . (The product of the gradients of two lines that are
perpendicular = -1).
• Use the gradient of the tangent and the point of contact and substitute into the equation of a
straight line, y = mx + c . Solve for C.
• Write down equation of the tangent at the point of contact.

CLASSWORK ACTIVITY

1. In the diagram below, the equation of the circle with centre O is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 20. The
1
tangent PRS to the circle at R has the equation 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑘. PRS cuts the 𝑦-axis at T

and the 𝑥-axis at S.

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 1.1 Determine, giving reasons, the equation of OR in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. (3)

1.2 Determine the coordinates of R. (4)

1.3. Determine the area of ∆𝑂𝑇𝑆, given that R(2 ; -4). (6)

1.4. Calculate the length of VT. (4)

2. In the diagram, the circle, having the centre T(0 ; 5), cuts the 𝑦-axis at P and R. The
line through P and S(-3 ; 8) intersects the circle at N and 𝑥-axis at M. NS=PS. MT is
drawn.

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 2.1 Give a reason why TS ⊥ NP. (1)

2.2 Determine the equation of the line passing through N and P in the form (5)
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.

2.3. Determine the equations of the tangents to the circle that are parallel to (4)
the 𝑥-axis.

2.4. Determine the length of MT. (4)

2.5 Another circle is drawn through the points S, T and M. Determine, with
reasons, the equation of the circle STM in the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 +
(𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 . (5)

3. In the diagram below, the equation of the circle with centre M is

(𝑥 − 8)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 45. PT is a tangent to this circle at T and PT is parallel to
OM. Another circle, having centre O, touches the circle having centre M at N.

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 3.1 Write down the coordinates of M. (2)

3.2 Calculate the length of OM. Leave your answer in the simplest surd form. (2)

3.3. Calculate the length of ON. Leave your answer in the simplest surd form (3)

3.4. ̂ 𝑇.
Calculate the size of 0𝑀 (3)

3.5 Determine the equation of MT in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. (5)

3.6. Calculate the coordinates of T. (6)

HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. In the diagram, the equation of the circle with the centre F is (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 =
𝑟 2 . S(6 ; 5) is a point on the circle with centre F. Another circle with centre G(m ; n)
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 in the 4th quadrant touches the circle with centre F, at H such that FH : HG = 1 : 2.
The point J lies in the 1st quadrant such that HJ is a common tangent to both these
circles. JK is a tangent to the larger circle at K.

1.1 Write down the coordinates of F. (2)

1.2 Calculate the length of FS. (2)

1.3. Write down the length of HG. (1)

1.4. Give a reason why JH = JK. (1)

1.5 Determine:

1.5.1 The distance FJ, with reasons, if it is given that JK = 20. (4)

1.5.2 The equation of the circle with centre G in terms of m and n in the (5)
form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 .

1.5.3 The coordinates of G, if it is further given that the equation of (4)

tangent JK is 𝑥 = 22.

2. In the diagram below, M (3; -5) is the centre of the circle having PN as its diameter.
KL is a tangent to the circle at (7; -2).

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 2.1 Calculate the co-ordinates of P. (2)

2.2 Determine the equation of:

2.2.1 The circle in the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 . (4)

2.2.1 KL in the form y = mx + c (5)

2.3 4 (4)
For which values of k will y = − x + k be a secant to the circle?
3

2.4 Points A (t; t ) and B are not shown on the diagram.

From point A another tangent is drawn to touch the circle with centre M at
B.

2.4.1 Show that the length of tangent AB is given by 2t 2 + 4t + 9 (2)

2.4.2 Determine the minimum length of AB (4)

SESSION 5

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LIMITS & DIFFERENTIATION BY FIRST PRINCIPLES

After studying and completing session 1, you will be able to:

➢ Determine the equation of a cubic function from a given graph.

➢ Discuss the nature of stationary points including local maximum, local minimum and points of

inflection.

➢ Apply your knowledge of transformations on a given function to obtain its image.

➢ To draw and interpret the graph of the derivative of a function.

➢ To calculate Surface area and Volume in the context of optimisation

➢ Know the formulae for the surface area and volume of the right prisms. These formulae will

NOT be provided on the formula sheet

➢ If the optimisation question is based on the surface area and/or volume of the cone, sphere

and/or pyramid, a list of the relevant formulae will be provided in that question. You will be

expected to select the correct formula from this list.

LIMITS

➢ The limit of a function is the value that the function approaches or tends towards, when the variable
that defines the function approaches or tends towards a specific value.
➢ The limit of a function can be expressed mathematically as: lim f ( x )
x→a

If we look at the following example it will illustrate the definition of the concept of the limit.

EXAMPLE 1:

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 x2 − 9
The graph of f (x ) = is sketched below:
(x + 3)

➢ Based on the equation and the graph it can be seen that f ( x ) is undefined at x = 3 . The function is
undefined at this point because division by 0 would occur.
➢ If we look at the function starting at x = 0 , and move towards the right, we would see that the value
of the function ( y − value) tends towards 6 as x approaches 3.
➢ We will observe the same value as the function approaches from the opposite direction. (i.e. from
x = 5 moving towards the left).
➢ We will therefore say that as x tends towards 3 the function ( y − value) approaches 6.
➢ Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
x2 − 9
lim
x →3 x+3
=6

Here are some rules of limits that we will need to be able to understand and apply the concept efficiently.

LAWS OF LIMITS
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To apply these laws we must assume the following:

➢ c is a constant
➢ lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) must exist.
x→ a x→ a

To find the limit of a function it is very simple. Let us look at the following examples to see how we must
answer the questions that we may find in the examination.
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EXAMPLE 2:

Determine the value of lim (3h − 2) .

h→ 2

SOLUTION:

1. We always begin by substituting the value of the variable written under the limit. In this case we
must substitute 2 wherever we see the variable h in f ( x ) .
lim (3h − 2 )
h→ 2

= 3(2 ) − 2
=4

As we can see from the above example, that the procedure to answer limit questions are very simple.
However, not all questions are this simple. Let us look at another example

EXAMPLE 2:

h2 − 9
Determine the value of lim
h →3 h−3

SOLUTION:

1. We always begin by substituting the value of the variable written under the limit. In this case we
must substitute 3 wherever we see the variable h in f ( x ) .

h2 − 9
lim
h →3 h−3 This doesn’t look correct…as

=
(3)
2
−9 we know division by 0 is not
allowed…
(3) − 3
0
=
0
2. Yes. This is indeed incorrect because in mathematics we are not allowed to divide by 0. This is
what we call an indeterminate form. The word indeterminate does not imply that the limit does not
exist, the example above shows. In many cases, algebraic factorisation or other methods can be
used to manipulate the expression so that the limit can be evaluated.
h2 − 9
lim
h →3 h+3

=
(h − 3)(h + 3)
(h − 3)
= h+3

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 3. Now we may substitute the value that the variable is tending towards…
h2 − 9
lim
h →3 h+3

=
(h − 3)(h + 3)
(h − 3)
= h+3
= (3) + 3
=6

NOTE THAT IF SUBSTITUTING FOR THE LIMIT PRODUCES A ZERO DENOMINATOR,

FACTORISE AND CANCEL FIRST!

CLASSWORK EXAMPLES

Determine the values of the following:

1. lim x 2 − 2
x →5

x 2 + 2x +1
2. lim
x → −1 x +1

1 1
3. lim +
x →1 2x + 2 x

h 2 + 5h + 6
4. lim
h→ − 2 h+2

3
+2
5. lim h
h→ 0 1
+3
h

AVERAGE GRADIENT & DIFFERENTIATION

Up to this point we have been able to find the gradient of straight lines quite easily. We should have
observed that the gradient of a straight line is uniform throughout that line. What about if we wanted to
know the gradient of a curve?

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Our first observation should be that the gradient of a curve cannot be uniform. Let us investigate this
conundrum a little bit further.

EXAMPLE:

Consider the function f ( x ) = x 2 − 5 x + 6 as shown below. The co-ordinates of points A and B are shown in
the diagram.

➢ If we wanted the average gradient between points A and B, that would be the gradient of the line
joining points A and B.
Average gradient between A and B:
y 2 − y1
m AB =
x2 − x1
2 − (6 )
=
4 − (0 )
−4
=
4
= −1
➢ Consider the same diagram below with the same function sketched:

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➢ As we can see in the diagram the two points A and B are a distance h apart. The coordinates of
point A can be found by substituting the x value into the equation of f ( x ) , to find the
corresponding y value. This will then give us the coordinates of point A as  x; f ( x ) .
➢ Similarly, the coordinates of B can be found. Since point B lies a distance h away from point A, the
x value of point B will be ( x + h ) . As we found the corresponding y value for point A, we can
substitute ( x + h ) into f ( x ) . This will result in the coordinates of point B being ( x + h ); f ( x + h )
➢ The gradient can be found by using the gradient formula:
y 2 − y1
m AB =
x2 − x1
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
x+h−x
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
h
➢ Let us apply the following formula to see if we get the same answer:

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 f (x + h ) − f (x )
m AB =
h
• To make our task easier let us break down the formula into smaller parts. We can begin by
simply working out f ( x + h ) . To do this we will simply replace the x in our f ( x ) with ( x + h )

f (x + h ) = (x + h ) − 5(x + h ) + 6
2

= x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 − 5 x − 5h + 6
This is the simplest form and cannot be simplified further.

• We can now use the answer we obtained in the previous step and solve the numerator
portion of the equation, which is f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) .

(
f (x + h ) − f (x ) = x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 − 5 x − 5h + 6 − x 2 − 5 x + 6 )
= x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 − 5 x − 5h + 6 − x 2 + 5 x − 6
= 2 xh + h 2 − 5h

• Again use the answer from the previous step to work out the current step. We will now
solve for the whole equation. We already have an answer for f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) .

f (x + h ) − f (x ) 2 xh + h 2 − 5h
=
h h
h (2 x + h − 5)
=
h
= 2x + h − 5

• From the diagram above, we can see that x = 0 , and the distance between the two points,
h = 4 . Substituting these values into our answer we obtained:
f (x + h ) − f (x )
= 2(0) + (4) − 5 Answers are the
h
same….
= 0+ 4−5
= −1

If we take this same idea one step further and ask what is the gradient of the curve at a specific point, rather
than finding the average gradient?

Consider the same diagram below:

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 ➢ As we move line AB such that the value of h gets smaller (or approaches 0), we move closer to the
gradient of point A.
➢ We can then say that the gradient of point A will be given by the gradient of tangent AB, making
contact at point A. This can be expressed mathematically as:
f (x + h ) − f (x )
m AB = lim
h →0 h
➢ This is the formula for differentiation by first principles.
➢ We can therefore conclude that the gradient of a curve at a specific point is equal to the gradient of
the tangent at that point. This is also known as the derivative.

DIFFERENTIATION

DIFFERENTIATION BY FIRST PRINCIPLES

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First principles formula:
The derivative of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is written as𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and is defined by:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

This method is called differentiation from first principles or using the definition

WORKED EXAMPLES:

Differentiate the following by using first principles:

1. f ( x) = 2 x + 3

Start of by finding out f ( x + h) by substituting x + h in place of x

 f ( x + h ) = 2( x + h ) + 3 = 2 x + 2 h + 3

substitute this into the formula :

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
m = lim
h →0 h
2 x + 2h + 3 − (2 x + 3)
= lim
h →0 h
2 x + 2h + 3 − 2 x − 3
= lim
h →0 h
2h
= lim
h →0 h

= lim 2
h →0

=2

2. f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 3
f ( x + h) = 2( x + h) 2 − 3 = 2( x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 ) − 3 = 2 x 2 + 4 xh + 2h 2 − 3

Substitute into the formula :

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
m = lim Be cautious of the signs
h →0 h

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 2 x 2 + 4 xh + 2h 2 − 3 − (2 x 2 − 3)
= lim
h →0 h
2 x + 4 xh + 2h 2 − 3 − 2 x 2 + 3
2
= lim
h →0 h
4 xh + 2h 2
= lim
h →0 h
h( 4 x + 2h) Only remove h as common factor so
= lim that it cancels with the denominator.
h →0 h
= lim 4 x + 2h Substitute h = 0 in the next step .
h →0

= 4x

3. f ( x) = 2 x 3

f ( x + h) = 2( x + h) 3 = 2( x + h)( x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 )
= 2 ( x 3 + 2 x 2 h + xh 2 + x 2 h + 2 xh 2 + h 3 )
= 2 ( x 3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + h 3 )
= 2 x 3 + 6 x 2 h + 6 xh 2 + 2h 3

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
m = lim
h →0 h

2 x 3 + 6 x 2 h + 6 xh 2 + 2h 3 − 2 x 3
= lim
h →0 h
6 x h + 6 xh + 2h 3
2 2
= lim
h →0 h
h(6 x + 6 xh + 2h 2 )
2
= lim
h →0 h
= lim 6 x + 6 xh + 2h 2
2
h →0

= 6x 2

2
4. f ( x) =
x

2
f ( x + h) =
x+h

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 f ( x + h) − f ( x )
m = lim
h →0 h
2 2
−
= lim x + h x
h →0 h
2 x − 2( x + h )
x ( x + h)
= lim
h →0 h
2 x − 2 x − 2h
x ( x + h)
= lim
h →0 h
− 2h 1
= lim 
h →0 x ( x + h) h
−2
= lim 2
h → 0 x + xh

2
=− 2
x

HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4. (5)

2. Determine f ′ (x)from first principles if f(x) = x 2 − 5x + 14. (5)

3. Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3. (5)

4. 2
Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if f (x ) = −
x (6)

5. 1
Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if f ( x ) =
x (6)

6. Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3. (5)

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SESSION 6

RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Determining the derivative of a function from first principles requires a long calculation and it is easy to
make mistakes. However, we can use this method of finding the derivative from first principles to obtain
rules which make finding the derivative of a function much simpler.
• If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 where 𝑛 ∈ ℝ and 𝑛 ≠ 0
• The derivative of a constant is equal to zero:
𝑑
(𝑘) = 0
𝑑𝑥
• The derivative of a constant multiplied by a function is equal to the constant multiplied by the
derivative of the function:
𝑑 𝑑
[𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘. [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• The derivative of a sum is equal to the sum of the derivatives:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] + [𝑔(𝑥)]]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• The derivative of a difference is equal to the difference of the derivatives.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)] − [𝑔(𝑥)]]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The following notations are used:

1. 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 2

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
3. Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , then = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

4. If 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , then 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2

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WORKED EXAMPLES:
Find the derivative of the following functions :

1. y = 2x 2
dy
= 2.2 x 2 −1
dx The derivative of a constant is 0
= 4x
2. f ( x) = 7 x 2 + 14
f ' ( x) = 2.7 x 2 −1 + 0
= 14 x

3. y = 3x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 10
dy
= 9x2 + 4x − 5 The derivative of 5 x is as follows
dx
y = 5 x1
4. y = ( x + 3)( x − 4) dy
y = x 2 + 3x − 4 x − 12 = 1  5 x1−1
dx
y = x 2 − 1x − 12
dy = 5x0 = 5
= 2x − 1
dx

1
3
5. f ( x) = 4 x 3 + x 2 − Convert to a form that is workable.
x2
1

= 4 x + x − 3x − 2
3 2

1
1 −1
f ' ( x) = 3  4 x3−1 + x 2 − (−2).3x − 2 −1
2
1 All answers must be in positive
1 −
= 12 x 2 + x 2 + 6 x − 3 exponent and in surd form if
2 possible .
1 1 1
= 12 x 2 + . 1 + 6. 3
2 2 x
x
1 6
= 12 x 2 + + 3
2 x x

Please take note of the following :

1 3 1
1 3 4 4 −
x =
2
x x = x
2 2 3
2
= x−2 3
= 3x − 3 = 1 = 4x 2
x x x
x2

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 9
6. y = 2 x 4 + (2 x) 0 − 3t +
3
x2
9
= 2 x 4 + 1 − 3t + 2

x 3

2 The question would have stipulated to

−
= 2 x + 1 − 3t + 9 x
4 3 dy
−2 find : , so 3t is regarded as a
dy 2 −1 dx
= 8 x3 − .9 x 3
dx 3 constant.
5
− −2 −2 3 −5
= 8x3 − 6 x 3
−1 = − =
1 3 3 3 3
= 8 x 3 − 6. 5

x 3

6
= 8 x3 −
3
x5

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CLASSWORK EXAMPLES

1. Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4. (5)

2. Determine f ′ (x)from first principles if f(x) = x 2 − 5. (5)

3. Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2. (5)

4. Determine the derivative of:

4.1 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 +10𝑥 (2)

4.2 3 2 (3)
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑥)

4.3 2 (3)
𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3

4.4 2𝑥 (3)
𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 - 𝑥 3

4.5 𝐷𝑥 [
𝑥2−2𝑥−3
] (3)
𝑥+1

4.6 𝑑𝑦 1
if 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 (3)
𝑑𝑥

HOMEWORK EXAMPLES

1. Determine 𝑓 1 (𝑥) from first principles if it is given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5 ⋅ (3)

2. Determine 𝑓 1 (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 (5)

3. 𝑑𝑦
Determine 𝑑𝑥 if:

3.1 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 (2)

3.2 𝑦𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ; 𝑥 ≠ 1 (3)

3.3 𝐷𝑥 [(𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 7)] (3)

3.4 5
𝑦 = √𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2 𝜋
1 (3)

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SESSION 7

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION: EQUATIONS OF TANGENTS TO CURVES & THE

CUBIC FUNCTION

EQUATIONS OF TANGENTS TO CURVES

The gradient of a curve, at any given point of the curve is equal to the gradient of the tangent at that point .

WORKED EXAMPLES:

1. Find the gradient of y = x 2 − 2 x at x = 3

➢ We find the first derivative, which gives us the gradient of the parabola at any x .
dy
= 2x − 2
dx

Thus at x = 3 , the gradient will be

m = f (3) = 2(3) − 2 = 4

2. Find the equation of the tangent to y = − x 2 + 2 x + 3 at x = 2

➢ Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve:

dy
= −2 x + 2
dx

Thus at x = 2 , the gradient will be

m = f (3) = −2(2) + 2 = −2

The equation of the tangent: y = mx + c = −2 x + c

If x = 2 is a point on the curve, the y -co-ordinate is:

y = −(2) 2 + 2(2) + 3 = 3 (Substitute x = 2 into the equation of the curve)

Point of contact: (2;3)
Substitute this point into the equation of the tangent to get the c value.
y = −2 x + c
3 = −2( 2) + c
c = 7
y = −2 x + 7
This is the equation of the tangent to the curve.

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THE CUBIC FUNCTION

The standard for of a cubic function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. The cubic function is sometimes
called a third-degree function. To sketch the cubic graph, you may calculate the following.

• The 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 by substituting 𝑥 by zero

• The 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 by substituting 𝑦 by zero
• The coordinates of the turning points by using differentiation

You can use the value of 𝑎 in 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 to determine the shape of the graph. In the
following graph the value of 𝒂 is Negative. From left to right the graph moves Down. When 𝑎 < 0

In the following graph the value of 𝒂 is Positive. From left to right the graph moves Up. When 𝑎 > 0:

Sketching cubic graphs using differentiation

➢ In order to sketch a cubic graph we need to fully understand the method of differentiation .
➢ Any cubic graph is raised to an index of 3. Cubic graphs have two turning points, namely the
maximum turning point and the minimum turning point.

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WORKED EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of f ( x) = x 3 + x 2 − 6 x , showing all points of intersection and the maximum and
minimum turning points.

SOLUTION:

Step 1:
Find the x-intercepts by letting y = 0 and solve for x
x3 + x 2 − 6 x = 0
x ( x 2 + x − 6) = 0
x( x + 3)( x − 2) = 0

x = 0 and x = −3 x=2

Step 2:
Find the y-intercept : Let x = 0 and solve for y
 y = (0)3 + (0) 2 − 6(0) = 0

Step 3:
Find the turning points : Find the first derivative and solve for x and y by equating to zero .
f ' ( x) = 3x 2 + 2 x − 6 = 0
− b  b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
− 2  4 − 4(3)(−6)
x=
6
x = 1,120.........x = −1,786

These x -values are called the critical values. Substitute these values into the original equation to obtain the
y -values.

f (1,12) = (1,12)3 + (1,12) 2 − 6(1,12) = 4,061

f (−1,786) = (−1,786)3 + (−1,786) 2 − 6(1,786) = 8,209

The turning points of this graph are: A ( -1,786 ; 8,209) and B(1,12 ;-4,062 ) .

The question arises as to which are the maximum and minimum turning points.

To accomplish this we find the second derivative (the derivative of the derivative).

f ' ' ( x) = 6 x + 2
The actual values need
Substitute the x values into this equation: not be calculated.
f ' ' (1,12 )  0 (Minimum turning point)
f ' ' (−1,786 )  0 (Maximum turning point)

We can also determine the point of inflection

The point of inflection represents a change in concavity. What does that mean exactly?
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The shape of a curve changes from convex (arched) to concave (hollow) that is from a “peak” to a
“valley”. At this point the tangent changes direction

To determine the point of inflection, let the second derivative equal to zero, solve for x and then for y

f ' ' ( x) = 6 x + 2 = 0
6x = − 2
1
x=−
3
1
Substitute x = − into the original equation.
3
1 1 1 1
f ( x) = y = (− ) 3 + (− ) 2 − 6(− ) = 2
3 3 3 27

 1 1 
Therefore the point of inflection is  − ; 2 
 3 27 

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CLASSWORK EXAMPLES

1. Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 23𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 − 8

1.1 Prove that (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓. (2)

1.2 Hence, or otherwise, factorise 𝑓(𝑥) (2)

1.3 Determine the 𝑥-coordinates of the turning point of 𝑓. (4)

1.4 Sketch the graph of 𝑓, clearly labeling ALL turning points and intercepts
with the axes (4)

1.5 Determine the coordinates of the 𝑦-intercept of the graph of 𝑓 that has a
slope of 40 and touches 𝑓 at a point where the 𝑥-coordinate is an integer. (6)

2. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 0

2.1 Calculate the coordinates of the turning points of the graph of 𝑓. (5)

2.2 Prove that the equation 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 0 has only one real root (3)

2.3 Sketch the graph of 𝑓, clearly indicating the intercepts with the axes and (3)
the turning points.

2.4 For which values of 𝑥 will the graph of 𝑓 be concave up? (3)

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3. The sketch below represents the curve of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑. The solution of
the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are −2; 1 and 4.

3.1 Calculate the values of 𝑏; 𝑐 and 𝑑 (4)

3.2 Calculate the 𝑥-coordinate of B, the maximum turning point of 𝑓. (4)

3.3 Determine the equation for the tangent to the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = −1 (4)

3.4 Sketch the graph of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥). Clearly indicate the 𝑥-intercept and the 𝑥- (3)
intercept on your sketch.

3.5 For which values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) concave upwards? (2)

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4. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is sketched below. The 𝑥-intercepts are
indicated.

4.1 Calculate the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. (4)

4.2 Calculate the 𝑥-coordinates of A and B, the turning points of 𝑓. (5)

4.3 For which values of 𝑥 will 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0? (3)

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HOMEWORK EXAMPLES

1. Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2 with 𝑓 ′ (1) = 𝑓 ′ (3) = 0 and 𝑓(1) = 4

1.1 Show that 𝑓 has a point of inflection at 𝑥 = 2. (5)

1.2 Sketch the graph of 𝑓, clearly indicating the intercepts with the axes and (4)
the turning points.

1.3 For which values of 𝑥 will 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) be concave down? (2)

1.4 Use your graph to answer the following questions: (3)

1.4.1 Determine the coordinates of the local maximum of ℎ if ℎ(𝑥) =

𝑓(𝑥 − 2) + 3.

Claire claims that 𝑓 ′ (2) = 1. (2)

1.4.2 Do you agree with Claire? Justify your answer. (2)

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SESSION 8

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION: RATES OF CHANGE & MAXIMA / MINIMA

The methods for finding the maximum and minimum values have practical applications in many areas of
life. A project manager wants to minimize costs and maximize profits. A traveler wants to minimize
transportation time. Fermat’s Principle in optics states that light follows the path that takes the least time.
In this section, we solve such problems as maximizing areas, volumes, and profits and minimizing
distances, and costs. In solving such practical problems, the greatest challenge is often to convert the word
problem into a mathematical optimization problem by setting up the function that is to be maximized or
minimized. Guidelines for solving applied maximum and minimum problems:

Step 1: Identify all given quantities and all quantities to be determined. Draw a figure if possible to assist
you.

Step 2: Write a primary equation for the quantity whose maximum or minimum is to be found.

Step 3: Reduce the primary equation to one having a single independent variable. This may involve the use
of secondary equations relating the independent variables of the primary equation.

Step 4: Determine the feasible domain of the primary equation. That is, determine the values for which the
stated problem makes sense.

Step 5: Differentiate and find the critical values.

Finding the optimum point:

Let f′(x)=0 and solve for x to find the optimum point. To check whether the optimum point at x=a is a local
minimum or a local maximum, we find f′′(x):

• If f′′(a)<0, then the point is a local maximum.

• If f′′(a)>0, then the point is a local minimum.

Velocity is one of the most common forms of rate of change:

Average velocity = Average rate of change

Instantaneous velocity = Instantaneous rate of change

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 = Derivative
Velocity refers to the change in distance (s) for a corresponding change in time (𝑡).
𝑑𝑠
𝜈(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)

Acceleration is the change in velocity for a corresponding change in time. Therefore, acceleration is the
derivative of velocity.
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡)

This implies that acceleration is the second derivative of the distance.

𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑆 "(𝑡)

CLASSWORK EXAMPLES

1. A soft drink can has a volume of 340cm3 , a height of ℎ cm and a radius of 𝑟 cm

1.1 Express ℎ in terms of 𝑟 (2)

1.2 Show that the surface area of the can is given by 𝐴(𝑟) = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 680𝑟 −1 (2)

1.3 Determine the radius of the can that will ensure that the surface area is a (4)
maximum.

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2. A piece of wire 6 metres long is cut into two pieces. One piece, 𝑥 metres long, is bent
to form a square ABCD. The other piece is bent into U-shape so that it forms a
rectangle BEFC when placed next to the square, as shown in the diagram below.

Calculate the value of 𝑥 for which the sum of the areas enclosed by the wire will be a
maximum.
(7)

3. After flying a short distance, an insect came to a rest on a wall. Thereafter, the insect
started crawling on the wall. The path that the insect crawled can be described by
ℎ(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 6)(−2𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 − 6)), where ℎ is the height (in cm) above the floor and 𝑡
is the time (in minutes) since the insect started crawling

3.1 At what height above the floor did the insect start to crawl? (1)

3.2 How many times did the insect reach the floor? (3)

3.3 Determine the maximum height that the insect reached above the floor. (4)

4. A closed rectangular box has to be constructed as follows:

• Dimensions: length (𝑙), width (𝑤) and height (ℎ)

• The length (𝑙) of the base has to be 3 times its width (𝑤)
• The volume has to be 5𝑚3 The material for the top and the bottom parts costs
R15 per square metre and the material for the sides costs R6 per square metre.

4.1 Show that the cost to construct the box can be calculated by:
(4)
Cost = 90𝑤 2 + 48𝑤ℎ

4.2 Determine the width of the box such that the cost to build the box is a (6)
maximum.

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5. An open rectangular box is made of a very thin sheet of metal. The volume is 128 cm3
and the base of the box has a width of 𝑥 cm and a length of 4𝑥.

5.1 Determine an expression for the height of the box in terms of 𝑥. (2)

5.2 Show that the total surface area of the box can be written as (3)
320
(4𝑥 2 + ) 𝑐𝑚2 .
𝑥

5.3 Calculate the height of the box for which the surface area is a minimum. (4)

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HOMEWORK ACTIVITY

1. An aerial view of a stretch of a road is shown in the diagram below. The road can be
described by the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2, 𝑥 ≥ 0 if the coordinate axes (dotted lines) are
chosen as shown in the diagram.

Benny sits at a vantage point B(0; 3) and observes a car , P, traveling along the road.

Calculate the distance between Benny and the car, when the car is closest to Benny. (7)

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2. In ∆ ABC:

• D is a point on AB, E is a point on AC and F is a point on BC such that DECF is a

parallelogram.
• BF : FC = 2 : 3.
• The perpendicular height AG is drawn intersecting DE at H.
• AG = 𝑡 units
• BC = (5 ;– 𝑡) units.

2.1 Write down AH:GH (1)

2.2 Calculate 𝑡 if the area of the parallelogram is a maximum.

NOTE: Area of parallelogram = base × ⏊ height

(5)

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