Module 3

Bonding in Chemistry
Unit 1: Chemical Bonding

Unit 1
Chemical Bonding
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Bonds
3.2 Types of Chemical Bonding
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the earlier module, idea of atom, periodic Table systematic elements’ arrangement as
well as molecule which is a combination of atoms were learned. The various ways through
which these atoms were made to react with one another were also learned. The present
unit is focusing on what, why, how and effect of being together of these atoms. In this
unit, atoms, orbitals, shells and electronic configuration shall be discussed in order to
build up the idea of chemical bonding as well as various types.It is a common knowledge
to see materials or chemical substance as a union or combination of elements known in
periodic Table. The ‘how’ and ‘what’ of these union remain questions to be answered by
scholars of chemistry. This unit will enable the students to have idea of chemical bonding
and various basic types as well as operating mechanisms

2.0 Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. state the basis of chemical bonding
2. explain the concept ionic bond
3. Enumerate the types of bonds
4. Demonstrate how chemical bonding works out ,
5. Specify bond types of given molecules.
3.0 Learning Content
Bonding: the idea is to form 2-electron/2-centre bonds, that is, we have one
electron from each atom coming together from two different centres to form a
single bond.
e e
A___________________________B
Scheme 1. 2-electron/2-centre bond formation

Atom A and B must give two electrons from two centres (A and B) to form a
chemical bond. For example, BeCl2, Be is in group II and therefore has two valence
electrons, one is used to form a Be-Cl bond and the other used to form a second
Be-Cl bond
3.1 Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds usually form between a metal and a nonmetal. In ionic bonding, electrons are
completely transferred from one atom to another. In the process of either losing or gaining
negatively charged electrons, the reacting atoms form ions. The oppositely charged ions
are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces, which are the basis of the ionic bond.
1. Na+ + Cl- → NaCl 2. Ca2+ + Cl- → CaCl2 3. Al3+ S2- → Al2S3
Self-Assessment Exercises 1
 1. What type of ions is formed when atom loses electron ?
2. What bond is formed when opposite ions combine?
Table 11: Basic Physical Quantities and Their SI Units
3.2 Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds usually form between two nonmetals or a metalloid and a nonmetal. In
covalent bonds, the atoms share one or more pairs of electrons (by using their valence
electrons) between each other to obtain a filled valence level.Note: the valence electrons
which are shared between two atoms are called “shared pair of electrons” or “bonding
pair of electrons”. The valance electrons which are not shared are called “unshared pair
of electrons” or “lone pairs”. These electrons are not involved in bonding.
In covalent crystals, definite covalent bonds join all the atoms in the crystal. The structure
of a covalent crystal is related to the number of valence electrons, the nature of orbitals
involved in bond formation and their orientation. One of the most commonly cited
examples is that of diamond. Each carbon atom in diamond is tetrahedrally bonded to
four neighbouring carbon atoms. This is so since each carbon has four sp3 hybridised
orbitals pointing towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. These orbitals overlap with
the similar set of orbitals on the neighbouring atoms. Crystals thus formed are hard and
unreactive.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1. What is the difference between bonding pair and lone pair?
2. Can two non metals form one compounds? Give examples
3.3 Metallic Bonding
3.7.1 According to the bond theory, the metallic solids can be considered as having
simple covalent bonds between adjacent atoms. However-in these cases, the number of
electron pairs available for bond formation is less than the number of orbitals available.
Hence, when such substances are placed under an applied electric field, the electrons
from the filled orbitals can easily flow into the vacant orbitals, thus making them highly
conducting.
In the band theory of metals, a crystalline metallic solid is considered as a single giant
molecule. Linear combination of atomic orbitals on all the atoms is taken to give molecular
orbitals of the solid just as in the case of simple diatomic molecule. It is also assumed
that there is negligible overlap of inner shell atomic orbitals and the energies of these
remain practically the same as atomic orbitals on isolated atoms.
For all practical purposes we can consider these molecular orbitals as forming a
continuous band of energy rather than separate energy levels. Thus vie have a situation
where a band of vacant energy levels lie very near to a band of occupied energy levels.
Therefore, the electrons present in the occupied lower energy levels can easily move out
to vacant band. This is the reason given for metals being good conductors of electricity.
In the next section, we shall study the structures of ionic, covalent and molecular crystals.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. State the ideas of both band and bond theory of metallic bonding.
2. Give reasons for metals being good conductor.
3.4 Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces include:

i) Dipole-dipole interactions
Polar molecules can attract each other electrostatically. During this attraction the positive
end of one molecule is close to the negative end of the adjacent molecule, as shown in
Fig. 9. Such an attraction is called dipole-dipole interaction. In the liquid state, although
molecules are in continuous motion, they tend to align themselves so that, on the average,
the intermolecular attractions are maximum.
ii) Dipole-induced dipole interactions
The dipole-dipole interaction can explain the attractive forces between polar molecules at
ordinary temperatures whereas at high temperatures it cannot. It was thought that
induced dipole interactions must also be important. A polar molecule can induce a dipole
moment in a neighbouring polarisable atom or molecule. Let us explain, the terms
'polarisable' and 'polarisability'.
An atom or molecule is said to be polarisable.jf its electron cloud can be distorted. The
ability of a species to undergo electronic distortion is described in terms of polarisability.
The electron charge cloud of a larger atom (one with higher atomic number) can be easily
distorted due to the following reasons:
i.the electrons are more in number
ii.the influence of the nucleus is less due to larger distance
So a larger atom has a higher polarisability than a smaller atom. For example, argon has
higher polarisability than helium. Similarly larger molecules (due to greater number of
electrons) have higher polarisability than smaller molecules. For example, ethane is more
polarisable than methane; propane is more polarisable than ethane, and so on. The
dipole-induced dipole interaction between a polar molecule and a neighbouring
polarisable molecule (in which dipole is induced) causes a lowering of energy.
iii) London or dispersion forces
The two interactions mentioned earlier cannot explain the liquefaction of gases like
hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, helium and argon (which are all non polar). London gave an
accepTable quantitative explanation for the attractive forces existing between non polar
molecules and hence such forces are called London forces. These forces are called
dispersion forces since the oscillations producing the attractive forces are also
responsible for the dispersion of light by the molecules.
Self-Assessment Exercise 7
1. Define Dipole
 2, State the roles of dipole moment in Van der waal forces
3.5 Hydrogen Bonding

There are several specific types of interactions encountered between various types of
molecules. Of these, metallic bonding and hydrogen bonding are very significant. We
shall study metallic bonding in Unit 5. Here let us study hydrogen bonding in detail. When
a hydrogen atom is covalentiy bonded to a strongly electronegative atom, such as
oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen, the bond is much polar.
Such a hydrogen atom would still possess large affinity for nonbonding electrons present
on other oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom. The latter atom could be a part of the same
molecule or a neighbouring molecule. The strong interaction that results is called a
hydrogen bond. It is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction. In water, for example,
hydrogen bonding arises between hydrogen atom (positive end of the dipole) of one water
molecule and the oxygen atom (negative end of the dipole) of the other (Fig.3.1a).
Hydrogen fluoride is another molecule having hydrogen bonding (Fig. 3.1b).
Hydrogen bonding is strong in HF, H2O and NH3 as compared to many hydrides due to
the higher electronegativity of fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen. Strong hydrogen bonding in
these compounds results in enhanced attractive interactions between the molecules.

4.0 Conclusion
The chemical bonding is essentially a force operating when atoms or molecules are in
vicinity of one another. Some lead to strong bond like in metalic and Ionic bonds.
Covalent as well as Van deer waal as well as hydrogen bonds are not as strong.
5.0 Summary

In this unit, we have discussed various bonding. Each bond types derive its strength
based on the inter-atomic forces like covalent and ionic as well as inter-molecular forces
like in hydrogen and vander waal forces operating within them.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

1. Enumerate different types of chemical bonding
2. Illustrate and also state the bonding existing between Na and Cl.
3. Arrange any three types of bonding in order of strength.

7.0 References/Further Reading

CHE-04 Physical Chemistry, Indira Gandhi National Open University, School of Sciences,
2008, New Delhi.
Sharma K. K. and Sharma L. K. (2006): A Text of Physical Chemistry, Forth Revised
Edition, Vikas Publishing House, PVT Ltd, New Delhi.
Peter Atkins and Julio de Paula (2010): Atkins’ Physical Chemistry, Ninth Edith, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Thomas Engel and Philip Reid (2006): Physical Chemistry, Pearson, Benjamin
Cummings, San Francisco, U. S. A.