Environmental Science

CLIMATE, AIR, AND ENERGY ISSUES

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
The climactic change phenomenon experienced all over the world has not spared the
Philippines, from its unpredictable and undesirable effects. In recent years, the country has
experienced extremes in weather conditions, which wrought much havoc to agriculture and
economy in general. Local climate change has large. Local climate change has largely been
characterized by abnormal climate deviation, seasonal climate anomalies, extremes in weather,
and a drastic departure from normal rainfall patterns.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CLIMATE
Climate is the average temperature and precipitation, or the prevailing weather conditions
expected throughout a typical year in each region.
Four Major Components of Climate
Temperature Sunlight
Precipitation Wind
There are two scales by which climate is described:
macroclimate describes the global, regional, and the local long-term weather
conditions, whereas
microclimate zooms into the microhabitats of organisms. In environmental science, we
are focused on the global, regional, and local climate patterns.
Climatic variations are influenced by a number of factors such as distance to variation,
bodies of water, and topography of mountain ranges.
SEASONAL VARIATION
The earth’s tilted axis of rotation as it revolves around the sun has major implications on global
changes namely, on the day length, the amount of solar radiation, the temperature, and the
changing angle of the sun that dictates the distribution of sunlight to different parts of the
Earth.
Winter (Vernal Equinox 03/20) Spring (Summer Solstice 06/20) Summer (Autumnal
Equinox09/22) Autumn (Winter Solstice 12/21) Winter
BODIES OF WATER
The proximity to bodies of water contribute to the climate pattern in that the ocean currents
can heat or cool overlying air masses which then move towards land. Regions along the coast
are generally cooler and wetter than inland areas.
MOUNTAIN TOPOGRAPHY
The rain shadow effect describes how the warm, moist air evaporating from the water rises up
the mountain and cools, in the process releases moisture on the mountainside facing the wind.
The mountain peak basically blocks the moist air from going to the other side. On the leeward
side, the other side of the mountain opposite the wind, the cool dry air sinks and produces a
dry area known as a rain shadow.
THE SCIENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Due to human activities and aggravation, the global average surface temperature increased to
1.7°F (0.94°C) since 1880, and the rate of temperature increase has nearly doubled in the last
50 years. Temperatures are certain to go up further if no interventions on a global scale are
done. Global warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the largest international body
working on climate change has taken it upon themselves to sift through thousands. of studies
about global warming.
Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014, has noted the hard evidence: the atmosphere is warmer, the
oceans are warmer, there is more precipitation, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished,
and the sea level has risen.
The most substantial contributor is carbon dioxide (CO2) which has risen by 40% since the
Industrial Revolution (from 280 parts per million to 394 ppm). Most of the CO 2, comes from
combustion of fossil fuels and to a small degree, deforestation caused by burning. The global
consumption of fossil fuels is incrementally increasing. If the rate keeps up, simulation models
show that climate changes in the next decades are potentially catastrophic.
INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)
The IPCC is established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 and is currently the leading international body
for the assessment of climate chance. The IPCC provides a clear scientific perspective on the
current state of knowledge about climate change and its projected environmental and socio-
economic impacts.
The IPCC does not conduct any primary research but reviews and assesses the most recent
scientific, technical, and socio-economic information relevant to climate change.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The term greenhouse effect refers to the presence of gases in the earth's atmosphere, which
traps the sun's energy and increases the planet's temperature as a result. Examples of
greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases (f-
gases) such as CFCs.
Most radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and warms it/
Solar radiation is reflected by the Earth and the atmosphere.
Some of the infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere. Some is absorbed and re-
emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s
surface and the lower atmosphere.
Infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’ surface.
GREENHOUSE GASES AND ITS IMPACTS
In the AR5, greenhouse gas emissions have been identified as past and recent drivers of
climate change. Greenhouse gases have increased since the pre-industrial era due to the
burgeoning economy and population. For the decade 2000 to 2010, greenhouse gas
emissions were recorded as highest in history. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide
levels are at levels unparalleled in the last 800,000 years, leading to a surge in energy uptake
by the climate system. To date, greenhouse gas levels continue to increase. The most important
of these anthropogenic greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2).
The major greenhouse gases that act like a heat blanket and insulating the Earth are carbon
dioxide (CO,), water vapor (H2O), methane (CH), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O), and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CARBON DIOXIDE
a natural atmosphere by-product, is the major greenhouse gas inducing climate change
in recent years. CO₂ gas is naturally released and absorbed by living organism, volcanic
eruptions, and the ocean to atmosphere gas exchange. The CO₂ emission recorded in
2010 shown an increase of 110 parts per million by volume (ppmv) or 40% since the
18th century due in part to human activities such as burning of fossils, abuse of land use
and industrialization.
The Carbon ‘Bathtub’ and Its Components
Sources of Carbon (Faucet) – Fossil Combustion & Deforestation (The size of the
faucet is much larger than the drain).
Sinks of Carbon (Drain) – Land Uptake & Ocean Uptake (As global temperature
increases, the size of the drain decreases).
WATER VAPOR AND CLOUDS
water as vapor (a gas) or in clouds (an aerosol) absorbs infrared energy that stays in the
troposphere in variable concentrations. As temperature over the land and oceans rise,
evaporation increases, and the water vapor concentration (humidity) rises. As the
humidity rises, it traps more infrared radiation and hence heat in the atmosphere, which
in turn causes more warming. This phenomenon is called positive feedback which
basically amplifies the initial stimulus, making it one of the more disturbing features of
future warming. Water vapor accounts for about 50% of the greenhouse effect and
clouds about 25%.
GLOBAL WARMING – [Positive feedback (Faster– Creates Change – Speeds up
Warming] [Negative feedback (Slower – Creates Change – Slows down Warming)
METHANE
The concentration of methane, a gas produced naturally and through human activities,
has increased during the 20th century and is now higher than preindustrial levels by two
and a half times, but the rate of increase has become slower in recent decades. The
sources of methane include natural wetlands, agricultural activities, and fossil fuel
extraction and transport (Fisher, 2017).
NITROUS OXIDE
Like methane, nitrous oxide (N2O) is also produced through agricultural activities and
emitted from soil and vegetation. Through the increased human activities such as fuel
burning due to industrialization, NO concentration has increased by 18%. When the
Industrial Revolution started, the rate of NO production rapidly increased towards the
end of the 20th century without significantly affecting atmospheric N2O concentration.
The best-known uses of nitrous oxide are as a medical anesthetic and analgesic.
TROPOSHERIC OZONE (O3)
Tropospheric ozone (O3) is a potent greenhouse gas characterized by a short
atmospheric lifetime. Ozone is created from photochemical reactions between nitrogen
oxides and volatile organic compounds (air pollutants). Ozone is also considered a
pollutant because it can create respiratory health problems and damage crops and
ecosystems.
Stratosphere “Good Ozone” is 90%, ozone protects the Earth from the Sun’s UV
radiation.
 Troposphere “Bad Ozone” is 9%, it is the product of Sunlight + Methane (CH4) + Carbon
Monoxide (CO) + Non-Methane Volatile Compounds (NMVOC) + Nitrogen Oxide
(NO). Tropospheric Ozone is formed when sunlight interacts with other pollutants from
a variety of sources.
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs) AND OTHER HALOCARBONS
Halocarbons including CFCs have a long lifespan and contribute to both global
warming as well as the destruction of the ozone layer. Some halocarbons have about
10,000 times the capacity of CO2 to absorb infrared radiation, making it a potent
greenhouse gas. Halocarbons account for about 5% of greenhouse warming.
Sources of CFCs: Insulated Materials, Aerosols, Refrigerators, Air Conditioning
Drastic increase of greenhouse gases is attributed to anthropogenic activities, such as:
Deforestation & Agriculture Release of CFCs
Combustion of Fossil Fuels Population Growth
SOME OBSERVED EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
HEALTH EFFECTS
In addition to well-known greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide,
greenhouse emissions from industry and transportation contain fine particulates. These
pollutants are linked to asthma, emphysema, and cancer in populations that are affected
by high concentrations or long-term exposure to green emissions.
for example, climate change is listed as a factor in the increased range of malaria-
carrying mosquitoes, causing new infections and outbreaks in previously unaffected
areas of East Africa, Indonesia, and Afghanistan.
LOSS OF NATURAL RESOURCES
In 2010, forestry services in Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, and California cataloged the
decline of 500,000 acres of aspen trees due to the increased presence of parasites that
thrive in warmer temperatures. The loss of these trees has caused the loss of indigenous
grasses and habitats that grew beneath them, which held water utilized by nearby
metropolitan areas.
INDIRECT THREATS TO LIFE AND PROPERTY
Flash floods, severe storms and droughts are sometimes attributable to climate change
caused by the greenhouse effect. Human populations affected by droughts often
experience long-term famine, weakened immunity to disease outbreaks, and social or
political collapse. Damage or loss of property, and even of life, are possible outcomes
of extreme storms and flash floods. Some recent tsunami events have also been
controversially linked to possible greenhouse-related causes.
CHANGES IN NATURAL HABITATS AND FOOD SUPPLY
Climate changes also impacts the natural habitat, food supply, and activities of animals,
plants, and even microorganisms. For example, the food supply and yearly growth cycle
of phytoplankton and algae and the migration of animals across the globe are altered.
The warming of oceans also alters the migration pattern of organisms. For example,
heat-tolerant species, such as shrimp, moves northward while heat-intolerant species,
such as clams and founder, moves southward.
CHANGING OCEAN CHEMISTRY/ACIDIFICATION
The high CO2 content of the oceans depletes the carbonate ions available, resulting in
less formation of calcium carbonate needed to form coral skeleton. Thus, corals suffer
from lower extension rates and weaker skeletons. The high CO2 content of the oceans
depletes the carbonate ions available, resulting in less formation of calcium carbonate
needed to form coral skeleton. Thus, corals suffer from lower extension rates and weaker
skeletons.
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION RESPONES TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Adaptation can reduce vulnerability. There is high confidence that there are viable adaptation
options that can be implemented in some sectors at low cost, and/or with high benefit cost
ratio.
Mitigation involves reducing the magnitude of climate change itself and, as we will see in the
final two lessons, can be subdivided into two alternative strategies: emissions reductions-
dealing with the problem at its very source, and geoengineering somehow offsetting the
effects of greenhouse gas emissions.
MITIGATION (action to reduce emissions that cause climate change) – Sustainable
Transportation, Clean Energy, Energy Efficiency
BOTH – Water Conservation, New Energy Systems, Local Food, Education, Complete
Communities, Urban Forest
ADAPTATION (action to manage the risks of climate impacts) – Disaster Management &
Business Continuity, Flood Protection, Infrastructure Upgrades
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTIONS
The atmosphere is comprised of numerous gases. The major constituents of the atmosphere
are nitrogen (N2) (78.08%), oxygen (O,) (20.95%), water vapor (0% -4%), argon (Ar) (0.93%),
and carbon dioxide (CO2) (0.04%). About 40 "trace gases" are also found in the atmosphere,
including helium, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, neon, and ozone; as
well as aerosols in the form of microscopic liquid and solid particles (dust, carbon particles,
pollen, sea salts, and air-borne microorganisms).
AIR POLLUTION
Stationary sources are any fixed structures, such as building or facilities that emit any air
pollutant. These could be facilities for generating power, steel, food, paper, and cement,
among other things. Refineries and chemical plants are also considered stationery
sources. (i.e., Industry, Power Plants, Sewage Treatment)
Mobile sources are vehicles or machines that function to transport people, property, or
any goods and are powered by combustion of fuel. The emissions from diesel and
gasoline powered vehicles contribute to air pollution. (i.e., Cars, Trucks, Buses,
Motorcycles)
Area sources are locations where activities that take place within it result in generation
of air pollutants. Area sources include places dedicated to gasoline refilling, agricultural
activities, livestock, dry cleaning, surface coating, construction sites, and open burning.
(i.e., Livestock, Fertilizer, Oil & Gas, Cities)
Natural sources – Wildfires, Volcanos, Lightning
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
Primary pollutants are the direct chemical products of combustion and
evaporation released into the air in a harmful form. These include automobile
exhausts, particulate material, toxic metals, and volatile organic compounds.
When primary pollutants further react in the atmosphere, they lead to the
production of hazardous secondary pollutants such as atmospheric acids and
photochemical oxidants.
Primary Pollutants – CO, SO2, NO2, NH3, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs),
NO, Particulates Matter (PM)
Secondary Pollutants – from PS: SO3, HNO3 (Nitric Acid), H3SO4 (Sulphuric Acid),
H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide), NH4+, O3, Particulates Matter (PM)
Among the different air pollutants, 6 criteria pollutants such as:
 Ozone is the major ingredient in smog, In the stratosphere it occurs naturally and
acts as a filtering mechanism for the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun but in
the lower atmosphere comprise what mainly we see as grey smog suspended on
air.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic, odorless, colorless gas produced during fossil fuel
or biomass burning, Carbon monoxide exposure can block oxygen to the brain
and cause poor concentration, fatigue, and death.
Lead is one of the most toxic substances. It has also been associated with
aggressive behavior, delinquency, and attention discases in boys between 7-11
years of age. In adults, lead exposure has been related to increased blood
pressure and hypertension.
Sulfur dioxide is gas formed through combustion. Industries and electric power
plants account for 88% of sulfur oxide emissions totaling 88,458 tons in 1990,
causing bronchitis and impairment of preliminary functions. They are also active
ingredients in the formation of acid rain.
Nitrogen dioxide is a gas produced from high temperature combustion in the air.
It can cause respiratory ailments like asthma and eye irritation.
In the Philippines, the National Air Quality Status Report in 2011 indicates that stationary
sources manufacturing food, paper and packaging, and chemical plants contributed
significantly to sulfur oxides and particulate matter. The total number of registered
vehicles increase every year and emit high amounts of carbon monoxide nitrous oxides,
particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds. Due to the high consumption of
diesel and gasoline fuel, government-initiated programs encourage the use of
compressed natural gas (CNG)-liquefied petroleum gas fueled and electric vehicles to
reduce the emission of pollutants. Road dust, construction activities, and open-air waste
burning are the most common area sources of pollution.
IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Health- Exposure to air pollution has been associated with adverse health
outcomes, among them are respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and
adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Agriculture- Damages to crops and forests in close proximity to urban areas have
been attributed to ozone exposure. The ozone enters the plants through the
stomata (pores) in the leaves.
Ecosystems- Wild plants and forest trees are affected by ozone pollution as well,
at a greater extent even. Ozone pollution can disrupt photosynthesis and
respiration of plants by reducing uptake of carbon and increasing water loss.
ACID PRECIPITATION AND DEPOSITION
Acid precipitation refers to the release of precipitation in the form of rain, fog mist, hail, or
snow that is more acidic than the norm. Analysis of acid precipitation chemical content point
to secondary pollutants sulfuric acid and nitric acid as the sources of acid deposition.
Wet deposition, when sulfuric and nitric acid formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground
bound to rain, snow, fog, and hail.
Dry deposition, when acidic particles and gases also deposit from the atmosphere in the
absence of nature.
OZONE DEPLETION
The ozone layer is a thin, protective layer of ozone gas (O3) in the stratosphere, encircling at
13 to 20 km above the earth. The ozone layer screens out 99% of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. The fragile shield is created as ozone molecules form and break down in the
 stratosphere. Thinning of the ozone layer will substantially increase the amount of UV
radiation received by the earth.
The destruction of ozone molecules leads to thinning of the ozone layer, and mass depletion
of it results in the formation of an ozone hole.
In the early 1980s, an ozone hole has been discovered over the Antarctic area by Joe Farman,
a British Antarctic survey scientist while a similar hole but not as damaging has been seen over
the Arctic region.
The Antarctic hole has been getting larger overtime.
PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999 (RA 8749)
Section 3. Declaration of Policies - The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development
and environmental protection. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable
development shall be pursued. It shall be the policy of the State to:
Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be
implemented by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination
of functions and activities;
Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries through the
application of market-based instruments;
Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a
comprehensive management program for air pollution;
Promote public information and education and to encourage the participation of an
informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and
Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long-term adverse
environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include the setting up
of a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation
and compensation for personal damages.
LEADED GASOLINE HAS BEEN COMPLETELY PHASED OUT FROM THE PHILIPPINES
In accordance with the Philippines Clean Air Act of 1999, oil companies have stopped selling
leaded gasoline," said the country's energy secretary, Mario Tiaoqui. One of the main
provisions of the act was that all lead containing petroleum products should be completely
phased out from the market by December 23, 2000.
ENERGY RESOURCES
A sustainable and inexpensive supply of energy is one of the critical requirements for
economic development. The form of energy used, whether fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, and other
forms of renewable energy and its level of consumption have important impacts on both the
local and global environment.
NONRENEWABLE ENERGY FROM FOSSIL FUELS
Crude Oil, extracted from oil deposits, is further refined to generate gasoline and diesel
fuel that are used in other applications. During this process, crude oil produces massive
amounts of air pollutants, leading to increase in acid deposition in the atmosphere.
Thus, the heavy reliance of industry to crude oil and its by- products has contributed to
the major environmental problems found locally and globally.
Natural gas, found in geologic layers of the earth's crust are also nonrenewable forms
of energy. It is a mixture of low-molecular weight hydrogen, mostly methane. It comes
from wells as deep as 10 kilometers, often in association with oil. It offers a good
alternative to oil and coal as it is a clean-burning fuel that can be used in cars, power
plants, industry, and homes. Increasing the world's dependence on natural gas may yet
wean us from the damaging environmental impacts from the use of oil and coal.
 The most abundant fossil fuel found on Earth is coal. Coal reserves may last for another
200 years while crude oil, given the present rate of consumption, could last only for the
next forty years, Coal-fired power plants are relatively inexpensive to build compared
with nuclear power plants.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Bioenergy is renewable energy derived from biological sources. They can come from
biomass feedstocks that include agricultural and livestock residues, short-rotation forest
plantations, energy crops, municipal solid waste, and other organic waste materials.
Feedstock can be used to produce electricity or heat. It can also be used to create
gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels.
Solar power is the most abundant source of energy, but it has barely begun to be
tapped. 'The development of photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP)
have revolutionized the harnessing of energy in solar radiation to produce usable
power in the form of electricity. PV and SP are used to produce thermal energy; to meet
direct lighting needs and, potentially, to produce fuels that might be used for transport
and other purposes.
Solar panel converts sunlight into DC.
Inverter converts electricity DC to AC.
Take electricity your home requires.
Extra electricity credited on grid.
These geothermal reservoirs are extracted heat using geothermal heat pumps. There
are reservoirs that are naturally sufficiently hot and permeable called hydrothermal
reservoirs, while there are reservoirs that are sufficiently hot but that are improved with
hydraulic stimulation called enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Once released to the
surface, fluids of various temperatures can be used to generate electricity or can be
used more directly for applications that require thermal energy.
Hydropower is the most mature source of renewable power. Hydropower plants
harnesses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations, to convert the
energy in flowing water into electricity. Dam projects which retain a large reservoir of
water, and 'run-of-river' systems have hydropower plants integrated into the system
water is released through turbines or directed through a pipeline to a turbine.
Ocean Energy. The ocean possesses two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's
heat and mechanical energy from the tides and waves. Ocean energy can be
transformed to provide electricity, thermal energy, or potable water. Technologies are
established, such as barrages for tidal range, submarine turbines for tidal and ocean
currents, heat exchangers for ocean thermal energy conversion, and a variety of devices
to harness the energy of waves and salinity gradients.
Tidal Ocean Thermal Energy
Wave Conversion
Salinity Gradient
Wind Energy. Wind turbines harness the kinetic energy of moving air, hence the term
wind energy: The mechanical power produced can be used to power tasks or power a
generator for electricity production. Large wind turbines located on land (onshore) or
in seawater-or freshwater (offshore) are used for capturing wind energy. Onshore wind
energy technologies are already being manufactured and deployed on a large scale.
Offshore wind energy technologies have greater potential for continued technical
advancement.
Nuclear energy provides a growing percentage of the world’s energy demands. Nuclear
energy is tagged as a viable alternative to fossil fuels because it contributes to few
 emissions to global warming and because the supply of its raw material – uranium – is
sufficient to support energy production for at least another hundred years.
Radium is the low-level radioactive elements found in uranium mill tailings that
decay to produce a radioactive gas called radon. Uranium mill tailings are sealed
with clay to prevent radon from releasing into the atmosphere. High- level
radioactive waste is the irradiated or used nuclear reactor fuel that consist of
small fuel pallets in long metal tubes called rods.
Radon is an odorless, invisible, radioactive gas naturally released from rocks, soil,
and water. Radon can get into homes and buildings through small cracks or holes
and build up in the air. Over time, breathing in high levels of radon can cause
lung cancer.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUTURE
The vision of the Philippine Department of Energy is for Filipino communities to be powered
by "clean, efficient, robust, and sustainable energy systems that will create wealth, propel
industries, and transform the lives of men and women and the generations to come." The
Philippine Energy Plan for 2012-2030 is a guiding document that outlines the energy
development and milestones to be achieved by year 2030. Its landmark projected
accomplishments include garnering strong financial support by mobilizing private sector
participation and involving stakeholders, as well as groundbreaking advancement in
renewable energy generation technology and regulation to ensure delivery of secure,
sustainable, sufficient, affordable, and environment-friendly energy to all economic sectors. It
also aims to provide mainstream public access to reliable and affordable energy services to
fuel local productivity and countryside development.
WAYS TO LOWER ENERGY DEMAND
Increasing the energy efficiency of lighting, appliance, and buildings.
Increasing the mileage standards for motor vehicles.
Promoting use of combined heat and power technologies by industries.
Encouraging and promoting the use of nuclear and renewable sources of energy.
The vision of the Philippine Department of Energy is for Filipino communities to be powered
by “clean, efficient, robust, and sustainable energy systems that will create wealth, propel
industries, and transform the lives of men and women and the generations to come”.
The Philippine Energy Plan for 2012-2030 is a guiding document that outlines the energy
development and milestones to be achieved by year 2030.
Garnering strong financial support by mobilizing private sector participation and involving
stakeholders.
Groundbreaking advancement in renewable energy generation technology and regulation to
ensure delivery of secure, sustainable, sufficient, affordable, and environment-friendly energy
to all economic sectors.
Provide mainstream public access to reliable and affordable energy services to fuel local
productivity and countryside development.

Proverbs 16:3
“Commit your works to the Lord, and your plans will succeed.”