H. V.

Ravish Aradhya

ANLYSIS AND DESIGN OF DIGITAL CIRCUITS

THEORY AND PRACTICE(10EC33)

UNIT-5: Digital Integrated Circuits and Memories

A) Digital Integrated Circuits

5.1. Introduction:

Digital integrated circuits are characterized by various parameters that

describe the performance of the circuit/system under design. These
parameters are essential for a system designer while selecting a logic family
for a particular application.

5.1.1 Propagation delay (tpd):

When a signal passes through a logic circuit, it experiences a time delay as

shown in Figure 5.1. After an input is applied, a change in output occurs
after a delay called the “propagation delay (tpd)”.

Figure 5.1: Propagation delay (tpd) for a logic gate

For a logic gate, there are two propagation delays specified as indicated
in the Figure 5.2;

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Figure 5.2: Propagation delay (tpd) for a logic gate

5.1.2 Power dissipation:

When a logic device is supplied with a signal, depending upon the

duration the device is active, it consumesan amount of power that is to
be supplied from the power supply. The total power dissipated by a logic
device may be expected to comprise of static power (Ps) and dynamic
power (Pd). Ps is due to the currents flowing through the device in
maintaining the operating point for the device and the Pd is due to the
switching activities (data input) in the circuit.

PTot = Ps + Ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 5.1

Figure 5.3: Power dissipation in a logic gate

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A logic gate draws current from the power supply (Source), and is
different in HIGH and LOW output states as indicated in Figure 5.3. The
power (static) dissipation is then given by Eq. 5.2.

Ps = Vcc x ICC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 5.2

When a gate is pulsed, the output switches back and forth between HIGH
and LOW. The supply current varies between ICCH and ICCL. The average
power dissipation is obtained based on the duty cycle and is usually
specified for 50%. The average supply current is given by Eq. 5.3 and
the power dissipation is given by Eq. 5.2.

ICC = (ICCH+ ICCL)/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 5.3

Power dissipation in TTL is constant over its range of operating

frequencies. Power dissipation in CMOS is however, not constant and
depends on operating frequency. As indicated in Figure 5.4, it is very
small at low frequencies and increases with frequency.

Figure 5.4: Powerversus frequency in TTL and CMOS devices

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5.1.3 Sourcing and Sinking currents:

(a) Current Sourcing (a) Current Sinking

Figure 5.5: Current Sourcing and Sinkingin a TTL gate

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(a) Current Sourcing (a) Current Sinking

Figure 5.6: Current Sourcing and Sinking in a CMOS gate

5.1.4 Loading and Fan out:

Figure 5.7: Loading and Fanout in a logic gate

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Figure 5.8: HIGH state TTL loading

Figure 5.9: LOW state TTL loading

5.1.5 Voltage Levels:

Figure 5.10: TTL voltage logic levels

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Figure 5.11: CMOS voltage logic levels

5.1.5 Compatibility:

Figure 5.12: CMOS and TTL device compatibility

5.1.6 Noise Margin:

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Figure 5.13: Noise margin in a logic gate

5.1.2 Speed-Power product:

The speed-power product is a figure-of-merit for selection of a logic

circuit for any particular application. This is because, both power
dissipation and propagation delay are the important parameters in
measuring the performance of any system/circuit. Lower the value of this
figure-of merit, better will be the system performance. For example, a
LS-TTL device has a speed-power product of 22 pJ (Pico-joules-unit of
measurement) against 1.2 pJ for a HCMOS device at 100 kHz.

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5.2. TTL gates:

Figure 5.14: TTL Inverter

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Figure 5.15: TTL Inverter operation

Figure 5.16: Open collector TTL Inverter and its symbol

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Figure 5.17: TTL NAND gate

Figure 5.18: Totem pole output

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5.3. Schottky TTL:

Figure 5.19: Schottky TTL NAND gate

5.4. ECL gate:

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Figure 5.20: ECL OR/NOR gate

5.5. MOS devices:

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Figure 5.21: MOSFETs

5.6 CMOS devices:

Figure 5.22: CMOS Inverter

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Figure 5.23: CMOS Inverter operation

Figure 5.24: CMOS NAND gate

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Figure 5.25: CMOS NOR gate

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5.7. CMOS transmission gates:

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B) MEMORIES

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

One major type of memory that is used in PCs is called read-only memory, or ROM for short.
ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be read, as opposed to RAM which can be both
read and written. There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for certain functions
within the PC:

 Permanence: The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power is on or not. A
ROM can be removed from the PC, stored for an indefinite period of time, and then replaced,
and the data it contains will still be there. For this reason, it is called non-volatile storage. A hard
disk is also non-volatile, for the same reason, but regular RAM is not.
 Security: The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides a measure of security against
accidental (or malicious) changes to its contents. You are not going to find viruses infecting true
ROMs, for example; it's just not possible. (It's technically possible with erasable EPROMs, though
in practice never seen.)

Read-only memory is most commonly used to store system-level programs that we want to have
available to the PC at all times. The most common example is the system BIOS program, which
is stored in a ROM called (amazingly enough) the system BIOS ROM. Having this in a
permanent ROM means it is available when the power is turned on so that the PC can use it to
boot up the system. Remember that when you first turn on the PC the system memory is empty,
so there has to be something for the PC to use when it starts up. See this section for a description
of the system BIOS ROM; see here for a description of the system boot sequence.

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While the whole point of a ROM is supposed to be that the contents cannot be changed, there are
times when being able to change the contents of a ROM can be very useful. There are several
ROM variants that can be changed under certain circumstances; these can be thought of as
"mostly read-only memory". :^) The following are the different types of ROMs with a
description of their relative modifiability:

 ROM: A regular ROM is constructed from hard-wired logic, encoded in the silicon itself, much
the way that a processor is. It is designed to perform a specific function and cannot be changed.
This is inflexible and so regular ROMs are only used generally for programs that are static (not
changing often) and mass-produced. This product is analagous to a commercial software CD-
ROM that you purchase in a store.
 Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using special
equipment; it can be written to, but only once. This is useful for companies that make their own
ROMs from software they write, because when they change their code they can create new
PROMs without requiring expensive equipment. This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder
works by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks once and then letting you read from them
many times. In fact, programming a PROM is also called burning, just like burning a CD-R, and it
is comparable in terms of its flexibility.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed. A little glass window is installed in the top of the ROM package, through which
you can actually see the chip that holds the memory. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can
be shined through this window for a specified period of time, which will erase the EPROM and
allow it to be reprogrammed again. Obviously this is much more useful than a regular PROM,
but it does require the erasing light. Continuing the "CD" analogy, this technology is analogous
to a reusable CD-RW.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of erasability is the
EEPROM, which can be erased under software control. This is the most flexible type of ROM,
and is now commonly used for holding BIOS programs. When you hear reference to a "flash
BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade by "flashing", this refers to reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM
with a special software program. Here we are blurring the line a bit between what "read-only"
really means, but remember that this rewriting is done maybe once a year or so, compared to
real read-write memory (RAM) where rewriting is done often many times per second!

Note: One thing that sometimes confuses people is that since RAM is the "opposite" of ROM
(since RAM is read-write and ROM is read-only), and since RAM stands for "random access
memory", they think that ROM is not random access. This is not true; any location can be read
from ROM in any order, so it is random access as well, just not writeable. RAM gets its name
because earlier read-write memories were sequential, and did not allow random access.

Finally, one other characteristic of ROM, compared to RAM, is that it is much slower, typically
having double the access time of RAM or more. This is one reason why the code in the BIOS
ROM is often shadowed to improve performance.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

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The kind of memory used for holding programs and data being executed is called random access
memory or RAM. RAM differs from read-only memory (ROM) in that it can be both read and
written. It is considered volatile storage because unlike ROM, the contents of RAM are lost
when the power is turned off. RAM is also sometimes called read-write memory or RWM. This is
actually a much more precise name, so of course it is hardly ever used. :^) It's a better name
because calling RAM "random access" implies to some people that ROM isn't random access,
which is not true. RAM is called "random access" because earlier read-write memories were
sequential and did not allow random access. Sometimes old acronyms persist even when they
don't make much sense any more (e.g., the "AT" in the old IBM AT stands for "advanced
technology" :^) ).

Obviously, RAM needs to be writeable in order for it to do its job of holding programs and data
that you are working on. The volatility of RAM also means that you risk losing what you are
working on unless you save it frequently.

RAM is much faster than ROM is, due to the nature of how it stores information. This is why
RAM is often used to shadow the BIOS ROM to improve performance when executing BIOS
code. There are many different types of RAMs, including static RAM (SRAM) and many flavors
of dynamic RAM (DRAM).

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh, for as long as power is
supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be refreshed
many times per second in order to hold its data contents. SRAMs are used for specific
applications within the PC, where their strengths outweigh their weaknesses compared to
DRAM:

 Simplicity: SRAMs don't require external refresh circuitry or other work in order for them to
keep their data intact.
 Speed: SRAM is faster than DRAM.

In contrast, SRAMs have the following weaknesses, compared to DRAMs:

 Cost: SRAM is, byte for byte, several times more expensive than DRAM.
 Size: SRAMs take up much more space than DRAMs (which is part of why the cost is higher).

These advantages and disadvantages taken together obviously show that performance-wise,
SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we would use it exclusively if only we could do so
economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM would be prohibitively large and costly, which is
why DRAM is used for system memory. SRAMs are used instead for level 1 cache and level 2
cache memory, for which it is perfectly suited; cache memory needs to be very fast, and not very
large.

SRAM is manufactured in a way rather similar to how processors are: highly-integrated

transistor patterns photo-etched into silicon. Each SRAM bit is comprised of between four and

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six transistors, which is why SRAM takes up much more space compared to DRAM, which uses
only one (plus a capacitor). Because an SRAM chip is comprised of thousands or millions of
identical cells, it is much easier to make than a CPU, which is a large die with a non-repetitive
structure. This is one reason why RAM chips cost much less than processors do. See this
discussion of how processors are manufactured; this process is similar (but simplified somewhat)
for making memory circuits.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that only holds its data if it is continuously accessed by special
logic called a refresh circuit. Many hundreds of times each second, this circuitry reads the
contents of each memory cell, whether the memory cell is being used at that time by the
computer or not. Due to the way in which the cells are constructed, the reading action itself
refreshes the contents of the memory. If this is not done regularly, then the DRAM will lose its
contents, even if it continues to have power supplied to it. This refreshing action is why the
memory is called dynamic.

All PCs use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of SRAM, even though DRAMs are
slower than SRAMs and require the overhead of the refresh circuitry. It may seem weird to want
to make the computer's memory out of something that can only hold a value for a fraction of a
second. In fact, DRAMs are both more complicated and slower than SRAMs.

The reason that DRAMs are used is simple: they are much cheaper and take up much less space,
typically 1/4 the silicon area of SRAMs or less. To build a 64 MB core memory from SRAMs
would be very expensive. The overhead of the refresh circuit is tolerated in order to allow the use
of large amounts of inexpensive, compact memory. The refresh circuitry itself is almost never a
problem; many years of using DRAM has caused the design of these circuits to be all but
perfected.

DRAMs are smaller and less expensive than SRAMs because SRAMs are made from four to six
transistors (or more) per bit, DRAMs use only one, plus a capacitor. The capacitor, when
energized, holds an electrical charge if the bit contains a "1" or no charge if it contains a "0". The
transistor is used to read the contents of the capacitor. The problem with capacitors is that they
only hold a charge for a short period of time, and then it fades away. These capacitors are tiny, so
their charges fade particularly quickly. This is why the refresh circuitry is needed: to read the
contents of every cell and refresh them with a fresh "charge" before the contents fade away and
are lost. Refreshing is done by reading every "row" in the memory chip one row at a time; the
process of reading the contents of each capacitor re-establishes the charge. For an explanation of
how these "rows" are read, and thus how refresh is accomplished, refer to this section describing
memory access.

DRAM is manufactured using a similar process to how processors are: a silicon substrate is
etched with the patterns that make the transistors and capacitors (and support structures) that
comprise each bit. DRAM costs much less than a processor because it is a series of simple,
repeated structures, so there isn't the complexity of making a single chip with several million

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individually-located transistors. See here for details on how processors are manufactured; the
principles for DRAM manufacture are similar.

There are many different kinds of specific DRAM technologies and speeds that they are
available in. These have evolved over many years of using DRAM for system memory, and are
discussed in more detail in other sections.

Read Only Memory (ROM) Types

There are five basic ROM types:

1. ROM - Read Only Memory

2. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
3. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
4. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
5. Flash EEPROM memory

Each type has unique characteristics, but all types of ROM memory have two things in common:
Data stored in these chips is non-volatile -- it is not lost when power is removed.
Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to change.

ROM

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A diode normally allows current to flow in only one direction and has a certain threshold, known
as the forward breakover, that determines how much current is required before the diode will
pass it on. In silicon-based items such as processors and memory chips, the forward breakover
voltage is approximately 0.6 volts.

By taking advantage of the unique properties of a diode, a ROM chip can send a charge that is
above the forward breakover down the appropriate column with the selected row grounded to
connect at a specific cell. If a diode is present at that cell, the charge will be conducted through
to the ground, and, under the binary system, the cell will be read as being "on" (a value of 1). Iif
the cell's value is 0, and there is no diode link at that intersection to connect the column and row.
So the charge on the column does not get transferred to the row.

The way a ROM chip works necessitates the programming of complete data when the chip is
created. You cannot reprogramme or rewrite a standard ROM chip. If it is incorrect, or the data
needs to be updated, you have to throw it away and start over. Creating the original template for
a ROM chip is often a laborious process. Once the template is completed, the actual chips can
cost as little as a few cents each. They use very little power, are extremely reliable and, in the
case of most small electronic devices, contain all the necessary programming to control the
device.

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PROM

Creating ROM chips totally from scratch is time-consuming and very expensive in small
quantities. For this reason, developers created a type of ROM known as programmable read-
only memory (PROM). Blank PROM chips can be bought inexpensively and coded by the user
with a programmer.

PROM chips have a grid of columns and rows just as ordinary ROMs do. The difference is that
every intersection of a column and row in a PROM chip has a fuse connecting them. A charge
sent through a column will pass through the fuse in a cell to a grounded row indicating a value of
1. Since all the cells have a fuse, the initial (blank) state of a PROM chip is all 1s. To change the
value of a cell to 0, you use a programmer to send a specific amount of current to the cell. The
higher voltage breaks the connection between the column and row by burning out the fuse. This
process is known as burning the PROM.

PROMs can only be programmed once. They are more fragile than ROMs. A jolt of static
electricity can easily cause fuses in the PROM to burn out, changing essential bits from 1 to 0.
But blank PROMs are inexpensive and are good for prototyping the data for a ROM before
committing to the costly ROM fabrication process.

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EPROM

Working with ROMs and PROMs can be a wasteful business. Even though they are inexpensive
per chip, the cost can add up over time. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)
addresses this issue. EPROM chips can be rewritten many times. Erasing an EPROM requires a
special tool that emits a certain frequency of ultraviolet (UV) light. EPROMs are configured
using an EPROM programmer that provides voltage at specified levels depending on the type of
EPROM used.

The EPROM has a grid of columns and rows and the cell at each intersection has two transistors.
The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide layer. One of the transistors is
known as the floating gate and the other as the control gate. The floating gate's only link to the
row (wordline) is through the control gate. As long as this link is in place, the cell has a value of
1. To change the value to 0 requires a process called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.

Tunneling is used to alter the placement of electrons in the floating gate. Tunneling creates an
avalanche discharge of electrons, which have enough energy to pass through the insulating oxide
layer and accumulate on the gate electrode. When the high voltage is removed, the electrons are
trapped on the electrode. Because of the high insulation value of the silicon oxide surrounding
the gate, the stored charge cannot readily leak away and the data can be retained for decades. An
electrical charge, usually 10 to 13 volts, is applied to the floating gate. The charge comes from
the column (bitline), enters the floating gate and drains to a ground.

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This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited electrons
are pushed through and trapped on the other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a negative
charge. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the
floating gate. A device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing through the
floating gate. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 percent of the charge, it has a value
of 1. When the charge passing through drops below the 50-percent threshold, the value changes
to 0. A blank EPROM has all of the gates fully open, giving each cell a value of 1.

To rewrite an EPROM, you must erase it first. To erase it, you must supply a level of energy
strong enough to break through the negative electrons blocking the floating gate. In a standard
EPROM, this is best accomplished with UV light at a wavelength of 253.7 nanometers (2537
angstroms). Because this particular frequency will not penetrate most plastics or glasses, each
EPROM chip has a quartz window on top of it. The EPROM must be very close to the eraser's
light source, within an inch or two, to work properly.

An EPROM eraser is not selective, it will erase the entire EPROM. The EPROM must be
removed from the device it is in and placed under the UV light of the EPROM eraser for several
minutes. An EPROM that is left under too long can become over-erased. In such a case, the
EPROM's floating gates are charged to the point that they are unable to hold the electrons at all.

EEPROMs and Flash Memory

Though EPROMs are a big step up from PROMs in terms of reusability, they still require
dedicated equipment and a labor-intensive process to remove and reinstall them each time a
change is necessary. Also, changes cannot be made incrementally to an EPROM; the whole chip
must be erased. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chips remove
the biggest drawbacks of EPROMs.

In EEPROMs:

1. The chip does not have to removed to be rewritten.

2. The entire chip does not have to be completely erased to change a specific portion of it.
3. Changing the contents does not require additional dedicated equipment.

Instead of using UV light, you can return the electrons in the cells of an EEPROM to normal
with the localized application of an electric field to each cell. This erases the targeted cells of the
EEPROM, which can then be rewritten. EEPROMs are changed 1 byte at a time, which makes
them versatile but slow. In fact, EEPROM chips are too slow to use in many products that make
quick changes to the data stored on the chip.

Manufacturers responded to this limitation with Flash memory, a type of EEPROM that uses in-
circuit wiring to erase by applying an electrical field to the entire chip or to predetermined
sections of the chip called blocks. This erases the targeted area of the chip, which can then be
rewritten. Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because instead of

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erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then rewrites it. The electrons
in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal ("1") by the application of an
electric field, a higher-voltage charge.

PROMs (Programmable Read Only Memory) consist of an array of fuses and thus can only be
programmed one-time. Programming is accomplished with a current (instead of a voltage as are
EPROMs) and requires a different type of programmer.

What is an EPROM?

EPROM(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) can be programmed and erased enabling
them to be re-used. Erasure is accomplished using an UV (Ultra Violet) light source that shines
through a quartz erasing window in the EPROM package.

There also are OTP (One Time Programmable) EPROMs, sometimes called OTPROMs (One
Time Programmable Read Only Memory), that are identical to an erasable EPROM, but lack an
erasing window to reduce costs. To reduce the cost, these EPROMs come in a windowless plastic
carrier, which is cheaper than the costly ceramic package required for the erasing window. They
can be programmed one time only, so these are used after the code is bug free.

What is an EEPROM?

An EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is similar to an

EPROM but the erasure is accomplished using an electric field instead of an UV light source.
This eliminates the need of a window. Usually, EEPROM refers to a device that requires a
programmer or special voltage to program it.

What is a Flash EPROM?

A flash EPROM is similar to an EEPROM except that flash EPROMs are erased all at once
while a regular EEPROMs can erase one byte at a time. In- circuit writing and erasing is possible
because no special voltages are required. To accomplish in-circuit operation, you have to write
special application software routines. Flash EPROMs are also called nonvolatile memory..

Unit-5: Tutorial
P1:

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P2: Given the following

P3:Given

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