CSC 421– NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING

ABIA STATE UNIVERSITY, UTURU

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE EDUCATION

CSC 421– NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING

BY

ENGR. KELVIN NNAMANI

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COURSE TITLE: NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING

COURSE CODE: CSC 421
Course Overview: Net-centric computing courses typically explore the
fundamental principles and technologies behind networked systems, emphasizing
their design, operation, and security. The courses often aim to equip students with
the knowledge required to develop, manage, and optimize distributed systems and
applications.
Course Contents:
1. Networking Fundamentals: Basics of data communication, network protocols,
OSI model, TCP/IP, routing, and switching.
2. Distributed Systems: Understanding the architecture of distributed systems,
including principles of concurrency, consistency, and fault tolerance.
3. Cloud Computing: Concepts of cloud infrastructure, services, virtualization, and
scalability.
4. Internet of Things (IoT): Exploring the interconnectedness of devices, protocols
used in IoT, and applications.
5. Security in Net-centric Systems: Cybersecurity principles, encryption,
authentication, access control, and network security protocols.
6. Web Services and Applications: Developing web-based applications, APIs,
RESTful services, and their integration into distributed systems.

Course Objectives:
1. Understand the foundational concepts of networking and distributed systems.
2. Analyze and design efficient and secure net-centric systems.
3. Develop skills in implementing and managing networked applications.
4. Evaluate emerging technologies and trends in net-centric computing.
5. Apply knowledge in real-world scenarios to solve network-related challenges.

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Note Development:
1. Introduction to Net-centric Computing: Defining net-centric computing, its
importance, and the evolution of networked systems in modern computing.
2. Network Fundamentals: Understanding the basic components of networks,
network topologies, protocols, and the OSI/TCP/IP models.
3. Distributed Systems: Exploring the architecture of distributed systems,
emphasizing concepts like transparency, scalability, and fault tolerance.
4. Cloud Computing: Studying the principles behind cloud infrastructure, service
models (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS), virtualization, and cloud deployment models.
5. Internet of Things (IoT): Discussing the concept of interconnected devices, IoT
protocols, IoT applications, and challenges in IoT system design.
6. Security in Net-centric Systems: Examining cybersecurity concerns, encryption
techniques, authentication, authorization, and security protocols in networked
environments.
7. Web Services and Applications: Understanding web-based application
development, RESTful services, APIs, and their integration into distributed
systems.
8. Emerging Trends: Exploring recent developments in net-centric computing, such
as edge computing, 5G networks, blockchain, and their impact on distributed
systems.

Definition of Net-centric Computing:

Net-centric computing refers to a computing paradigm focused on creating,

managing, and utilizing networked systems where information and services are
shared, accessed, and operated in a distributed environment. It emphasizes the
interconnectivity of devices, systems, and services through various network
architectures to enable seamless communication, data sharing, and collaborative
processing. The goal is to facilitate efficient, scalable, and secure interactions among

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interconnected entities, supporting diverse applications and services across the

network.

Importance of Net-centric Computing:

Net-centric computing holds immense significance in today's digital landscape for

several reasons:
✓ Interconnectedness: It enables seamless communication and data sharing across
various devices, systems, and geographical locations, fostering collaboration and
information exchange on a global scale.
✓ Efficiency and Scalability: Net-centric systems allow for efficient resource
utilization and scalability, enabling businesses to adapt and grow their operations
without being constrained by traditional computing limitations.
✓ Innovation and Technological Advancements: It serves as a catalyst for
innovation, driving the development of new technologies, applications, and
services by leveraging interconnected networks and distributed computing.
✓ Enhanced Collaboration: Facilitates collaborative work environments,
enabling teams to work together in real-time, share resources, and collectively
solve problems regardless of geographical barriers.
✓ Data Accessibility and Availability: Net-centric computing ensures easy access
to data and services, promoting accessibility and availability of information
whenever and wherever needed.
✓ Security and Resilience: Although a challenge, advancements in net-centric
computing aim to enhance security measures, ensuring data integrity,
confidentiality, and resilience against cyber threats.
✓ Support for Emerging Technologies: It forms the backbone for emerging
technologies such as IoT, cloud computing, edge computing, and AI, providing
the infrastructure needed for their integration and functionality.

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The evolution of networked systems in modern computing:

The evolution of networked systems in modern computing has undergone significant

phases, each contributing to the interconnected digital landscape we experience
today:
Early Networking: Initially, computers were standalone machines. The earliest phase
of networking involved basic connections between computers through direct cabling
or primitive networks, allowing limited data exchange.
Local Area Networks (LANs): The advent of LANs enabled computers within a
limited area, such as an office or a building, to connect and share resources. Ethernet
and protocols like TCP/IP laid the foundation for broader connectivity.
Wide Area Networks (WANs): WANs expanded the networking scope, connecting
LANs across larger geographical areas. The internet emerged as a global network,
allowing worldwide communication and information sharing.
Client-Server Architecture: The client-server model revolutionized computing,
separating roles between clients (requesting services) and servers (providing
services). This architecture facilitated scalable, distributed applications.
Internet Boom and Web Services: The proliferation of the internet led to the rise of
web-based services and applications. The development of protocols like HTTP and
HTML enabled the creation of interconnected web services accessible via browsers.

Cloud Computing: Cloud technology introduced a paradigm shift, providing on-

demand access to computing resources (storage, servers, applications) over the
internet. It offered scalability, flexibility, and cost-efficiency.
Internet of Things (IoT): IoT expanded networked systems by connecting everyday
devices to the internet, enabling data collection, monitoring, and control, leading to
smarter, interconnected environments.

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Edge Computing: With the growing need for faster processing and reduced latency,
edge computing emerged. It involves processing data closer to its source (at the edge
of the network) rather than relying solely on centralized cloud servers.
Blockchain and Decentralization: Blockchain technology introduced decentralized
networks, ensuring secure and transparent transactions without a central authority,
impacting various industries beyond finance.

Notes on Network Fundamentals:

Certainly! Here are some key notes on Network Fundamentals:

1. Basic Components of Networks:
Nodes: Devices connected to the network, such as computers, routers, switches, and
servers.
Links: Physical or logical connections that facilitate communication between nodes,
including wired (Ethernet, fiber optic) and wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) connections.
2. Network Protocols:

✓ TCP/IP: The foundational protocol suite for the internet, responsible for data
transmission and routing.
✓ OSI Model: A conceptual framework defining how networking protocols should
interact, consisting of seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, Application).

OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication with
other systems. The Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines a logical

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network and effectively describes computer packet transfer by using various layers
of protocols.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is
specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream
over an unreliable internetwork.
TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the
internet and how you can transmit data between them. It helps you to create a virtual
network when multiple computer networks are connected together.
TCP/IP is about end-to-end data communication, providing the specifics on how data
should be transmitted, addressed, packetized, routed, and ultimately received. It
involves four layers, namely the application, transport, internet, and link layers. Its
technical standards were developed and are maintained by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). The building architecture of both OSI and TCP/IP Models are
shown in figure 1 below.

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4
5 7

OSI TCP/IP
MODEL MODEL

2
3

2 1
1

Figure 1: OSI and TCP/IP MODELS Architecture with their Layers

Both OSI and TCP/IP reference models are based on the concept of a stack of
protocols. The functionality of the layers is almost similar. In both models, the layers
are there to provide an end-to-end network- independent transport service to
processes wishing to communicate with each other.

Similarities between TCP/IP and OSI Models

✓ Both are logical models.
✓ Both define standards for networking.
✓ Both provide a framework for creating and implementing networking
standards and devices.
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✓ Both divide the network communication process into layers.

✓ In both models, a single layer defines a particular functionality and sets
standards for that functionality only.
✓ Both models allow a manufacturer to make devices and network components
that can coexist and work with the devices and components made by other
manufacturers.
✓ Both models simplify the troubleshooting process by dividing complex
functions into simpler components.
✓ Instead of defining the already defined standards and protocols, both models
referenced them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by
IEEE before the creation of these models. So instead of defining them again
both models used them as IEEE Ethernet standards.

Overview of Their Differences

OSI has 7 layers whereas TCP/IP has 4 layers.

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication with
other systems. On the other hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific
computer should be connected to the internet and how you can be transmitted
between them. The OSI model provides reliability while TCP/IP deals reliability as
an end-to-end problem. Each layer of OSI architecture detects and handles error
whereas in TCP/IP, transport layer handles all error detection and recovery.
• OSI header is 5 bytes whereas TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes.
• OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection whereas TCP/IP refers to
Transmission Control Protocol.
• OSI follows a vertical approach whereas TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
• OSI model, the transport layer, is only connection-oriented whereas the TCP/IP
model is both connection-oriented and connectionless.
• OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization), whereas
TCP Model is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network).

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OSI model helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware
whereas TCP/IP helps you to establish a connection between different types of
computer. The full highlights of the network models are shown in table 1-6 below.

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Table 1: OSI LAYERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

S/N OSI LAYERS EXAMPLES FUNCTIONS

1. Physical cable, RJ45 It connects the entity to the

transmission media through
which bits are sent; error-free
delivery of data on a hop
2. Data Link Media Access Control It provides error control (and
(MAC), switches retransmission in the event of an
error) over a single transmission
link; it is responsible for getting
the data packaged and onto the
network cable) and
synchronization for the physical
layer.
3. Network IP, routers It handles routing of the data and
the movement of packets from
the sender to the receiver
4. Transport TCP and the User It provides end to end
Datagram Protocol communication control and
(UDP), port numbers error checking as well as packet
delivery

5. Session Syn/Ack It is used to establish, manage

and terminate the sessions.

6. Presentation encryption, ASCII, It is responsible for translation,

PNG, MIDI compressions and encryption

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7. Application Protocols: The This layer provides the services

Hypertext Transfer to the user
Protocol (HTTP), the
File Transfer Protocol
(FTP),The Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), Telnet, The
Domain Name System
(DNS), The Simple
Network Management
Protocol (SNMP);
interfaces: Windows
Sockets and NetBIOS.

Table 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL

OSI Model Characteristics TCP/IP Model Characteristics
✓ A layer should only be created where the ✓ Support for a flexible
definite levels of abstraction are needed. architecture
✓ The function of each layer should be ✓ Adding more systems to a
selected as per the internationally network is easy.
standardized protocols.

✓ The number of layers should be large so ✓ In TCP/IP, the network

that separate functions should not be put in remains intact until the
the same layer. At the same time, it should source and destination
be small enough so that architecture machines were functioning
doesn't become very complicated. properly.

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✓ In the OSI model, each layer relies on the ✓ TCP is a connection-oriented

next lower layer to perform primitive protocol.
functions. Every level should able to
provide services to the next higher layer.
✓ Changes made in one layer should not ✓ TCP offers reliability and
need changes in other layers. ensures that data which
arrives out of sequence
should put back into order.
✓ TCP allows you to implement
flow control, so the sender
never overpowers a receiver
with data.

Table 3: COMPARISON BETWEEN OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL

OSI Model TCP/IP Model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET
Organization) (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network).
OSI model provides a clear distinction TCP/IP doesn't have any clear
between interfaces, services, and protocols. distinguishing points between
services, interfaces, and
protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission
Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the Internet
standards and protocols. layer.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal
approach.

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OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

In the OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is
connection-oriented. both connection-oriented and
connectionless.
In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are
physical are separate layers. both combined as a single host-
to-network layer.
Session and presentation layers are a part of There is no session and
the OSI model. presentation layer in the TCP
model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of
the internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 The minimum header size is 20
bytes. bytes.
OSI is less reliable TCP/IP is more reliable

Table 4: BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF OSI MODEL

OSI MODEL
Benefits Drawbacks
✓ Helps standardize router, switch, ✓ Fitting of protocols is a tedious
motherboard, and other hardware. task.
✓ Reduces complexity and ✓ Can only be used as a reference
standardizes interfaces model.
✓ Facilitates modular engineering ✓ It doesn't define any specific
✓ Ensures interoperable technology protocol.
✓ Accelerates the evolution ✓ In the OSI network layer model,
✓ Protocols can be replaced by new some services are duplicated in
protocols when technology many layers such as the transport
changes. and data link layers
✓ Provide support for connection- ✓ Layers can't work in parallel as
oriented services as well as each layer need to wait to obtain
connectionless service. data from the previous layer.

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✓ It is a standard model in computer

networking.
✓ Supports connectionless and
connection-oriented services.
✓ It offers flexibility to adapt to
various types of protocols.

Table 5: BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP MODEL
Benefits Drawbacks
✓ Establishes/sets up a connection ✓ TCP/IP is a complicated model to
between different types of set up and manage.
computers. ✓ The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP
✓ It operates independently of the is higher-than IPX (Internetwork
operating system. Packet Exchange).
✓ It supports many routing- ✓ In this, model the transport layer
protocols. does not guarantee delivery of
✓ It enables the internetworking packets.
between the organizations. ✓ Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is
✓ TCP/IP model has a highly not easy.
scalable client-server ✓ It has no clear separation from its
architecture. services, interfaces, and
✓ It can be operated independently. protocols.
✓ Supports several routing ✓ You can't use for broadcast or
protocols. multicast transmission.
✓ It can be used to establish a
connection between two
computers.

Attributes of TCP
• Delivery Acknowledgements

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• Re -transmission
• Delays transmission when the network is congested
• Easy Error detection

Table 6: OSI SPECIFIC PROTOCOLS PROFILE CLASSES

OSI LAYER PROFILES
CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C CLASS E
APPLICATION STMF STMF Telnet Telnet
FTP FTP
SNMP SNMP
PRESENTATION NULL NULL NULL NULL
SESSION NULL NULL NULL NULL
TRANSPORT UDP NULL TCP TCP
NETWORK IP NULL IP
DATA LINK PMPP PMPP PMPP PPP
PHYSICAL EIA 232E EIA 232E EIA 232E EIA 232E
FSK FSK FSK FSK

STMF = Simple Transportation Management Framework. IP = Internet Protocol

SNMP = Simple Network Management Protocol .PPP = Point-to-Point Protocol FTP
= File Transfer Protocol. PMPP = Point-to-Multipoint Protocol. UDP = User
Datagram Protocol EIA 232E = standard modem interface. TCP = Transmission
Control Protocol FSK = Frequency shift keying

ENCAPSULATION AND DE-CAPSULATION OF OSI AND TCP/IP

MODEL

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Data Encapsulation is the process in which some extra information is added to the
data item to add some features to it. We use either the OSI or the TCP/IP model in
our network, and the data transmission takes place through various layers in these
models. Data encapsulation adds the protocol information to the data so that data
transmission can take place in a proper way. This information can either be added in
the header or the footer of the data.

Data De-encapsulation is the reverse process of data encapsulation. The

encapsulated information is removed from the received data to obtain the original
data. This process takes place at the receiver’s end. The data is de-encapsulated at
the same layer at the receiver’s end to the encapsulated layer at the sender’s end. The
added header and trailer information are removed from the data in this process.

As data is transferred from upper layer to lower level of TCP/IP protocol stack
(outgoing transmission) each layer includes a bundle of relevant information called
a header along with the actual data. The data package containing the header and the
data from the upper layer then becomes the data that is repackaged at the next lower
level with lower layer's header. Header is the supplemental data placed at the
beginning of a block of data when it is sent. This supplemental data is used at the
receiving side to extract the data from the encapsulated data packet. This packing of
data at each layer is known as data encapsulation as seen in Figure 2 below. The
reverse process of encapsulation (or de-capsulation) occurs when data is received on
the destination computer. As the data moves up from the lower layer to the upper
layer of TCP/IP protocol stack (incoming transmission), each layer unpacks the
corresponding header and uses the information contained in the header to deliver the
packet to the exact network application waiting for the data.

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ENCAPSULATION DE-CAPSULATION

Header Data Footer

Header Data Footer

Bits
Physical Application
Network
Frames Interface Application
Data-link Presentation
s
Packet

Session
Network Internet

Transport Transport Transport

s
Segment

Transport

Session Network Internet

Presentation Application Data-link

Network
Data

Interface
Application Physical

OSI TCP/IP OSI TCP/IP

MODEL MODEL MODEL MODEL

SENDER RECEIVER

Figure 2: ENCAPSULATION AND DE-CAPSULATION OF OSI AND TCP/IP

MODEL

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CONCLUSION

The paper presents ideal differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models are in their
areas of the number of layers, header sizes and their connection interface. More so,
the OSI model encapsulates at the sender’s side from upper layer(Application layer)
to lower layer(Physical layer) while the TCP/IP model de-capsulates at the
receiver’s side from lower layer(network interface/link) to the upper
layer(Application layer). The trending model used due to their availability and low-
cost is the TCP/IP model because of the featured connection and connectionless
interface in routing and addressing support in their network interface.

DATA TRANSMISSION:
Data Packet: Basic unit of data transmitted over a network, containing payload,
headers, and sometimes trailers.
Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate of a network or internet connection,
often measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or megabits per
second (Mbps).

NETWORK DEVICES:
Router: Device that forwards data packets between computer networks, determining
the best path for transmission.
Switch: Connects devices within a local area network (LAN) and forwards data only
to the intended recipient.
Hub: Simplest networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN,
broadcasting data to all connected devices.

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NETWORK ADDRESSING:
IP Address: Unique numerical label assigned to each device connected to a
computer network, identifying its location on the network.
MAC Address: Physical address embedded in network interface cards (NICs) used
for identifying devices at the data link layer.
6. Network Security:
Firewalls: Security devices that monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
Encryption: Process of encoding data to prevent unauthorized access, ensuring
secure transmission over networks.

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS:
Definition of Distributed Systems:
Distributed Systems refer to a collection of independent computers that work
together as a unified system. These computers are connected via a network and
communicate with each other to achieve a common goal.

Characteristics of Distributed Systems:

✓ Concurrency: Multiple components of the system can execute concurrently.
✓ Scalability: Systems can accommodate an increasing number of users or
workload by adding
resources.
✓ Fault Tolerance: Systems are designed to handle failures in individual
components without affecting the entire system.
✓ Transparency: Hide the complexity of the system from users and other
components.

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Architecture of Distributed Systems:

✓ Client-Server Model: Common architecture where client devices request
services or resources from centralized servers.
✓ Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: Each node in the network can act as both a client
and a server, sharing resources directly with other nodes.

Challenges in Distributed Systems:

✓ Communication: Communication between distributed components involves
issues like latency, bandwidth, and reliability.
✓ Consistency: Ensuring data consistency across multiple nodes despite
concurrent access and updates.
✓ Security: Protecting data and ensuring secure communication across distributed
nodes.
✓ Fault Tolerance: Handling failures in individual nodes without disrupting the
entire system.

Distributed System Models:

Shared Memory Model: Multiple processors share a common memory space.
Message Passing Model: Processes communicate by sending and receiving
messages.

Examples of Distributed Systems:

• Internet: A vast distributed system connecting millions of devices worldwide.
• Cloud Computing Platforms: Services provided over the internet using
distributed resources.
• Distributed Databases: Data spread across multiple nodes for better availability
and scalability.

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Benefits of Distributed Systems:

✓ Improved Performance: Parallel processing and distributed resources lead
to enhanced performance.
✓ Resilience: Distributed systems are often more resilient to failures due to
redundancy and decentralization.
✓ Scalability: Easier to scale by adding more nodes or resources.

CONCEPT OF CLOUD COMPUTING:

Cloud computing refers to the delivery of computing services—such as servers,
storage, databases, networking, software, and more—over the internet, often referred
to as "the cloud." It enables users to access and utilize these services on-demand
without the need for direct management of the underlying infrastructure. The
concept is based on providing scalable, flexible, and cost-effective resources to users
and businesses.

Key concepts within cloud computing include:

✓ Service Models:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Offers virtualized computing resources over the
internet, such as virtual machines, storage, and networking.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): Provides a platform allowing customers to develop,
run, and manage applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure.
Software as a Service (SaaS): Delivers software applications over the internet on a
subscription basis, eliminating the need for local installation and maintenance.
✓ Deployment Models:
Public Cloud: Services are provided by third-party providers over the public
internet, accessible to anyone.
Private Cloud: Infrastructure is provisioned and maintained for a single
organization, offering more control and security.
Hybrid Cloud: Combines public and private clouds, allowing data and applications
to be shared between them.
✓ Scalability and Elasticity:

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Scalability: The ability to increase or decrease resources based on demand.

Elasticity: Automatically scales resources up or down to match varying workloads.
✓ Resource Pooling:
Cloud resources are pooled together and shared among multiple users, allowing for
better utilization and efficiency.
Pay-Per-Use Model:
Users are charged based on their actual usage of resources, enabling cost-
effectiveness and flexibility.
Virtualization:
Technologies like virtual machines (VMs) or containers enable multiple applications
or workloads to run on a single physical server, optimizing resource utilization.
Service Availability and Reliability:
1. Cloud services typically offer high availability and reliability through redundant
systems and data backups.
2. Cloud computing has transformed the way businesses and individuals utilize
computing resources. It has enabled greater flexibility, scalability, and
accessibility, allowing organizations to focus on their core activities without the
burden of managing complex infrastructure. This concept has become integral to
modern IT infrastructure and continues to evolve with advancements in
technology.

Applications of Cloud computing:

1. Data Storage and Backup:

Cloud storage services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft OneDrive
offer scalable and accessible storage solutions for personal and business use.

Backup services on the cloud provide secure and automated backup solutions
for critical data, ensuring redundancy and data recovery.
2. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS):
Companies utilize IaaS for scalable and on-demand infrastructure, allowing
them to host applications, databases, and services without investing in
physical hardware. Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and
Google Cloud Platform (GCP) are major providers.

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3. Platform as a Service (PaaS):

Developers leverage PaaS offerings to develop, test, and deploy applications
without worrying about underlying infrastructure complexities. Services like
Heroku, Microsoft Azure App Service, and Google App Engine fall under this
category.
4. Software as a Service (SaaS):
SaaS applications are accessible via the internet without the need for
installation or maintenance. Examples include Gmail, Office 365, Salesforce,
and many other productivity and collaboration tools.
5. Big Data Analytics:
Cloud platforms offer scalable resources for processing large datasets and
performing complex analytics tasks. Tools like AWS EMR, Google
BigQuery, and Azure HDInsight enable big data processing and analysis.
6. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:
Cloud services provide robust infrastructure and tools for training and
deploying AI and machine learning models. Services like AWS SageMaker,
Google Cloud AI Platform, and Azure Machine Learning facilitate these
capabilities.
7. IoT Applications:
Cloud computing supports IoT ecosystems by providing storage, computing
power, and analytics capabilities for vast amounts of data generated by IoT
devices.
8. Gaming and Streaming Services:
Cloud gaming platforms like Google Stadia and NVIDIA GeForce Now
leverage cloud computing to provide high-quality gaming experiences
without requiring powerful local hardware.

Streaming services like Netflix, Spotify, and Twitch rely on cloud

infrastructure to deliver content to users globally.
9. E-commerce and Online Retail:
Cloud services power e-commerce platforms, managing inventory, customer
data, and transactions securely and efficiently.
10.Healthcare and Telemedicine:

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Cloud computing facilitates storing and sharing medical records securely,

enabling telemedicine services, remote patient monitoring, and data analysis
for healthcare providers.

These applications showcase the versatility and impact of cloud computing

across industries, offering scalable, cost-effective, and accessible solutions for
various computing needs.

Concept of IoT:
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of interconnected devices embedded
with sensors, software, and other technologies that enable them to collect and
exchange data with other devices or systems over the internet. The key idea behind
IoT is to create a web of connected devices that can communicate, interact, and share
data without human intervention.

Key concepts within IoT include:

Connected Devices:
IoT devices can range from everyday objects such as household appliances, wearable
devices, and vehicles to industrial machinery and smart city infrastructure.
These devices are equipped with sensors and actuators to gather data and perform
actions based on that data.
Data Collection and Exchange:
Sensors within IoT devices collect various types of data, including environmental,
biometric, and operational data.
This data is transmitted over networks (often wireless) to other devices or centralized
systems for analysis and decision-making.
Interoperability:
IoT devices often use various communication protocols and standards to ensure they
can interact and share data effectively.
Standards such as MQTT, CoAP, and HTTP help facilitate communication between
devices and systems.
Edge Computing:

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With IoT, data processing can occur closer to the source (at the edge of the network)
rather than solely relying on centralized servers. This enables faster response times
and reduces latency.

Applications of IoT:
1. Smart Home Automation: IoT devices enable the automation and control of home
appliances, lighting, heating, security systems, and entertainment systems. Smart
thermostats, smart locks, and voice-controlled assistants are examples.
2. Healthcare and Remote Monitoring: Wearable IoT devices, such as fitness
trackers and health monitors, track vital signs, physical activity, and provide
valuable health insights. Remote patient monitoring systems allow healthcare
providers to monitor patients' health status from a distance.
3. Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): IoT is extensively used in industries for asset
tracking, predictive maintenance, process optimization, and monitoring. It helps
in improving efficiency, reducing downtime, and enabling data-driven decision-
making in manufacturing, logistics, and supply chain management.
4. Smart Cities: IoT technologies facilitate smarter city management by monitoring
and controlling traffic flow, managing energy consumption, optimizing waste
management, and enhancing public safety through surveillance systems and
smart lighting.
5. Agriculture: IoT devices are used for precision farming, where sensors monitor
soil moisture, temperature, and crop health. This data helps optimize irrigation,
fertilizer usage, and crop yield.
6. Retail and Inventory Management: Retailers use IoT devices for inventory
tracking, supply chain optimization, and enhancing customer experiences
through personalized marketing strategies and smart shopping experiences.
7. Environmental Monitoring: IoT devices assist in monitoring and managing
environmental conditions, including air quality, water quality, and pollution
levels. These devices contribute to environmental conservation efforts.
8. Transportation and Logistics: IoT enables vehicle tracking, route optimization,
fleet management, and real-time monitoring of cargo conditions, ensuring
efficient logistics operations and better customer service.

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9. Energy Management: IoT devices help in monitoring energy usage in homes,

buildings, and industries, optimizing energy consumption and facilitating the
integration of renewable energy sources.
10.Smart Wearables and Consumer Electronics: IoT-enabled wearables like
smartwatches, smart glasses, and fitness bands offer health monitoring,
communication, and personal assistance features.
These applications showcase the versatility of IoT across multiple domains,
revolutionizing industries, enhancing efficiency, and improving quality of life
through interconnected and data-driven solutions.

Security and Privacy Concerns:

✓ IoT devices often raise concerns about data security and privacy due to the vast
amount of sensitive data they collect and transmit. Ensuring robust security
measures is crucial.
✓ IoT has the potential to revolutionize various industries, automate processes,
improve decision-making, and enhance the overall quality of life. As technology
advances, the adoption of IoT continues to grow, leading to innovative
applications and solutions. However, addressing security, interoperability, and
privacy challenges remains critical for its widespread deployment and success.

SECURITY IN NET-CENTRIC SYSTEMS:

Security in net-centric systems is crucial due to the interconnected nature of these

systems. Here are key aspects of security in net-centric systems:

A. Encryption and Authentication:

Encryption: Securing data by encoding it to prevent unauthorized access.
Techniques like SSL/TLS ensure secure communication over networks.
Authentication: Verifying the identity of users or devices before granting access to
resources. This involves passwords, biometrics, multi-factor authentication, etc.
Firewalls and Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS):
Firewalls monitor and control incoming/outgoing network traffic based on
predetermined security rules.

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IDS/IPS systems detect and prevent unauthorized access or malicious activities

within a network.

B. Access Control and Authorization:

Implementing policies and controls to restrict access to resources based on user roles
or privileges. Role-based access control (RBAC) and access management systems
are common.

C. Vulnerability Management:
Regularly scanning systems for vulnerabilities and applying patches or updates to
mitigate potential security risks.

D. Data Protection and Privacy:

Ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. This involves data
encryption, secure storage, and compliance with data protection regulations.

E. Security Protocols and Standards:

Adhering to established security protocols (e.g., SSL/TLS, IPsec) and industry
standards (e.g., ISO 27001, NIST guidelines) to maintain security best practices.

F. Network Segmentation and Isolation:

Dividing networks into segments to limit the impact of a security breach and
isolating critical systems from less secure areas.

G. Security Monitoring and Incident Response:

Continuously monitoring network traffic and system logs for suspicious activities.
Prompt response to security incidents with incident response plans in place.
End-to-End Encryption in Communication:
Ensuring that data remains encrypted from the sender to the receiver to prevent
eavesdropping or data interception.

H. Training and Awareness:

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Educating users and employees about security best practices, potential threats, and
how to recognize and respond to security incidents.
With the evolving threat landscape, ensuring robust security measures in net-centric
systems is essential to safeguard data, prevent unauthorized access, and maintain the
integrity and availability of systems and services.

CONCEPT OF WEB SERVICES AND APPLICATIONS:

Web services and applications are integral components of the internet infrastructure,
facilitating communication, data exchange, and interaction between different
systems and users. Here are the key concepts:
1. Web Services:
Definition: Web services are software systems designed to allow
interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network, commonly the
internet.
2. Communication Protocols: They utilize standardized communication
protocols such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), REST
(Representational State Transfer), and XML/JSON for data exchange.
3. Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): Web services adhere to the principles
of SOA, breaking down applications into discrete services that are loosely
coupled and can be accessed independently.

Types of Web Services:

1. SOAP-based Web Services: Use XML as a messaging format and often rely
on protocols like HTTP, SMTP, or TCP for communication.
2. RESTful Web Services: Use simpler HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT,
DELETE) and follow REST architectural principles for communication.

Uses:
1. Enable seamless integration between disparate systems, allowing applications
to communicate and share data across platforms.

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2. Facilitate functionalities such as payment processing, data retrieval, user

authentication, and more, across different applications.

Web Applications:
Definition: Web applications are software applications that are accessed and
used via a web browser over the internet.
1. Client-Server Model: They typically follow a client-server architecture where
the user interface runs on a web browser (client) while the application's logic
and data are stored and processed on a server.
2. Development Technologies: Web applications are built using various
technologies including HTML, CSS, JavaScript for front-end development,
and programming languages like Python, Java, Ruby, PHP, or .NET for
backend development.

Types of Web Applications:

1. Static Web Applications: Display fixed content and do not change unless
manually updated.
2. Dynamic Web Applications: Generate content dynamically based on user
interactions and data input.

Examples:
1. Social media platforms, online shopping websites, email services, project
management tools, and banking applications are all examples of web
applications.
2. Integration:
3. Web services often serve as the backbone for web applications, enabling
seamless integration between different systems or functionalities. They allow
applications to access and utilize services or data from other sources,
enhancing functionality and connectivity on the web.

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