Name: Uzair Ahmad

ID: F22BSCEET012
Subject: Electrical Power Distribution and Utilization

Chapter 7
Power Distribution Equipment
 Power distribution equipment is necessary to distribute electrical power, and it includes
specialized equipment such as power transformers, fuses, circuit breakers, lightning
arresters, power-factor-correcting capacitors, and power-metering systems.
 Electrical substations are essential parts of the distribution system, acting as a link
between high-voltage transmission lines and low-voltage power distribution systems.
They receive power from the transmission system and convert it to suitable voltage levels
for industrial, commercial, or residential use.
 High-voltage fuses and circuit breakers are used to protect power lines from short
circuits. Different types of fuses, such as expulsion-type, liquid-filled, and solid material
fuses, are used to handle high voltages and currents.
 High-voltage circuit breakers, such as oil-filled and magnetic air breakers, are located at
substations to control high voltages. Reclosers are protective devices that automatically
reclose a predetermined number of times to assess the nature of a fault current.
 High-voltage disconnect switches are used to disconnect electrical equipment from power
lines for safety purposes. They are mainly opened to isolate equipment from power lines
and prevent high-voltage arcing.
 Lightning arresters are used to conduct excessively high voltages caused by lightning
strikes or system problems to ground. They are designed to operate rapidly and
repeatedly to protect power lines and equipment from damage.
 High-voltage insulators are used to isolate power transmission lines from their supports
or ground-mounted equipment. They are made of porcelain, rubber, or thermoplastic
material and must have sufficient mechanical strength and insulating properties.
 Basic insulation level (BIL) is the minimum insulation level required to protect
distribution equipment from high voltage surges. It must be carefully calculated to limit
the possibility of equipment damage.
 High-voltage conductors used for power distribution are usually uninsulated aluminum
wires or aluminum-conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR) wires for long-distance
transmission, and insulated copper wires for shorter distances.
  Substations should be located close to the load to be served, and the decision of location
should consider system reliability, economic factors, land availability, operating costs,
zoning laws, environmental factors, and public opinion.
 Voltage regulators are used to maintain proper voltage levels in the power distribution
system. They can be manual or automatic and are used to compensate for changes in load
voltage.
 Various devices, such as switches, fuses, circuit breakers, lightning arresters, and
protective relays, are used to protect electrical distribution systems from damages due to
abnormal conditions like short circuits, overvoltage, undervoltage, and frequency
changes.
 The main electrical problem that requires protection is short circuits, but other problems
include overvoltage, undervoltage, and changes in frequency.
 Multiple methods of protection are typically used to protect electrical circuits from faulty
conditions.
 The purpose of any protective device is to disable a current-carrying conductor when an
excessive amount of current flows through it.
 Fuses are the simplest type of protective device, but they have limitations in three-phase
systems where two lines remain operative if only one fuse burns out.
 Fuses have a fast operating speed and are low-cost, but replacements are required when
they burn out.
 Different types of fuses include plug fuses, cartridge fuses, and time-delay fuses, each
with their own specific uses and characteristics.
 Circuit breakers are more versatile than fuses and can open all three hot lines in three-
phase systems when an overload occurs.
 Circuit breakers can also be activated by remote-control relays and are used in industrial
plants.
 Low-voltage circuit breakers are less complex than high-voltage ones and are housed in
molded-plastic cases.
 Circuit breakers automatically open when the current exceeds their rating and must be
manually reset.
 Protective relays are used to protect electrical distribution equipment from short circuits
and other abnormal conditions.
 Motor-fault currents are excessive currents that occur in motors due to malfunctions, and
protection must be provided to disconnect the motor from the power distribution system
when a fault occurs.
 Motor starters, circuit breakers, or fuses can be used as motor protective devices,
depending on the characteristics of the power distribution system and the motor.

Chapter 8
Electrical Distribution Inside Buildings
 Electrical power is distributed within a building through a power distribution system,
which includes circuit breakers and switchgear.
 Raceways, such as metal ducts or rigid metal conduits, are used to carry wires and cables
for power distribution.
 Feeder lines and branch circuits are used to carry current to electrical load devices in a
building.
 Switching equipment is used to connect or disconnect the entire power distribution
system or parts of it.
 Distribution panelboards enclose the main disconnect switch and branch-circuit
protective equipment.
 Low-voltage switchgear is used as a distribution control center for circuit breakers, bus
bars, and terminal connections.
 The electrical service entrance brings power from overhead power lines or underground
cables into a building.
 Service-entrance equipment includes high-current conductors, disconnect switches,
protective equipment, and meters.
 Power distribution system components include uninterruptible power supplies, power
filters and conditioners, raceways, conduit connectors, wire connectors, plastic
components, power outlets, and international power sources.

Chapter 9
Single-phase and Three-phase Distribution Systems

In this chapter single-phase and three-phase distribution systems for electrical power are
mainly discussed. Single-phase systems are mainly used for residential areas, while three-
phase systems are used for industries and larger commercial buildings. Grounding is
crucial for both types of systems, with system grounding and equipment grounding being
important methods. Single-phase systems can be two-wire or three-wire, providing
different voltage options. Three-phase systems are predominantly used in industries and
commercial buildings, with various transformer connections available. The text also
covers different types of three-phase systems, such as three-phase three-wire, three-phase
three-wire with neutral, and three-phase four-wire systems. Grounding of distribution
systems is essential for safety and proper system operation, with system grounding and
equipment grounding being key aspects. Ground-fault protection, including the use of
ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), is crucial In modern power distribution
systems.
 Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) are required by the National Electrical Code for
outdoor and bathroom receptacle outlets to prevent electrical shock hazards.
 GFCIs are designed to sense changes in circuit conditions, such as line-to-ground shorts,
and open the circuit to prevent shocks. They operate quickly to reduce the risk of injury.
 GFCIs are used in various applications, including construction sites, residential,
commercial, and industrial settings.
 There are four types of ground-fault protection systems: hospital applications, residential
applications, motor protection applications, and specific electrical power distribution
system applications.
 The amount of current required to activate an alarm or disconnect varies depending on
the application, ranging from 2 mA for hospital applications to 1200 amperes for
electrical power distribution equipment applications.
 Ground-fault protection is necessary because a person’s body resistance varies with
moisture, muscular structure, and voltage. Higher voltages are more dangerous and can
cause ventricular fibrillation, which can be fatal.
 Ground-fault circuit interrupters for homes come in three types: circuit breaker,
receptacle, and plug-in types. They provide both ground-fault protection and circuit
interruption.
 GFCI sensing systems continuously monitor the current balance in the hot and neutral
conductors. When a ground fault occurs, the current in the neutral wire becomes less than
the current in the hot wire, triggering the GFCI to interrupt the circuit.