Graphs

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Agenda
• Graph basics and definitions

 Vertices/nodes, edges, adjacency,

incidence
 Degree, in-degree, out-degree
 Degree, in-degree, out-degree
 Subgraphs, unions, isomorphism
 Adjacency matrices

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Agenda
• Types of Graphs

 Trees
 Undirected graphs
• Simple graphs, Multigraphs,
Pseudographs
 Digraphs, Directed multigraph
 Bipartite
 Complete graphs, cycles, wheels, cubes,
complete bipartite
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 Uses of Graph Theory in CS

• Car navigation system

• Efficient database

• Build a bot to retrieve info off WWW

• Representing computational models

• Many other applications.

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 Graphs –Intuitive Notion
 A graph is a bunch of vertices (or nodes) represented by
circles which are connected by edges, represented by
line segments.

 Mathematically, graphs are binary-relations on their vertex

set (except for multigraphs).

 In Data Structures one often starts with trees and

generalizes to graphs. In this course, opposite approach:
We start with graphs and restrict to get trees.

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 Trees

A very important type of graph in CS is called a tree:

Real Tree

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 Trees

A very important type of graph in CS is called a tree:

Real
Tree

transformation
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 Trees

A very important type of graph in CS is called a tree:

Real
Tree

transformation
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 Trees
A very important type of graph in CS is called a tree:

Real Abstract
Tree Tree
transformation

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 Simple Graphs

Different purposes require different types of graphs.

EG: Suppose a local computer network

 Is bidirectional (undirected)
 Has no loops (no “self-communication”)
 Has unique connections between computers

Sensible to represent as follows:

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 Simple Graphs

{1,2}
1 2
{1,3} {2,3} {2,4}
{3,4}
3 4
{1,4}

• Vertices are labeled to associate with particular computers

• Each edge can be viewed as the set of its two endpoints

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 Simple Graphs

Q: For a set V with n elements, how many possible edges

there?

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 Simple Graphs

A: The number of pairs in V

= C (n, 2) = n · (n -1) / 2

Q: How many possible graphs are there for the same

set of vertices V ?

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 Simple Graphs

A: The number of subsets in the set of possible edges.

There are n · (n -1) / 2 possible edges, therefore the
number of graphs on V is 2n(n -1)/2

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 Multigraphs
• If computers are connected via internet instead of directly,
there may be several routes to choose from for each
connection. Depending on traffic, one route could be
better than another. Makes sense to allow multiple edges,
but still no self-loops:

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 Multigraphs
e1
1 e2 2
e3 e 4 e5
3 e6 4

Edge-labels distinguish between edges sharing same endpoints.

Labeling can be thought of as function:

e1  {1,2}, e2  {1,2}, e3  {1,3}, e4  {2,3},

e5  {2,3}, e6  {1,2}

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 Multigraphs
DEF: A multigraph G = (V,E,f ) consists of a non-empty set
V of vertices (or nodes), a set E (possibly empty) of
edges and a function f with domain E and codomain the
set of pairs in V.

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 Pseudographs
If self-loops are allowed we get a pseudograph:

e1 e6
1 e2 2
e3 e4 e5 e7
3 4

Now edges may be associated with a single vertex, when the

edge is a loop
e1  {1,2}, e2  {1,2}, e3  {1,3},
e4  {2,3}, e5  {2}, e6  {2}, e7  {4}

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Graph Terminology

TABLE 1: Graph Terminology

Type Edges Multiple Edges Loops
Allowed? Allowed
?
Simple Graph Undirected No No

Multigraph Undirected Yes No

Pseudograph Undirected Yes Yes

Directed graph Directed No Yes

Directed Multigraph Directed Yes Yes

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 8.2 Undirected Graphs Terminology
Vertices are adjacent if they are the endpoints of the same
edge.
e1
1 e2 2
e3 e4 e5
3 e6 4

Q: Which vertices are adjacent to 1? How about adjacent to

2, 3, and 4?

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 Undirected Graphs Terminology

e1
1 e2 2
e3 e4 e5
3 e6 4

A: 1 is adjacent to 2 and 3
2 is adjacent to 1 and 3
3 is adjacent to 1 and 2
4 is not adjacent to any vertex
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 Undirected Graphs Terminology

A vertex is incident with an edge (and the edge is incident

with the vertex) if it is the endpoint of the edge.

e1
1 e2 2
e3 e4 e5
3 e6 4

Q: Which edges are incident to 1? How about incident to 2,

3, and 4?

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 Undirected Graphs Terminology

e1
1 e2 2
e3 e4 e5
3 e6 4

Ans: e1, e2, e3, e6 are incident with 1

2 is incident with e1, e2, e4, e5, e6
3 is incident with e3, e4, e5
4 is not incident with any edge

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 Digraphs

Last time introduced digraphs as a way of representing

relations:
2

1 3

Q: What type of pair should each edge be (multiple edges not

allowed)?
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 Digraphs
A: Each edge is directed so an ordered pair (or tuple) rather
than unordered pair.

(2,2)
2
(1,2) (2,3)

(1,1) 1 (1,3) 3 (3,3)

(2,4) (3,4)
(1, 4)
4
(4,4)

Thus the set of edges E is just the represented relation on V.

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 Digraphs

DEF: A directed graph (or digraph) G = (V,E ) consists of a

non-empty set V of vertices (or nodes) and a set E of
edges with E  V  V.

The edge (a,b) is also denoted by a b and a is called the

source of the edge while b is called the target of the
edge.

Q: For a set V with n elements, how many possible digraphs

are there?

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 Digraphs
A: The same as the number of relations on V, which is the
number of subsets of V  V so 2n·n.

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 Directed Multigraphs
If also want to allow multiple edges in a digraph, get a
directed multigraph (or multi-digraph).

1 3

Q: How to use sets and functions to deal with multiple

directed edges, loops?
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 Directed Multigraphs

A: Have function with domain the edge set and co-

domain
VV. e3
2
e1 e4 e6
e2 e5
1 3
e7

e1(1,2), e2(1,2), e3(2,2), e4  (2,3),

e5  (2,3), e6  (3,3), e7  (3,3)

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 Degree

The degree of a vertex counts the number of edges that

seem to be sticking out if you looked under a magnifying
glass:

e1 e6
1 e2 2 e5
e3 e4
3

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 Degree

The degree of a vertex counts the number of edges

that seem to be sticking out if you looked under a
magnifying glass:

e1 e6
1 e2 2 e5
e3 e4
3

magnify
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 Degree
The degree of a vertex counts the number of edges that
seem to be sticking out if you looked under a magnifying
glass:

e1 e6
1 e2 2 e5 magnify

e3 e4
3

Thus deg(2) = 7 even though 2 only incident with 5 edges.

Q: How to define this formally?

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 Degree

A: Add 1 for every regular edge incident with vertex and 2

for every loop. Thus deg(2) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 = 7

e1 e6
1 e2 2 e5 magnify

e3 e4
3

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 Oriented Degree
when Edges Directed
The in-degree of a vertex (deg-) counts the number of
edges that stick in to the vertex. The out-degree (deg+)
counts the number sticking out.

1 3

Q: What are in-degrees and out-degrees of all the vertices?

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 Oriented Degree
when Edges Directed

A: deg-(1) = 0
deg-(2) = 3
deg-(3) = 4
deg+(1) = 2 2
deg+(2) = 3
deg+(3) = 2 1 3

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Handshaking Theorem
e1
1 e2 2 e6
e3 e4 e5 e7
3 4

There are two ways to count the number of edges in the

above graph:
1. Just count the set of edges: 7

2. Count seeming edges vertex by vertex and divide by 2

because double-counted edges:

( deg(1)+deg(2)+deg(3)+deg(4) )/2
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= (3+7+2+2)/2 = 14/2 = 7
Handshaking Theorem

THM: In an undirected graph

1
| E |   deg( e)
2 eE
In a directed graph

|E|   deg
eE

(e)   deg
eE

(e)
Q: In a party of 5 people can each person be friends with
exactly three others?

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Handshaking Theorem

A: Imagine a simple graph with 5 people as vertices and edges

being undirected edges between friends (simple graph
assuming friendship is symmetric and irreflexive).
Number of friends each person has is the degree of the
person.

Handshaking would imply that

|E | = (sum of degrees)/2 or
2|E | = (sum of degrees) = (5·3) = 15.

Impossible as 15 is not even. In general:

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 Handshaking Theorem
Lemma: The number of vertices of odd degree must be even
in an undirected graph.

Proof : Otherwise would have

2|E | = Sum of even no.’s
+ an odd number of odd no.’s
 even = even + odd
–this is impossible.

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Exercises:
1. How many edges are there in a graph with ten
vertices each of degree six?

2. How many edges does a graph have if it has vertices

of degree 4, 3, 3, 2, 2? Draw such a graph.

3. Determine whether each of these sequences is

graphic. For those that are, draw a graph having the
given degree sequence.
a) 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 b) 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
c) 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 d) 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2
e) 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 f) 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
g) 5, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 h) 5, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
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 Some Special Simple Graph

• We will now introduce several classes of

simple graphs. These graphs are often used as
examples and arise in many applications.

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Complete Graphs - Kn
• The complete graph on n vertices , is the simple graph
that contains exactly one edge between each pair of
distinct vertices. The notation Kn denotes the complete
graph on n vertices.

• The graphs Kn, for n = 1,2,3,4,5,6 are displayed in the

following figure.

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5

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 Cycles graph - Cn

The cycle graph Cn , is a circular graph consists of n vertices v1,

v2, …., vn and edges {v1, v2, }, {v2, v3, }, …., {vn-1, vn}, and
{vn, v1, }. They look like polygons:

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

Q: What type of graph are C1 and C2 ?

A: Pseudographs

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 Wheels Graph- Wn

The wheel graph Wn is just a cycle graph with an extra

vertex in the middle:

W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

Usually consider wheels with 3 or more spokes only.

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 Cubes graphs - Qn

The n-cube Qn is defined recursively. Q0 is just a vertex. Qn+1

is gotten by taking 2 copies of Qn and joining each vertex v
of Qn with its copy v’ :

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 (hypercube)
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Bipartite Graphs

• A simple graph is bipartite if V can be partitioned into V =

V1  V2 so that any two adjacent vertices are in different
parts of the partition. Another way of expressing the same
idea is bichromatic : vertices can be colored using two
colors so that no two vertices of the same color are
adjacent.

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs

EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

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Bipartite Graphs
EG: C4 is a bichromatic:

And so is bipartite, if we redraw it:

Q: For which n is Cn bipartite?

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Q: Determine whether the graph is bipartite

• (a) (b)

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Bipartite Graphs

A: Cn is bipartite when n is even. For even n color all odd

numbers red and all even numbers green so that vertices
are only adjacent to opposite color.

• If n is odd, Cn is not bipartite. If it were, color 0 red. So

1 must be green, and 2 must be red. This way, all even
numbers must be red, including vertex n-1. But n-1
connects to 0 .

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 Complete Bipartite - Km,n

When all possible edges exist in a simple bipartite graph with

m red vertices and n green vertices, the graph is called
complete bipartite and the notation Km,n is used.

Example:

K2,3 K4,5

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 Some applications of special types of
graphs
• We will show how special types of graphs are used in
models for data communications and parallel
processing.

Local Area Network

Interconnection Networks for Parallel
Computation
Parallel Processing

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Representing Graphs and Graphs Isomorphism

• There are many useful ways to represent graphs. In this

section we will show how to represent graphs in several
different ways.

• One way to represent a graph without multiple edges is to

list all edges of this graph.

• Another way to represent a graph with no multiple edges

is to use adjacent lists, which specify the vertices that are
adjacent to each vertices of the graph.

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Adjacency Matrix
We already saw a way of representing relations on a set with
a Boolean matrix:

R digraph(R) MR

1 1

2 2
2
3 3 1 1 1 1
 
1 3 0 1 1 1
4 4
0 0 1 1
4  
0 1
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 0 0
64
Adjacency Matrix

Since digraphs are relations on their vertex sets, can adopt

the concept to represent digraphs. In the context of
graphs, we call the representation an adjacency matrix
:

For a digraph G = (V,E ) define matrix AG by:

 Rows, Columns –one for each vertex in V

 Value at i th row and j th column is

– 1 if i th vertex connects to j th vertex (i  j )

– 0 otherwise
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 Adjacency Matrix
(Directed Multigraphs)
Can easily generalize to directed multigraphs by putting in the
number of edges between vertices, instead of only allowing 0
and 1:

For a directed multigraph G = (V,E ) define the matrix AG by:

• Rows, Columns –one for each vertex in V

• Value at i th row and j th column is

• The number of edges with source the i th vertex and

target the j th vertex

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 Adjacency Matrix
(Directed Multigraphs)
Q: What is the adjacency matrix?

1 4 3

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 Adjacency Matrix
(Directed Multigraphs)

A:
1 4 3

0 3 0 1
 
0 1 2 0
0 1 2 0
 
0 0 
 0 0
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Adjacency Matrix

Undirected graphs can be viewed as directed graphs by turning

each undirected edge into two oppositely oriented directed
edges, except when the edge is a self-loop in which case only
1 directed edge is introduced.
EG:

1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4

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Adjacency Matrix

Q: What’s the adjacency matrix?

1 2

3 4

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Adjacency Matrix

1 2

A: 3 4
0 2 1 0
 
2 2 1 0
Notice that answer is symmetric. 1 1 0 0
 
0 1 
 0 0
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Adjacency Matrix

For an undirected graph G = (V,E ) define the matrix AG by:

• Rows, Columns –one for each element of V

• Value at i th row and j th column is the number of

edges incident with vertices i and j.

This is equivalent to converting first to a directed graph as

above. Or by allowing undirected edges to take us from i
to j can simply use definition for directed graphs.

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 Incidence Matrices
• Another common way to represent graphs is to use
incidence matrices. Let G = (V,E) be an undirected graph.
Suppose that v1, v2, …., vn are the vertices and e1, e2, ….,
en are the edges of G. Then the incidence matrix with
respect to this ordering of V and E is the
n X m matrix M = [mij], where

1 when edges is incident w ith vi

mij  
0 otherwise

Example : see the book

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Represent the graph using an incidence matrix

v2 e6
v1 v3

e3
e4 e5
e1
e2

v5

v4

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The incidence matrix is

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6

1 1 0 0 0 0
v1
0 0 1 1 0 
1

v2

0 0 0 0 1 1
v3

 
1 0 1 0 0 0
v4

0 1 0 1 1 0
v5

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 • Find an adjacency matrix for each of these
graphs.

a) K4
b) C4
c) W3
d) K2,3
e) Q2

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Graph Isomorphism
Various mathematical notions come with their own concept of
equivalence, as opposed to equality:

• Equivalence for sets is bijectivity:

 EG { , ,, }  {12, 23, 43}

• Equivalence for graphs is isomorphism:

 EG

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 Graph Isomorphism

Intuitively, two graphs are isomorphic if can bend, stretch

and reposition vertices of the first graph, until the second
graph is formed. Etymologically, isomorphic means “same
shape”.

EG: Can twist or relabel:

to obtain:

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 Graph Isomorphism
Undirected Graphs
DEF: Suppose G1 = (V1, E1 ) and G2 = (V2, E2 ) are pseudographs.
Let f :V1V2 be a function s.t.:

1) f is bijective
2) for all vertices u,v in V1, the number of edges between u
and v in G1 is the same as the number of edges between
f (u) and f (v ) in G2.

Then f is called an isomorphism and G1 is said to be

isomorphic to G2.

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 Graph Isomorphism
Digraphs
DEF: Suppose G1 = (V1, E1 ) and G2 = (V2, E2 ) are directed
multigraphs. Let f :V1V2 be a function s.t.:
1) f is bijective
2) for all vertices u,v in V1, the number of edges from u
to v in G1 is the same as the number of edges
between f (u) and f (v ) in G2.

Then f is called an isomorphism and G1 is said to be

isomorphic to G2.

Note: Only difference between two definitions is the italicized

“from” in no. 2 (was “between”).
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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
EG: Prove that

is isomorphic to .

First label the vertices:

2 2
1 3 1 3

5 4
5 4
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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on
the star.

2 2
1 3 1 3

5 4
5 4

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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on
the star. The next vertex seen is 3, not 2 so set f
(2) = 3.

2 2
1 3 1 3
5 4
5 4

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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
• Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on the
star. The next vertex seen is 3, not 2 so set f (2) = 3. Next
vertex is 5 so set f (3) = 5.

2 2
1 1
3 3

5 4 5 4

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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
• Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on
the star. The next vertex seen is 3, not 2 so set f (2) =
3. Next vertex is 5 so set f (3) = 5. In this fashion we
get f (4) = 2
2 2

1 3 1 3

5 4
5 4

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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on
the star. The next vertex seen is 3, not 2 so set f
(2) = 3. Next vertex is 5 so set f (3) = 5. In this
fashion we get f (4) = 2, f (5) = 4.

2 2
1 3 1 3

5 4 5 4

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 Graph Isomorphism
-Example
Next, set f (1) = 1 and try to walk around clockwise on
the star. The next vertex seen is 3, not 2 so set f (2) =
3. Next vertex is 5 so set f (3) = 5. In this fashion we
get f (4) = 2, f (5) = 4. If we would continue, we
would get back to f (1) =1 so this process is well
defined and f is a morphism.

2 2
1 3 1 3
5 4
5 4

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