Pa Ol Tole 1ae} Work, energy and power ECOL In this chapter you will learn how to: * understand the concepts of kinetic, gravitational potential and elastic potential energy understand work done as energy transferred understand power as the rate of energy transfer understand and apply the principle of energy conservation calculate the efficiency in energy transfers. F> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK GUIDING QUESTION How are we led to the law of energy conservation, and how do we use it to describe changes in systems? Introduction This chapter deals with the related concepts of work, energy and power—three fundamental quantities in physics. We will find out that the work done by the net force is the change in the kinetic energy of the body. Kinetic energy is one of many forms of energy that are used to describe a mechanical system, along with gravitational and elastic potential energies. We will see how the total mechanical energy of a system kinetic and potential) stays the same in the absence of resistive forces, leading to our first conservation law. 3.1 Work Work done by a force We first consider the definition of work done by a constant force for motion in a straight line. By constant force we mean a force that is constant in magnitude as ell as in direction. Figure 3.1 shows d block that is displaced along a straight line. The distance travelled by the body is s. The force makes an angle 9 with the displacement Means ‘The work done by a force is the product of the force in the direction of the displacement times. the distance travelled. ently, since s cos@ is the distance travelled in ‘work may also be defined as the product of the force times the distance travelled in the direction of the force ) ‘The cosine here can be positive, negative or zero; thus work can be positive, negative or zero. We will see what that means shortly. The unit of work is the joule, One joule is the work done bya force of 1 N when it moves a body a distance of I'm in the direction of the force. 1} = 1 Nm. A mass is being pulled along a level road by a rope attached to it in such a way that the rope makes an angle of 34° with the horizontal. The foree in the rope is 24 N, Calculate the work done by this foree in moving the mass a distance of 8.0m along the level road Answer ‘We just have to apply the formula for work done: W = Fscos8 Substitu the values from the question, W = 24% 8.0 x cos 34° W= 1603 _=j 224 24 Figure 3.1: A force moving its point of application performs work. ‘The foree acts on the body all the time as it moves, The work done by the force is defined as Ww But F cos@is the component of the force in the direction of the displacement and so ’s 6080 A car with its engine tuned off moves on a horizontal level road. A constant force of 620 N opposes the motion of the car. The ear comes to rest after 84 m, Calculate the work done on the car by the opposing force.3 Work, energy and power Answer ‘We again apply the formula for work done, but now we have (0 realise that @= 180°, So | W’= 620 « 84 cos 180° W=-s2kI You stand on roller skates facing a wall. You push against the wall and move away. Discuss whether the force exerted by the wall on you performed any work Answer No work was done by the contaet force because the point at which the force is applied has not moved. (So where did the energy you gained come from?) Work done by a varying force You will meet situations where the foree is not constant in magnitude or direction and the path is not a straight line. Let us first discuss the case of at force varying in magnitude. Figure 3.2 shows how the magnitude of the force varies with distance travelled, Consider what happens ‘when the force moves the body a very small distance As. Because As is so small we may assume that the force does not vary during this distance, The work done is then FAs and is the area of the dark brown rectangle shown, For the total work we have to add the area of the many rectangles under the curve. The sum is the area under the curve P wwidih as 7 7 Figure 3.2: The area under the graph of force against distance is the work done, The work done by a force is the area under the graph that shows the variation of the magnitude of the force with distance travelled A foree varies with distance travelled according to the graph in Figure 3.3, What is the work done in moving a distance of 4,0 m? Answer The work done is the area under the graph from d=0tod=4m. Thisis | o 12 3 Figure 3.3: The work done is the area under the graph. The erea of a trapezvid is half the sum of the parallel sides multiplied by the perpendicular distance between thom, Work done in circular motion We know that in circular motion there must be a force directed towards the centre of the circle. This is called the centripetal force Figure 3.4 shows the forces pointing towards the centre of the circular path, When we break the circular path into straight segments the angle between the force and the segment is always 2 right angle, This means that work done along cach segment is zero because £03 90° = 0, So for circular motion the total work done by the centripetal force is zero.> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSESOOK, ZN. ‘ll forces point tard the care forcetare perpendicular ech segment Figure 3. “The work done by the centripetal force is 20r0, eee ss a The work done by the centripetal force in a full revolution is zero because the displacement is zero the force is at a right angle to the velocity the centripetal force does not move its point of application forces do work only when they move the body along a straight line. The work-kinetic energy relation Imagine a net force F that acts on a pprticle of mass m. The force produces an acceleration a given by E Let the initial speed of the particle be u. Because we have acceleration, the speed will change. Let the speed be v afier travelling a distance s. We know from kinematics that Substituting for the acceleration, this becomes viswt+2bs We can rewrite this as, ‘We invecpret teen Tul Fe the woe domo on the potile Wy thet fore. Te quacity 4 x waza « speeds the energy th particle hes due tots ration, Called Kanes entry Foe sped », Made mmrgy i defined as, E, In our example, the initial kinetic energy of the particle L mu? and the kinetic energy after travelling distance » * The result says that the work done has resulted in a transfer of energy that has changed the kinetic ‘energy of the particle, We can write this as W., = AE, where W,,, is the net work done and AF, is the change in kinetic energy. This is known as the work-kinetic energy relation, We can think of the work done as energy transferred In this example, the work done has transferred energy to the particle by increasing its kinetic energy. A block of mass 2.5 kg slides on a rough horizontal surface. The initial speed of the block is 8.6 m s I is brought to rest after travelling a distance of 16 m. Determine the magnitude of the frictional force. Answer We will use the work-kinetic energy relation, SAE The only force doing work is the frictional force, f which acts in the opposite direction to the motion. x 16% (=I) ‘The change in kinetic energy is g= bn? — b= -92.455 so -1y= 0045 f=58N ‘The magnitude of the frictional force is 5.8 N. (The angle between the force and the direction of motion is 180°, which is why we needed to multiply by cos 180%, which is—I.) “>3. Work, energy and power WORKED EXA\ You hold a ball of mass 0.25 kg in your hand ‘and throw it so that it leaves your hand with a speed of 12 ms !, Calculate the work done by your hand on the ball Answer The question asks for work done, but here we do not know the forces that acted on the ball nor the distance by which we moved it before releasing it But using AF, = HW’, we find WORKED EXAMPLE Suppose that in the previous example your moved a distance of 0.90 m in throwing th Estimate the average net force that acted on the ball ind ball Answer The work done was 18 J and so Fs = 18 J with 90 m. This gives = 20 N. Moyes epee) A mass nz hangs from two strings attached to the ceiling such that they make the same angle with the vertical, as shown in Figure 3.5, The strings are shortened very slowly so that the mass is raised a distance h above its original position, Determine the work done by the tension in cach string as the mass is raised. Figure 3.5: For worked exemple 3.8. Answer ‘The net work done is zero, either because the net force on the mass is zero or because the chat kinetic energy is zero. The work done by is -mgh, and thus the work done by the two equal tension forees is +mgh. The work done by each is nh thos "§ Work done by gravity We will now concentrate on the work done by a very special foree, namely the weight of a body. Remember that weight is mass times acceleration of free fall and is directed vertically down, Thus, if a body is displaced horizontally, the work done by mg is zero In this case the angle between the force and the direction of motion is 90° (Figure 3.6), so W= mgs cos 90° = 0 displacement s Figure 3.6: The force of gravity is normal to this horizontal disclacement, so no work is being done, When a body is displaced such that its final position is at the same vertical height as the original position, the work done by the weight We are not implying that itis the weight that is foreing the body to move along the table. We are calculating the work done by a particular force (the weight) if the body (Somehow) moves in a particular way If the body Pally a vertical distance i, then the work done by the weight iy +mgh. The force of gravity is parallel to the displacement, as in Figure 3.7a.> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK If the body moves vertically upward to x height h from the initial position, then the work done by the weight is -mgh since now the angle between direction of force (vertically down) and displacement (vertically up) is 180°. The force of gravity is parallel to the displacement but opposite in direction, as in Figure 3.7b. Suppose now that instead of just letting the body fall or throwing it upward, we use a rope to either lower it or raise it, at constant speed, by a height /a (Figure 3.8) ‘The work done by the weight is the same as before, so nothing changes But we now ask about the work done by the force F'that lowers or raises the body. Since # is equal and opposite to the weight, the work done by Fis ~mgh as the body is lowered and +mgh as itis boing raised. displacement Figure 3.7: The force af gravity (green arrows) is parallel 10 the displacement in a and opposite in b Figure 3.8: Lowering and raising an object at constant speed using a rope. In discussing work done it is always important to keep a clear picture of the force whose work we are calculating. Gravitational potential energy We just saw that when a force raises a body of mass by a vertical distance h (at constant speed) the work done by that force is mgh, For the earth-mass system we define the gravitational potential energy; F, to be the work done by the moving forve in placing a body a height h above the surface of the earth: £,= mgh This implies that a body on the surface has zero potential energy: But as we will see (for example worked ‘example 3.11 of the next section), we may call any horizontal surface to be the zeto of potential energy and measure heights from that surface. This formula is approximate anyway and may only be used if the height ‘his very small compared to the radius of the earth, Gravitational potential energy is the energy of a system due to its position and represents the work done by an external agent in bringing the system to that position | Tension in a spring Here we will meet another force to which we can associate a potential energy. [1 is the tension in a spring, Consider a horizontal spring whose left end is attached toa vertical wall, If we apply a force F to the other end wwe will stretch the spring by some amount, x. We know from Chapter 2 that the force Fand the extension «are directly proportional 1o each other, ie., F= kx, a result known as Hooke’s law, Figure 3.9, Since the force Fand the extension x are directly proportional, the graph of force versus extension is a straight line through the origin and work done is the ‘rea under the curve (Figure 3.10).3 Work, energy and power Any: | Notice that in the data booklet the formula uses Axin place of our x. Notice aso that the work done when extending a spring from an extension x, to an extension x, (so x, > x) is =| : Pea bun f= We zg x) ri a ‘A toy gun has a spring that is compressed by an UVUUUVLT TVET: Bak amount e. The gun shoots a ball with speed v. AAA ay What speed would the same ball have if the spring were compressed by an amount 2e? Weoeesese alee) A mass of 8.4 kg rests on top of « vertical spring whose base is attached to the floor. The spring compresses by 5.2 em. Figure 3.9: Setching e ing requires work to be done. be a Calculate the spring constant of the spring. “Keone b_ Determine the energy stored in the spring. Answer ° x Extension a The mass is in equilibrium so mg = kx. So Figure 3.10: The force Fstretchas the spring. The force is pa proportional ro extension according to Hooke’ law ; pe 84X98 = 53010 To find the work done in extending the spring from pails saeot Nias? 0) to extension x, we need to calculate the area of the triangle of base x and b The stored energy £;, is height A. Thus its natural length ¢ kx? x 1583 «(5.2 10°) ‘The work to extend a spring from its natural length by a ‘an amount x is thus We kx? ‘The work done in extending the spring goes into elas potential energy, E:, stored in the spring. The clastic, potential energy of a spring whose extension (or compression) is xis Ey = 44x? (The subscript H refers to Hooke). .>> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK TANDING A horizontal force of 24 N pulls a body @ distance of 5.0 m along its direction Calculate the work done by the force, A block slides along a rough table and is brought to rest after travelling a distance of 2.4m. A force of 3.2 N opposes the motion Calculate the work done by the opposing force A block is pulled by a force making an angle of 20° to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 3.11 Find the work done by the pulling force when its point of application has moved 15 m. F=25N, Figure 3.11: For question 3 block of mass m slides down an inclined plane a distance d, as shown in Figure 3.12. The incline makes an angle #0 the horizontal N ag Figure 3.12: For auestion 4 Determine the work done by the normal force N on the block. A ball of mass mis tied to a string and moves, on a horizontal circle of radius R with constant speed von a horizontal table. a Explain carefully why the tension force does zero work during a full revolution. 10 b How much work does it do in half a revolution? You are holding a weight in your palm. Discuss whether you are doing work. The graph (Figure 3.13) shows how the force F acting on a body veries with distance travelled x HIN 20; lo ul vim 0 1 2 3 4 5 Figure 3.13: For question 7 a Calculate the work done by the force efter the body has been moved a distance of 5.0m, b Is the speed of the body increasing or decreasing? The velocity of an object moving along a straight line changes from 5.0 ms" to -5.0 ms" as the result of a force acting on the ‘object. What 's the work cone by the force? A block of mass 2.0 kg and an initial speed of 5.4m 5" slides on a rough horizontal surface and is eventually brought to rest after travelling a distance of 4.0 m, Calculate the frictional force betvieen the biock and the surface. The graph (Figure 3.14) shows how the force F acting on a body varies with distance xtravelled" 12 FIN " mK 4 of © Swim o 1 2 3 4 $ 6 Figure 3.14: For question 10. When the body was at x = 0 its kinetic energy was 5.0 J. What is the kinetic eneray at x= 5.0m? A force Facts on a body of mass m = 2.0 kg jally at rest. The graph (Figure 3.15) shows how the force varies with distence travelled {along a straight line. FIN 10> 0 5 19 5 20 sim Figure 3.18: For question 11 a. Find the work done by this force. b Calculate the final speed of the body. A body of mass 3.0 kg has kinetic energy 36 J Itis brought to rest after travelling a horizontal distance of 4.0 m. A frictional force acts in a 13 4 15 16 17 3 Work, energy and power direction opposite to the velocity Determine the magnitude of the frictional force. Equal forces are applied to a 1 kg block and a 10 kg block, both of which are initially at rest. After moving a distance of 1m, which body has the greatest kinetic energy, or is the energy the same for both? A body falls freely under the action of gravity. After falling 1 m the Kinetic energy increases by 11 J. What will bo the change in kinetic energy after falling another 1m? A block of weight 150 N is tied to a rope. The block is lowered vertically by a distance of 112m at constant speed. What is the work done by: a the weight of the block b the tension in the rope, Figure 3.16 shows a block that is lowered by a vertical distance h along the curved red path. m- Figure 3.16: For question 16 By approximating the red path with the ‘staircase’ path, argue that the work done by the weight is still mgh and so show that the work done by the weight is independent of the path followed You want to move a block to the top of an incline—trom position A to position B. You can either pull itup the plane (Figure 3.17a) or raise it vertically (Figure 3.176). In both cases, you use the same constant speedPHYSICS FOR THE 18 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK a B > __ $B 21 The graph (Figure 3.18) shows how the tension es t force Fin a spring varies with the extension x. ‘ FIN 20, ma f Figure 3.17: For question 17, ie In which case will the work done by gravity be the greatest—or is the work in both cases the 05 same? What about the work done by you as you move the block? | 18 The extension of a spring of spring constant k = 250. N m-*is 0.12 m. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in the spring, 0 vim 0 005 010 01s 020 19. The elastic potential energy stored in a spring ‘of spring constant k = 380 Nm” is 1.4 J. Calculate the extension of the spring. Figure 3.18: For question 21 Calculate the work done to stretch the spring 20 A spring of spring constant k = 200 Nm "is from an extension of 5.0 cm to an extension slowly extended from an extension of 3.0 cm to of 15cm. an extension of 5.0 cm. Calculate the work done by the extending force. 3.2 Conservation hn {> of energy ‘ Potential energy is a property of a system, not of an individual particle, Potential energy, like kinetic energy, isa scalar quantity. Why is the quantity E, = mgh important enough or usefull enough that we give it a special name? To answer this question, consider a body that falls freely under gravity along a vertical line, Figure 3.19, Earth's surface Figure 3.19: A bod, falling vertically increases in speed as, the height decreases, When the body i at height A, from the ground its speed is v, and when at height, its speed is v,. We know from, kinematics that3 Work, energy and power 2+ 2g, = hy) which we may rewrite as 1 + gh= Sy + eh, Multiplying through by the mass m of the falling object, we get 1 ‘This is an interesting result: each side of the equation is the sum of the kinetic energy of the falling mass and the quantity we called gravitational potential energy: ‘The equation suggests that this sum, F, + &,, stays the same as the mass falls. So if we call this sum the total mechanical energy of the system, E,. we are led to a law ‘of conservation of total mechanical energy. Of course, ‘we showed that £, stay’ the same for the simple case of 4 mass falling freely, but this can be demonstrated for ‘many other situations as well. This is why the concept Of gravitational potential energy is useful + mgh, So, for the system consisting of the particle and the earth, the total mechanical energy is Under what conditions is £, conserved? It turns out that this happens when friction and resistance forces are absent and no other forees act on the system from outside the system, Clearly, a car travelling on a level road will come to rest when the engine is turned off. Total mechanical energy is not conserved here because of the work done by the resistance forces opposing the motion; total mechanical energy decreases Similarly, if the driver of the car steps on the gas pedal, the ear will accelerate, increasing the kinetic and hence total mechanical energy, This is beeause an external force has acted on the car (between the ground and the tyres), and again this external force did work, this time increasing the total mechanical energy. So we are led to this conclusion: Saco |F no work is done on the system from outside, the system is called isolated and in that case the ‘total mechanical energy of the system does not change. We say that the total mechanical eneray of the system is conserved. If our system includes springs the total mechanical energy will be BB+ Bt B,=4 my? + mgh + kx? In the absence of external forces doing work this total mechanical energy will be conserved ({Lis important to realise that weight and spring tension. are not considered external forces because their effects are included in the potential energy in the total mechanical energy of the system.) Aboall starting from rest will descend the same vertical height along the paths shown in Figure 3.20. The length of the path increases from left to right. In which case will the final speed be greatest? Figure 3.20: For check yourself question 3.> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK, Determine the minir cover the barrier of height f= 0.80 mn. ¢ initial point such (hat the mass makes it —_ Figure 3.21: For worked example 3.10. Answer To make it over the barrier the mass must be able to reach the highest point, Any speed it has at the top will mean it can carry on to the other side. Therefore, at the very least, we must be able to get the ball to the highest point with zero speed. With zero speed at the top. the total energy at the top of the barrier is Ei, = meh. The total energy at the starting position is Equating the initial and final total energies, Lin? = meh = v=\2eh Thus, the initial speed must be bigger than y= \2X ORT O80 = 3.96 2.4.0 ms" Note that if the initial speed » of the mass is larger than 4.0 ms: then when the mass level om the other side of the barrie, its speed will be », Note also that the mass plays no role in this ealcukation es it to the original A ball rolls off a 1,0 m high table with a speed of 4.0 ms“, as shown in Figure 3.22. Calculate the speed us the ball strikes the floor 40ms 10m! | Figure 3.22: For worked exainple 3.11 Answer ‘The total energy of the mass is conserved. As it leaves the table with speed w it has total energy given by and ast lands wth speed the total energy is. = Yn (the speed we are ooking fo)3 Work, energy and power Fqua ing the two energi ies gives Jv! = Sw! + meh = =u + eh P= 1641962 = 35.62 = y=6.0ms"! Notice that if the ball was projected at an angle to the horizontal the result would be the same. Can you see why? We mentioned earlier that the height can be measured from any horizontal surface, not just the surface of the earth, Let us see how this works in this example. Suppose first that we measure heights from a level that is 3 m elon the surface ofthe earth, The total energy of tha ballon the table would then be-hati!-+ mg 4 When the ball lands the total energy would be Srv? + mg * 3. Equating the two we get pence + mg 4 = ynnv? + img x3 w+ mex 1 = 4m + 2y x 1= 16 + 19.62 = 35.62 Just like before, Similarly, suppose we measure heights from the level of the table. The total energy at the table is now Smrv? + 0. The total energy on the ground is ym? + mg x (1) since the ground is 1_m below the table. Equating again, Su + 0= Ln? + mg x (-1) =e + 2g x 1= 16 + 19.62 = 35.62 again just like before. So, in usin, gravitational potential energy we can measure heights from any horizontal surface that is convenient. ae Gas Two identical balls are launched from a table with the same speed 1 (Figure 3.23). One ball is thrown vertically up and the other vertically down. The height of the table from the floor is h. Predict which of the two balls will hit the floor with the greater speed. Figure 3.23: For worked example 3.12> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK Ns Answer At launch both balls have the same kinetic energy and the same potential energy. When they hit the floor their energy will be only kinetic. Hence the speeds will be identical and equall to ¥, where 1 Ma Sine? = Some? + gh > vsu'+2gh Vu2 + 2h eens A pendulum of length 1.0 m is released from rest with the string at an angle of 10° to the vertical Find the speed of the mass on the end of the pendulum when it passes through its lowest position, Answer ‘We measure heights from the lowest point of the pendulum (Figure 3.24). The total energy at that point is just kinetic, £, = ymv*, where v is the unknown speed. 1ocos 10” potential eneray fly * an kinetic energy only Figure 3.24: For worked example 3.13, At the initial point, the total energy is just potential, £, = nngdh, where Ah is the vertical difference in height between the two positions. From the diagram, Mi=1.0- 1.0cos 10° Mh= 0.015 m the expressions for the total energy at the lowest point and at the start, neh 2g v=0.54ms Note how the mass has dropped out of the problem. (At positions other than the two shown, the mass has both kinetic and potential energy.)Sect ee) A body of mass 4.2 kg with initial speed pan incline, as shown, Figure 3.25: For worked example 2.14. The body will be momentarily brought to rest after colliding with a spring of spring constant 2200 Nm” ‘The body stops a vertical distat p.85 m above its initial position. Determine the amount by which the spring has been compressed. Assume no fictional forces. Answer There are no external forces doing work, the system is isolated, and we have conservation of total mechanical energy, Initially we have just kinetic energy, so Foie mao bx g2xs, +0+0= 658565 When the body stops we have gravitational and clastic potential energies ns? + mgh + ky? =0 +42 *9.81 0.85 + 4 2200 x y2 = 35,02 + 1100 Ex we find 1100.x? = 30.84 0.02804 x=017m 3 Work, energy and power What happens when external forces do work on the system? We have seen that in the absence of external forces doing work, the total mechanical energy, E,, of the system stays the same: we have the law of conservation of total mechanical energy. However, if there are ueractiony between the system and its surroundings (Figure 3.26) the total mechanical energy may change. ‘These interactions mainly involve work done W., by the surroundings and/or the transfer of thermal energy (heat) Q, to or from the surroundings. heat supplied work done surrounaings Figure 3.26: The total energy af a system may change as 2 result of interactions with its surroundings. So we expect that AE,= Wh +0 In this chapter we will deal with Q = 0 so in that case we have the relation: AE, = W, You must make sure that you do not confuse the work-kinetic energy relation W., = AE, with AE, = W._. The work-kinetic eneray relation relates the nat work on a system to the change in the systern’s kinetic energy. The other relates the work done by external forces to the change of the total energy.>> PHYSICS FOR THE |B DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK A body of mass 2.0 kg (initially at rest) slides down a curved path of total length 22 m, as shown in F ‘The body staris from a vertical height of 5.0 m from the bottom, When it reaches the bottom, its speed is red and found to equal 6.0 m s measi a Show that there is a forve resisting the motion b_ Assuming the force to have constant magnitude and opposite to the velocity, determine the magnitude of the force. Som Figure 3.27: For worked example 315 Answer a Wecalculate the total energy initially and finally to see if energy is conserved At the top: 12 + meh At the bottom: mv? + mgh = 4% 2.0 « 6.0°+0= 36) The total energy hus decreased, which shows the presence of an external frietional forve resisting the motion, b From AF, = W,, we deduce that H, = 62.1. This is the work done by the frictional force of magnitude f The force acts in the opposite direction to the velocity, so fsx(-D= 62) ase¥3. Work, energy and power pan incline with an initial velocity of 2.0 ms" is acted upon by an external force of $5 N in the direction of the velocity. The motion is opposed by a rictional force, After travelling a distance of 18m along the incline the mass has bee fof 3.0 mand the velocity of the body becomes [5 ms. Determine the magnitude of the frietional force A mass of 5.00 kg movi raised to a vertical heigl Answer The change in the total mechanical energy AE, is AE, = (4% 5.0 15? + 5.0 9.81 3.0) = (5 5.0 2.0°) = 699,75 Let the frictional force be The work done on the mass by the external forces is (55 = /) * 18. and so from AE (85 — f) «18 = 699.7 £ -s= 3887 35-/ I6N 22 Abaal is released from rest from the top of a 24 Look at Figure 3.29. box along three different ramps, X, Y and Z. @ Calculate the minimum initial speed v the ball must have in order to make it to position B b_ Using the answer in a calculate the speed Z at B. € Ifthe initial speed is v= 120m s" calculete the speed at A and B. Figure 3.28: For questio Along which ramp will the ball attain the greatest speed at the bottom? / 23 Aboallis projected from a table twice, the first time horizontally and the second time at an eo angle of 45° to the horizontal. The speed is the ‘same in both cases. In which case will the ball reach the ground with the greatest speed? Figure 3.29: For question 24) PHYSICS FOR THE I8 DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK 25. Look at Figure 3.30, The speed of the 8.0 kg mass in position A is 6.0 m s-'. By the time it gets to position B, its speed is 12.0 ms" Estimate the frictional force opposing the motion. (The frictional force is acting along the plane) Ina loop-the-loop toy, a small marble is released from rest from an initial position a height H above level ground. The radius of the loop is R. Frictional forces are negligible. initial position en P 1. level ground Figure 3.31: For question 26 Show that the speed of the marble at P is given by v = 2g(H— OR. Find an expression for the normal force on the marble at P Deduce (in terms of the minimum value of H for which the marble will not fall off the loop. 3.3 Power and efficiency When a machine performs work, itis important to know not only how much work is being done’ but also how much work is performed within a given time interval, A cyclist will perform a lot of work in a lifetime of cycling, but the same work ean be performed by a powerful car engine in a much shorter time. Power is the rate at which work is being performed or the rate at which energy is being transferred, When a quantity of work AW is performed within a time interval Ar the power developed is given by the ratio p= AW Poe Its unit is joules per second, and this is given the name watt (W) TW= ISS. Consider a constant force F, which acts on a body of mass m. The force does an amount of work F Ax in moving the body a small distance Av along its direction. If this work is performed in time A¢, then Fax Pear P=Fr where vis the instantaneous speed of the body This is the power produced in making the body move at speed ». As the speed increases, the power necessarily increases as well Consider an aircraft moving at constant speed on 2 straight-line path, If the power produced by its engines is P, and the force pushing it forward is, then P, Fand vare related by the equation above. But since the plane moves with no acceleration, the total force of air resistance must equal F. Hence the forve of air resistance can be found simply from the power of the plane's engines and the constant speed with which it coasts. In many questions you may be asked to find the average power developed, It can be proven that this is given by Fx “> force and u and v the ini ; where F is the average I and final speeds.3. Work, energy and power ela akaen) Estimate the minimum power required to lift a mass of $0.0 kg upa vertical distance of 12 m in 5.0s. Angwer The work done in lifting the mass is mugh W = mgh = 50.0 «9.81 «12 W= 589% 105 The power is therefore: w Poy p= 582210 pa99w This is the minimum power required. In practice, the mass has to be accelerated from rest, which will require additional work and hence more power. There will also be frictional forces to overcome adding 10 the power actually needed, A boy of mass 60 kg jumps straight up into the air from a crouching position. His centre of mass is raised by 0.50 m when he is about to lose contact with the ground. After losing contact with the ground his centre of mass is lifted an additional 0.80 m. What is the average power developed? (Assume the boy pushes against the ground with a constant force and take g= 10 ms] Suppose that a body is being pulled up along a rough inclined plane with constant speed. The mass is 15 kg and the angle of the incline is 45°. There is a constant frictional force of 42 N opposing the motion The forces on the body are shown in Figure 3.32. Since the body has no aeceleration, we know that R= mgcos6= 104.1 PF =mgsin 0+/= L041 +4 146.1 N Let the force raise the mass a distance of 25 m along the plane. The work done by the force Fis w 46.1 25 we 1653) = 3.7 10°F The force effectively raised the 15 kg a vertical height, of 17.7 m (that is, 25 sin45°) and so increased the potential energy of the mass by mgt = 2605 J The efficiency with which the force raised the mass isthus ws sy =0.71 ellicieney = Efficiency If-a machine, such as an electric motor, is used to raise alload, electrical energy must be provided to the motor, This is the input energy to the motor. The motor uses some of this energy to do the useful work of raising the oad. But some of the input energy is used to overcome frictional forees and therefore gets transferred to thermal energy. So the ratio: Useful enerzy out useful power out aTenergyin OT “actual poworin is less than one. We call this ratio the efficiency, » of the machine, Figure 3.32: Forces on « body on an inclined plane’ pulling force F, frictional force f, normal Randi weight mg A.0.50 kg battery-operated toy train moves with constant velocity 0.30 ms along a level track. The power of the motor in the train is 2.0 W, and the total force opposing the motion of the train is 5.0 N. a Determine the efficiency of the train’s motor, b_ Assuming the efficiency and the opposing force stay the same, calculate the speed of the train as i climbs an incline of 10.0° to the horizontal,PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK Answer a The power delivered by the motor is 2.0 W ince the speed is constant, the force developed by the motor is 5.0 N The power used in moving the train is Fr = 5.0 0301.5 W Hence the efficiency is total powerout _ 1s Ww. 4SW = 0,75 The elliciency of the train’s motor is 0.75 (or 75%). D_ The component of the train’s weight acting down the pkane is mg sin @and the force opposing motion is 5.0 N. Since there is no acceleration «constant velocity), the net force F pushing the train up the incline is F= mgsin +5. F=0,50 x 9.81 x sin 10°+5.0 F= 5852 Thus efficiency = 585254 But from part a the efficiency is 0.75, so ox 075 Se 0.26ms 3.4 Energy transfers In previous sections we saw that in a system without external forces doing work the total mechanical energy Of the system stays the same; it is conserved. During a motion, the individusil stores of the total energy (kinetic, energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy) change, but the total energy stays the same. Energy can be transferred from one form to another. For example, a ball rolling down an inclined plane starts with gravitational potential energy (gpe) which transiers to kinetic energy. Eventually, the ball will stop rolling because its kinetic energy is “lost to the surroundings as it transfers to thermal energy (and some sound). 27 28 29 30 31 The engine of o car is developing a power f 90 kW when itis moving on a horizontal road at a constant speed of 100 kmh”! Estimate the total horizontal force opposing the motion of the car b Assuming the opposing force stays the same, what additional power must the engine deliver for the car to continue at the same speed up an incline making an angle of 5.0° to the horizontal? The mass of the caris 1200 kg The motor of an elevator develops power at a rate of 2500 W. a Calculate the speed that a 1200 kg load is being raised at. b_ In practice itis found that the load is lifted more slowly than indicated by your answer to a. Suggest reasons why this is so, A load of 50 kg is raised a vertical distance of 15 m in 125 s by a motor. a Estimate the power necessary for this. b The power supplied by the motor is 80 W. Calculate the efficiency of the motor ¢ The same motor is now used to raise a load of 100 kg the same distance. The efficiency remains the same. Estimate how long this would take The top speed of a racing car of mass 1200 kg whose engine is delivering 250 kW of power is 240 km h-’. The car now moves on an uphill that makes an angle of 12° to the horizontal. Assuming the resistance force stays the same, what would the top speed of the car be? A.30 kg child and a 60 kg adult both run up the same flight of stairs in the same time Who develops more power? % >3. Work, energy and power A ball rising up an inclined plane does the reverse its kinetic energy is transferred to gpe When a mass at the end of a compressed spring is released, the elastic potential energy transfers into Kinetic, and so on. As we move on in this course, we will encounter other forms of energy (thermal, electrical, magnetic, nuclear and so on). We will find that if we include these other forms of energy into the total energy of the system then this new total energy will always be conserved. This generalised energy conservation law hats been tested in every system at every scale (From the microscopic subatomic level to the very large cosmological scale) and has never been found to be violated. ‘The law of conservation of energy states that energy ‘cannot be created or destroyed —it ean only be transferred from one form to another, So a block slowing down and stopping because of friction can be described equivalently in these 1wo ways: Description 1: the total energy consists of just kinetic, and this is not conserved because an external force is doing work on the system. Description 2: the frictional force did work reducing the kinetic energy of the block, but this resulted in generation of thermal energy. Including thermal energy 2a part of the total energy of the system means the total energy is conserved fee seve celeste) A block slides down an inclined plane at constant speed. What energy transfers are taking place? a gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy kinetic energy to thermal eneray {gravitational potential energy to thermal energy Sankey diagrams A convenient way to represent energy transfers is by using a Sankey diagram. Each energy transfer is represented. by an arrow, The arron’s width is proportional to the amount (or percentage) of energy transferred, Figure 3.33 shows « Sankey diagram for a wind turbine that produces electricity from the kinetic energy of the wind frctionin twining turbine wariieatesce Figure 3.33: Sankey diagram for a wind turbine. 106 units of energy are coming in from the kinetic energy of the wind. The down arrows represent losses of energy, leaving 2 useful output for electricity production of 30 units. The efficiency of the system is then 30%. What is the efficiency of the transfers shown in the Sankey diagram in Figure 3.34? igure 3.34: For check yourself question 6,> PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA: COURSEBOOK USCA RSI PNG 32 Describe the energy transfers in an oscillating The elevator reaches a constant speed by the pendulum as frictional forces bring it slowly time it reaches the fist floor and decelerates to rest to rest between the ninth and tenth floors. Describe the eneray transfers taking place 33 Describe the energy transfers in an oscillating Ganseen Ne Brovana’ sind foes horizontal mass-spring system as frictional forces bring the system slowly to rest. 36 A ball falls vertically moving at terminal velocity Describe the energy transfers taking place 34 Describe the energy transfers in an 7 le oscillating vertical mass-spring system, 37. Acarwith its engine tured off coasts down an Ignore frictional effects. inclined plane at constant speed. Describe the nergy transfers taking pl 35. An elevator starts an the ground floor and PAST SSRs eat Paty tops on the tenth floor of a high-rise building, Links © We will meet the law of conservation of energy in many other parts of the course. Conservation of energy is useful also in solving many kinematics questions. In Unit B, for example, we will see how conservation of energy and a few simple assumptions allow us to calculate the average temps applied to thermodynamics. Also how the motion of electrons inside a conductor involves collisions between the electrons and the ions which are inelastic so the electrons transfer energy to the ions. This makes the ions vibrate faster about their equilibrium positions and so the conductor gets warmer, its temperature increases. © In Unit C we will see that conservation energy implies that the ripples in a kike created when a stone is dropped in the lake get smaller as the ripples move away. In Unit D we will see what conservation of energy has to say about planetary orbits. And in Unit E we will see that conservation of energy and Einstein's equivalence of mass and energy imply that vast amounts of energy may be released in nuclear reactions. Ways en imen sence} ey r hh ro TOS calculate the work done by a force appreciate that work done is equivalent to a transfer of energy deseribe the connection between the net work done and the change in kinetic energy work with gravitational energy and clastic potential energy apply the law of conservation of energy deal with situations where an external force acts on the system understand the concept of power and efficiency and use them to solve problems discuss energy transfers use Sankey diagrams3. Work, energy and power REFLECTION Do you understand what is meant by the work done by a force? Do you know how to apply the work-kinetic ‘energy principle? Do you know when mechanical energy is conserved? De you know what information a graph of force versus distance gives? Can you describe the energy transfers taking place in various contexts? Can you solve problems with energy conservation? 1 2 3 EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS ‘You can find questions in the style of IB exams in the digital coursebook. ee ene celui B The elastic energy is four times as large ‘and so is the kinetic energy of the ball Hence the speed is twice as large. Itis the same since the vertical height is the same. The boy raises his centre of mass by 2 total of 1.3 mand s0 the work done by the muscles is mgh = 60 « 10 « 1.3 = 780 J ASter losing contact with the ground he moves up a distance of 0.80 m so his launch speed is v= 2gh = 4.0 ms“ His acceleration when in contact with the ground is then found from 4.0? = 0 + 2a x 05> a-16ms? so he was in contact with the ground for 40=0+16xt>t=025s Hence the average power developed is GR - 3120-3 kw, Equivalently, with an acceleration of a= 16 ms” the force from the ground Fis found from F- mg = ma and so F= 60% 10+ 60x 16 = 1560 N. ‘The average power is then P= FES = 1560 x 980 - 3120 w, D tkinetic energy is constant) 40%