Notes for all subjects!

Hello, this is a word document for all notes for subjects. Every definition you
have to memorize and study are in this document. Enjoy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Math – Page 1 to 10
ICT – Page 11 to 14
English – Page 15 to 17
Chemistry – Page 18 to 27
Physics – Page 28 to

MATH

No Calculator.
1.1 – Irrational Numbers
Rational numbers – Numbers that can be portrayed as fractions
E.g. 0.875, 0.375, √64
Irrational numbers – Numbers that cannot be portrayed as fractions
E.g. √2, π, √5
Surds – Irrational numbers that are square roots or cube roots

Here are some exercises! The answer key is at the end :3

1. Determine the rational and irrational numbers.

- √7, π, 0.75, √16, √10
2. What are the rational numbers in this list?
- ½, √3, 0.25, 7, ,
3. What are the irrational numbers in this list?
- √8, -1, , e
4. Find (a) 2 irrational numbers that add up to 0.
(b) Find 2 irrational numbers that add up to 2.
These are easy, I know.

1.2 – Standard Form

0 < x * 10ⁿ < 10
10ⁿ  Positive Power
 Negative Power

In standard form,
Decimal point moves to the left  Positive Index (Large)
Decimal point moves to the right  Negative Index (Small)

E.g. 467000000000 = 4.67 * 10¹¹

0.000052 = 5.2 * 10⁻⁵
Here are some exercises! The answer key is at the end :3

1. Write these numbers in standard form!

- 300000, 790000, 82700000, 61000000000
2. Write these numbers in ordinary form!
- 2.09 * 10⁸, 9.7 * 10⁶, 5.06 * 10⁴
3. Write these numbers in standard form!
- 0.0000008, 0.00074, 0.0000465
4. Write these numbers in ordinary form!
- 8 * 10⁻¹, 6.2 * 10⁻⁷, 4.05 * 10⁻²
5. The mass of the sun is 1.989 * 10³⁰ kg. What’s its mass in ordinary form?
6. Light takes 1.5 * 10⁸ seconds to reach from Earth to the Sun. What’s its
speed in ordinary form?

1.3 – Indices
a⁰ = 1
To make a negative index turn into positive index, we do reciprocal, which is flipping
the number, for example – 3⁻⁶  

Here are some exercises! The answer key is at the end :3

1. Write each number as a fraction.

- 9⁻², 4⁻³, 10⁻², 2⁻⁶
2. Reorder these numbers from smallest to largest.
- 7⁻³, 4⁻⁵, 3⁻⁴, 6⁻³, 2⁻⁶
𝟏
3. Write as a:
𝟔𝟒
 (a) Power of 64
(b) Power of 8
(c) Power of 4
(d) Power of 2
4. Write a⁻³ as a fraction when:
(a) a = 3
(b) a = 4
(c) a = 2
(d) a = 0
5. Write the answer to each multiplication as a power of 5.
(a) 5⁶ * 5¹⁰
(b) 5³ * 5⁸
(c) 5⁷ * 5⁰
6. In number 5, you used the rule xⁿ * xⁿ = xⁿ⁺ⁿ, didn’t you? Now use it for
these too.
(a) 5⁸ * 5⁻³
(b) 5⁶ * 5⁻²
(c) 5⁻⁵ * 5⁷
(d) 5⁻⁸ * 5⁶
Note: This same rule applies to dividing. xⁿ ÷ xⁿ = xⁿ⁻ⁿ

3.1 - Multiplying and dividing by powers of 10

Multiplying a number by , , , … is the same as dividing the same
number by 10, 100, 1000.

Dividing a number by , , , … is the same as multiplying the same

number by 10, 100, 1000.

Examples – 2.4 * = 0.024

2.4 ÷ = 240
Here are some exercises! I’ll be working together with you, this time.

1. 3.2 * 10⁵
Ans: 10⁵ is equal to 100000 – which means we’re multiplying 3.2 with 100000.
The answer is: 320000
 2. 3.2 * 10⁻⁵
Ans: 10⁻⁵ is equal to 0.00001 – which means we’re multiplying 3.2 with .
The answer is: 0.000032
3. 3.2 ÷ 10⁵
Ans: 10⁵ is equal to 100000 – which means we’re dividing 3.2 with 100000.
The answer is: 0.000032
4. 3.2 ÷ 10⁻⁵
Ans: 10⁻⁵ is equal to 0.00001 – which means we’re dividing 3.2 with .
The answer is: 320000

Did you find the particular rule?

When you multiply a number by 10 to a negative power, the answer is

always smaller than the number you started with. (3.2 * 10⁻⁵)

When you multiply a number by 10 to a positive power, the answer is

always bigger than the number you started with. (3.2 * 10⁵)

When you divide a number by 10 to a negative number, the answer is

always bigger than the number you started with. (3.2 ÷ 10⁻⁵)

When you divide a number by 10 to a positive number, the answer is always

smaller than the number you started with. (3.2 ÷ 10⁵)

3.2 – Multiplying and dividing decimals

There’s nothing in particular to talk about this chapter, except this.

Positive * Positive = Positive

Positive * Negative = Negative
Negative * Negative = Positive
Negative * Positive = Negative

You can multiply decimals, can’t you? If so, skip this.

Step 1: When multiplying a decimal with a whole number, move the decimal
so it will become a whole number.
E.g. 9 * 0.2 = 9 * 2

Step 2: Multiply the 2 whole numbers.

E.g. 9 * 2 = 18

Step 3: Divide the answer with a power of 10, depending on how many
places you moved the decimal.
E.g. 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8
In the examples, I moved the decimal once. This equals 10. If you move the
decimal twice, it equals 100. Keep adding.

You can divide decimals too, surely.

Step 1: Make both numbers/decimals whole numbers. When moving a

decimal, make sure to move BOTH of the numbers. Not only one number.
E.g. 9 ÷ 0.3 = 90 ÷ 3

Step 2: Divide the two numbers.

E.g. 90 ÷ 3 = 30

Step 3: That’s your answer.

Estimating
To estimate, you round the numbers to the nearest.

For example – 0.63 * 29.8

Estimate – 0.63 = 0.6
29.8 = 30
s0.6 * 30 = 18
Answer – 0.63 * 29.8 = 18.774

This applies to dividing too.

3.3 – Understanding compound percentages

You can work out a percentage by converting the percentage to a multiplier.
For example – Increased by 20% = 1.2
 Decreased by 20% = 0.8
Converting depends on 100.

A compound percentage change is when a percentage increase or decrease

is followed by another percentage increase of decrease.

Here are some exercises! I’ll be working with you.

1. $900 increased by 10%, then decreased by 10%

Ans: 900 x 1.1 = $990.
990 x 0.9 = $891.
The answer is not $900. Even though it was increased by 10% and then
decreased by that same number, after increasing, the decreased percentage
is also increased.

2. $900 decreased by 20%, then increased by 20%

Ans: 900 x 1.2 = $1080
1080 x 0.8 = $864
The answer is not $900, again. This is the same reason as No.1.

Here are some exercises! This time, work on your own.

1. 600 decreased by 40%, then decreased by another 10%

2. 80 decreased by 10%, then increased by 20%

Even though there’s another question, I’ll not add it as it requires a

calculator.

3.4 – Understanding upper and lower bounds

Upper and lower bounds are worked out by rounding a number. For
example, when you have a rounded number, 40, you have to find the
possible numbers it could be.

Let’s draw a number line.

Step 1 = Draw a number line and put the rounded number in the middle.
Step 2 = Make 2 points on the left and right sides.
Step 3 = Determine the possible numbers it could be.

In this case, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, and 44.
Write the lowest number on the left – 35.
Write the greatest number on the right – 44.
This will be the number line:

The lower bound is the lowest number it could be – 35.

The upper bound is the greatest number it could be – 44.

No exercises for this one, as it’s super easy.

8.1 – Fractions and recurring decimals

Terminating decimals are decimals that come to an end.

Recurring decimals are decimals that is repeated forever.

Surely, you don’t need to make me explain how to work out fractions and
decimals? You just divide the numerator (the number at the top) with the
denominator (the number at the bottom). This will give you the decimal.

8.2 – Fractions and correct order of operations

The correct order of operations is:

BIDMAS
B – Brackets
I – Index
D – Division
M – Multiplication
A – Addition
S – Subtraction
According to the orders of operations, you have to work them out in order.
For example, in 11 + 9 * 12, you work out 9 * 12 first, before finally adding
with 11.

Using this, we need to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions in order.

When adding and subtracting, the denominators need to be the same.

Otherwise, try to make them the same by multiplying. For example – -
We can multiply with 2, making it .
We can now subtract - - =

The questions in the exam will be much harder, of course, but as long as you
know these things, you can do harder equations. (I refuse to believe you
don’t, you’re secondary 2 after all)

When working out mixed fractions, you will need to turn them into
improper questions first. For example - 5 =

Estimating
You can estimate answers by rounding up the numerators to the nearest
10/100.

8.3 – Multiplying fractions

When multiplying fractions, it’s advised to cancel out common factors, if
there’s any. For example – × 15
You can cancel out 3 and 15, which makes it 1 x 5 = 5
Estimating
You can estimate answers by making one fraction a whole number and ½,
and making the other fraction a whole number.
If you are confused, here’s the visual - 3 × 2
8.4 – Dividing fractions
When dividing fractions, the second fraction in the equation is to be flipped.
Or otherwise, reciprocated. Then turn the division sign to a multiplication
sign.
Here is a worked example. ÷ = ×
If you cancel and multiply this, the answer is 9.

Estimating
You have to make both fractions whole numbers. It’s as simple as that. Then
divide the numbers. The answer is the estimated answer.

8.5 – Making calculations easier

Now this topic is the hardest in Chapter 8. There’s no exact formula for this
one. It’s using your brain. So here are some tips:

1. If a decimal can be changed into a fraction, change it.

For example: ¼ + 2.75
2.75 can be changed into a fraction, which is 2 ¾.
¼+2¾=3

2. Change indexes into whole numbers like – 5² = 25

3. Change decimals to fractions (again.) In the first tip, I showed a
decimal that could be changed easily. However, if there’s a decimal
.
like 0.78 or 2.43, make the denominators either 10, or 100. ,
11.1 – Using Ratios
There’s… no way you need me to explain ratios...
Here are some exercises.

1. A class is making a project where they need to use red and blue
ribbons. The ratio of red ribbons to blue ribbons is 3:5. If there are
14 more blue ribbons, how many red ribbons do they have?
 2. A recipe for a fruit punch requires the ratio of orange juice to apple
juice to be 2:3.
(a) If there is 10g of apple juice more than orange juice, how much
orange and apple juice are needed for one fruit punch?
(b)If you want to make 25 cups of fruit punch in total, how many
grams of orange juice and apple juice do you need?

11.2 – Direct and Inverse Proportion

Direct proportions are when a value changes, another value changes
accordingly. For example, if you spend more time studying, you will learn
more and remember more. (In some cases, because some people are dumb
as fu-)

This means:

The time you study ∝ The things you learn/memorize

∝ is the symbol to proportions (this is not taught but just a fun fact)

Inverse proportions are when a value changes, another value changes

oppositely. For example, if 5 workers take 10 days to paint a house, it would take
10 workers 5 days. While one value increases, the other decreases.

This means:

The number of workers is inversely proportional to the days it takes.

1. A team of 5 workers can complete a construction project in 12 days. If

the number of workers is increased to 15, how many days will it take
to complete the same project, assuming all workers work at the same
rate?
2. A printer can print 120 pages in 10 minutes. How many pages can it
print in 25 minutes?

Answers!
 ICT
Generic File Types
1. What are generic files?
Ans: Generic files are files that can be opened on any platform using a
suitable software.
2. What are the 3 advantages of generic files?
Ans: 1. It can be used to transfer data between devices.
2. It can be opened on any devices.
3. It can be used in websites.
3. What are the disadvantages of generic files?
Ans: You may lose the formatting from original files.
You may also lose the quality over other file types.
4. What are the generic text files?
Ans: They are – comma separated values(.csv), text(.txt), and rich text
format(.rtf).
5. What are the long forms of .gif and .jpg?
Ans: .gif’s long form is called “Graphics Interchange Format”.
.jpg’s long form is called “Joint Photographic Expert Groups”.
6. What file type can have an image with a transparent background?
Ans: .png
7. What file type stores moving images?
Ans: .gif
8. What are the long forms of HTML and CSS?
Ans: HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language
CSS – Cascading Style Sheet
9. What are 3 ways to manage files efficiently?
Ans: Files should be saved with proper names.
Inside the folder, file name should not have duplicate names.
Files should be saved in a folder related to them for easier
reference when finding them back.
10. What are the benefits of having good folder and file structure?
Ans: Higher efficiency, reduced accidental data loss and
professionalism
 11. Define compression.
Ans: Compression is changing the format of the data type to reduce
the size of the files.
12. Why is compression important?
Ans: Files have to be stored on devices, and compression also helps
improve the transmission speed for downloading/uploading files.
13. What are 2 types of compression and define them.
Ans: Lossless compression is reducing the file size without
damaging/losing any information of the files.
Lossy compression is reducing the file size by deleting some of the data
in the file.

Extra information!  Sans-Serif is Arial. Serif is Times New Roman.

Places of the different functions of Word!

Header and Footer  Insert

Create new style Little arrow at the bottom right of Styles

Adding bullets HomeBullet Library

Space after/before an item  Home  Line spacing options (Besides Justify)

Inserting a picture Insert  PicturesThis device

Text wrap/Cropping/Changing width of picture  Picture Format (You
need to be selecting the picture)

Adding columns  Layout  Columns

Indent before a word  Layout  Indent

Border HomeBorder
Checking spelling/grammar mistakes  Review  Spelling and grammar
 ENGLISH
MONTHLY TEST FORMAT OF ENGLISH!!!!!
Section A: Literary Devices
Section B: Writing (News Report)
Section C: Reading Comprehension (Text B)

QUIZ!!!
1. Literary Devices
2. Writing (Diary Entry)
Types of Figures of Speech
1. Simile – Two things are compared to each other
- Introduced by words such as like, as, etc.
Examples – She’s as beautiful as the sunrise.
2. Metaphor – Informal
- Like a simile, but words such as “Like” or “as” are avoided
Examples – My father is a giant.
3. Personification – Non-living things, ideas, or qualities are mentioned
and written as humans or living things
Examples – The sky seemed to laugh at the man.
4. Alliteration – Series of words which starts with the same letter
Examples – Purple pandas painted portraits.
5. Onomatopoeia – Used to describe a sound
Examples – Boom! The car exploded into flames.
6. Hyperbole – Exaggerate what you mean or emphasize a point
Examples – You could look at her forehead and think it was the sky.
7. Pun – One word that has 2 meanings, used to create humor
Examples – What do we call our friend Aether? Aetherwordly.
8. Assonance – Repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close
together
Examples – Mike likes his new bike.
9. Anaphora – Several phrases or verses begin with the same word
Examples – I hate the way that you walk. I hate the way that you talk.
10. Euphemism – Mild, indirect way to replace harsh and offensive terms
Examples – Your haircut has a lot of character. (Referring to a bad haircut)
 11. Irony – Difference between what is said and what is meant
Examples – Oh great! I have to wait 4 more months to have these braces
removed.
12. Understatement – Make something appear less important
Examples – Oh. Just a scratch, don’t worry. (Referring to a huge scar)
13. Antithesis – Opposing ideas within a parallel grammatical structure
Examples – Hope for the best, prepare for the worst.
14. Paradox – Self-contradicting. The conclusion is completely
unexpected and is the opposite of the expectations.
Examples – The more you give, the more you get.
15. Oxymoron – Two words are used in the same phrase/sentence but
they’re completely different.
Examples – Oh, I’m so terribly excited!
16. Epigram – Portrays a thought in a funny, witty way.
Examples – There are no gains without pains.

NEWS REPORT STRUCTURE

- Headline
- Opening: Summary of facts (what, when, where) or Events (recent
past/result)
- Body: 1st paragraph: Earlier past (How it happened)
2nd paragraph: Later past (How it happened)
3rd paragraph: Quotation of eye witness “….”
Recent Past
- Closing: Present situation / Prediction
Diary Entry Structures
- 1st Person POV
- Date
- Opening: Time expression
- Body: Series of Actions and Events
-What had happened
-What is happening
(MUST ADD FEELINGS AND THOUGHTS)
- Closing: Hope
Future Plan
Things to add in writing!
1. Complex sentences
2. Parenthesis
3. Nouns in Apposition

COMPLEX SENTENCES
- Uses FANBOY (Connectives)
- Complex structure
- Usually long
F A N B O Y – For, And, Neither, But, Or, Yet

PARENTHESIS
- Extra information
- Usually uses – or commas to add information!
Structure:
- extra information –
- extra information.
, extra information,
 CHEMISTRY
1.1 – The particle theory of matter
The 3 states of matter are
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
All substances are made up of particles, and they’re so small that you cannot
see them.

Solids
- The particles are touching each other.
- The particles are in a regular pattern.
- They are strongly attracted to each other.
- They don’t move around, but vibrate on the spot.
Liquid
- The particles are touching each other.
- They are not in a regular pattern.
- They are strongly attracted to each other but not as much as in the
solid.
- They move around in and out of each other.
Gas
- The particles are not touching each other.
- They are not in a regular pattern.
- The attraction between the particles is weak.
- They move fast in all directions.
COMPRESSING SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES
- You can compress (squash) when a substance is in the gas state.
- You cannot compress if the substance is solid or liquid.
- The reason being the particles are already close together and cannot
get closer.
SOME NOTES:
Particles cannot get bigger or smaller, they just move faster and move
slightly further apart!

When a substance is heated, they move further apart but when a substance
is cooled, the particles get closer.

1.2 – Boiling, evaporating, and condensing

When changing states, the particles don’t change shape or size! All that
changes is their speed and the attraction between them.

Evaporation and Boiling

This is when a liquid  Gas
When a liquid is heated, the particles get further apart and gets more energy
until they turn into gas!
In evaporation –
- Particles leave the surface of a liquid
- Spread out to form a gas
- Happens at any temperature
In boiling –
- Happens throughout the whole liquid
- Bubbles of water form throughout the liquid
- Can only happen if hot enough
USING BOILING POINT
- We can use boiling points to find out an unknown substance!
- We can do this by heating a substance and recording its boiling
point. The boiling point tells us what substance it is.
Condensation
- Condensation is when Gas  Liquid!
- This is the opposite of Evaporation and Boiling!
- This happens when a gas is cooled to the point the particles get
closer and become a liquid!
1.3 – Questions, evidence, and explanations
No particular thing to memorize except this –

While doing experiments, using a table is good. This will make it easier to
spot patterns.

1.4 – Melting, freezing, and subliming

Melting
- Melting is from Solid  Liquid
- Particles in a solid move out of their regular pattern.
- They start to move around in and out of each other.
- The temperature at which they melt is their melting point.
USING MELTING POINT
- You can use a melting point to find out if a substance is pure.
- This can be done by melting a substance countless time.
 - If the melting point is the same every time, it is pure.
- If it melts at different temperatures, it is not pure.
Freezing
- Freezing is from Liquid  Solid
- Particles in a liquid stop moving and arranges themselves in a
regular pattern, and vibrate on the spot.
- The temperature at which they freeze is their freezing point.
- The freezing point is the same as its melting point!!!!
Sublimation
- Sometimes a solid turns into gas without melting.
- This is called sublimation.
- Examples of this is dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) and solid grey
iodine.
1.5 – Energy and changes of state
- When a substance is in its solid of liquid state, strong forces hold
the particles together. The forces between particles are much
weaker when a substance is in its gas state.
Energy for boiling and evaporation
- Evaporation happens when faster-moving particles have enough
energy to overcome the forces that hold the them together.
- They then escape from the surface of the liquid.

- Boiling happens when particles in the liquid move quick enough

to overcome the forces that hold them.
- They need energy from heating to move quickly enough.
- This is why boiling only happens when it’s hot enough.

Explaining Boiling Points

Please study these! This is really important for the exam.
- The boiling point depends on the strength of the forces between
particles.
- The stronger the forces, the more energy is needed to separate the
particles, and the higher the boiling point.
Explaining melting
Please study these! This is really important for the exam.
- The melting point of a substance depends on the strength of the
forces that hold them.
- The stronger these forces, the more energy is needed to make the
solid melt, and the higher the melting point.
Explaining freezing
- When a substance is freezing, the particles transfer energy to the
surroundings.
- They stop moving around from place to place and arrange
themselves in a pattern.
1.6 – Using Particle Theories to explain Dissolving
A solute is a substance that melts/dissolves into a liquid. The liquid is called
the solvent.
Here are some definitions to study!

Dissolve: When a substance (the solute) mixes with a liquid (the solvent) to
make a solution.
Soluble: A substance is soluble in a solvent if it can dissolve in that solvent
Solute: A substance which dissolves in a solvent to make a solution.
Solution: A mixture of solvent and Solute, in which the solute has dissolved.
Solubility: The maximum mass of solute that can dissolve in 100g of solvent.
Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can dissolve.
Scientific journal: A collection of papers, written by scientists, which
describe their work and which have been carefully checked by other
scientists.
Secondary source: A source such as a book or the Internet which provides
evidence or date that you have not collected yourself.

There’s a lot, but if you understand dissolving, it’s easier to remember. So let
me explain.

When a substance dissolves, it mixes with a solvent. The particles of both

substances are randomly arranged in the container.
Here are some things to study!

To check that a solute is still in the solution:

1. Find the mass of the water and the container.
2. Find the mass of the solute.
3. Dissolve the solute in the water.
4. Find the mass of the solution.
 The mass of the solution should be the total mass of water, solute,
and the container.

How to find the solubility of a substance:

1. Add 1g of a substance into 100g of water and mix until dissolved.
2. Repeat until the substance will not dissolve.
3. Repeat the experiment to check the results.
1.7 – Planning an investigation
Please study this definition:
A variable is a quantity of characteristic that can change.

- When planning an investigation, you must know which variables

should be changed, measured, and controlled, depending on the
question.
- The variable to be changed is the variable that changes the variable
we must measure.
- The variable to be controlled is the variable we must make sure is
the same so that the test will be fair.
Apparatus
Here are some apparatuses to study:

TO MEASURE VOLUME OF WATER: Measuring Cylinder

Beaker
TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE: Laboratory Thermometer
Clinical Thermometer
TO MEASURE MASS: Balance with Balance weights
Electric Balance
TO STIR MIXTURES: Stirring rod
TO HEAT WATER/SUBSTANCES: Bunsen burner

- When doing an experiment, a measuring cylinder is used more, as

it measures smaller differences in volume
- Laboratory thermometer has a wider range of temperatures then a
clinical thermometer.
- An electric balance measures smaller differences in mass but using
a balance with weights is advised if you don’t have electricity.
1.8 – Presenting Evidence
This chapter is about drawing tables and graphs.
There are two types of graphs:
- Bar chart
- Line graph

When drawing tables,

- The variable you change must be in the left column.
- The variable you observer/measure must be in the right column.
- You must include the units (m, cm, °C) in the heading.

When choosing if you should draw a bar chart or line graph:

- A bar chart is drawn when the variables are discrete. A discrete
variable is a variable whose values are words or only certain
numerical values.
- A line graph is drawn when the variables are continuous. A
continuous variable can have any value.
When drawing a line graph, you must:
- Put the x-axis as the variable you change.
- Put the y-axis as the variable you observe.
- Write values on the lines.
- And then draw a line best fit.

How do you choose scales?

- Find the difference between the biggest y-value and smallest y-
value.
- Divide the number by number of squares on the y-axis. (Table)
- Round up your answer.

5.1 – The states of matter revisited

This is… literally the same thing as 1.1 but here are some extra stuffs:

- Gases can flow.

- Gas doesn’t have a fixed shape or volume.
- They take the shape of their container.

- Liquids can flow.

- Liquids has a fixed volume but no fixed shape.
- They can slightly be compressed.

- Solids cannot flow.

- They have a fixed shape and volume.
5.2 – Explaining diffusion
- Random movement and mixing of particles are called diffusion.
Particles move because they have energy.
- The speed of diffusion depends on:
 Temperature
 Size and mass of the particles
 The states of the substances that are diffusing
- Big and heavy particles diffuse more slowly than smaller, lighter
particles.
 - Diffusion happens quickly in a gas. This is because a particle can travel
a long distance before it hits another particle.
- Diffusion happens more slowly in liquids. This is because particles are
closer in liquids.

5.3 – Explaining density

Density equation!

The density of a substance depends on 2 things:

- The mass of its particles
- How closely packed its particles are
Closeness of particles
- Particles of a substance in the liquid state are more closely packed than
the gas state!
- This is why liquid has a greater density than gas.
Did you know?
At 0°C, the particles in ice are packed less closely than the particles in liquid
water! This is why ice has a lower density than liquid water.

5.4 – Explaining gas pressure

The force pet unit area is called pressure.
An example of gas pressure is when air particles enter a balloon.
- The particles move fast in all directions.
- They collide with the rubber, and it pushes the surface outwards.
This is the reason why we can blow balloons!

The higher the temperature, the greater the gas pressure.

- Warmth gives particles more energy.
- This allows particles to move faster.
- They hit each other and also the sides of the container more often.
- This increases the gas pressure.
The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure.
- At the top of a mountain, air particles are further apart and are cooler.
- There is less air pressing down on you than at sea level.
- This is why the air pressure is very low and is hard to breath in the
mountains.
This is why boiling point changes with altitude.
- The lower the air pressure, the lower the temperature at which the
vapor pressure is equal to the air pressure.