Transducers

The transducer may be defined as any device that converts energy from one form to another, Most
transducers either convert electrical energy into mechanical displacement or convert some non-
electrical physical quantities like temperature, Light, Pressure, Force, Sound, etc to an electrical signal. In
an electronic instrument system, the function of transducers is of two types.

1. To detect or sense the pressure, magnitude, and change in physical quantity being measured.
2. To produce a proportional electrical signal.

Classification of Transducers

The Classification of Transducers is done in many ways. Some of the criteria for the classification are
based on their area of application, Method of energy conversion, Nature of the output signal, According
to Electrical principles involved, Electrical parameter used, the principle of operation, & Typical
applications.

The transducers can be classified broadly

A. based on the transduction form used

B. Primary and secondary transducers
C. Active and passive transducers
D. Transducers and inverse transducers

Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Transducers, based on methods of applications, may be classified into primary and secondary
transducers. When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is
converted into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.

For example, consider a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature that falls in this category.
The thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes a change in resistance with the temperature
change.

When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some form
other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.

The transducer which converts the output of first transducer into an electrical output called secondary
transducer.

For example, in the case of pressure measurement, the bourdon tube is a primary sensor that converts
pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an
LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary transducer.

What is an LVDT? LVDT is an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a common type
of electromechanical transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is
coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal.

Active and Passive Transducers

Transducers, based on methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and passive
transducers.

Self-generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their output in the form of
electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the active transducers. Such
transducers draw energy from the system under measurement. Normally such transducers give very
small output and, therefore, the use of an amplifier becomes essential.

Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance, or capacitance change with the
change in the input signal, are called passive transducers. These transducers require an external power
source for energy conversion. In such transducers electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance, or
capacitance cause a change in voltage current or frequency of the external power source. These
transducers may draw sour energy from the system under measurement. Resistive, inductive, and
capacitive transducers fall in this category of measurement. Resistive, inductive, and capacitive
transducers fall in this category.

Transducers and Inverse Transducers

Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity.

Normally a transducer and associated circuit have a non-electrical input and an electrical output, for
example a thermocouple, photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc.

An inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a
precision actuator having an electrical input and a low-power non-electrical output. For examples, a
piezoelectric crystal and transrational and angular moving-coil elements can be employed as inverse
transducers.

Many data-indicating and recording devices are inverse transducers. An analogue ammeter or voltmeter
converts electric current into mechanical movement and the characteristics of such an instrument placed
at the output of a measuring system are important. A most useful application of inverse transducers is in
feedback measuring systems.

On The Basis Of Transduction Form Used

A. Capacitance transducers

A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by a
nonconductor (dielectric). When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric charge.

The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads. The principle of operation of capacitive
transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in Fig.17.1.
The capacitance is measured with a bridge circuits. The output impedance Z of a capacitive transducer is:

The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the capacitor. This change
in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area of the plates, change in the distance d
between the plates and change in dielectric constant e.

Capacitive transducers are nothing but the capacitors with the variable capacitance. These are mainly
used for the measurement of displacement, pressure etc. It is a Passive type of Transducer.

In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement, force
or pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates
changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels. Therefore, the capacitive transducers are
commonly used for measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in
Fig. 17.2 and 17.3.

 Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

 Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
  Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Other capacitive transducers:

1. Variable capacitance pressure gauge -

Principle of operation: Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally applied force. has
a capacitive plate (diaphragm) and another capacitive plate (electrode) fixed to an unpressurized surface
with a gap of a certain distance between the diaphragm and the electrode.

Applications: Measurement of Displacement, pressure.

2. Capacitor microphone

Principle of operation: Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate and a movable
diaphragm.

Applications: Speech, music, noise.

3. Dielectric gauge

Principle of operation: Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric. Applications: Liquid level,
thickness.

B. Inductance transducers

Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductors generate an
opposing voltage proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit.

Inductance is caused by the magnetic field generated by electric currents. It is typified by the behavior of
a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric current through the coil.

Arising from Faraday’s law, the inductance L may be defined in terms of the emf generated to oppose a
given change in current. The quantitative definition of the self-inductance L of an electrical circuit in SI
units (Webbers per ampere, known as Henries) is:
v = voltage in volts

i = current in amperes.

This property can be of two types,

 the self inductance and

 the mutual inductance.

Self-inductance, or simply inductance, is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current causes a
change in voltage in the same circuit.

When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance.

The self-inductance, L, of a circuit component determines the magnitude of the electromagnetic force
(emf) induced in it as a result of a given rate of change of the current through the component.

Similarly, the mutual inductance, M, of two components, one in each of two separate but closely located
circuits, determines the emf that each may induce in the other for a given current change. The
phenomenon of mutual induction is used as the mechanism by which the transformer work.

The schematic symbol of inductance and the air-coiled solenoid producing self-inductance is shown in
Fig. 18.1.

Solenoid is a long straight coil of wire and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet. The magnetic field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron
core. Such cores are typical in electromagnets. Solenoids have enormous number of practical
applications.

The emf induced in a coil can be given by the following expression.

The mutual inductance, M, is a measure of the coupling between two inductors. The mutual inductance
due the voltage induced in coil 2 due to the current in coil 1 has the following relationship:

The circuit diagram representation of mutually coupled inductors is shown in Fig. 18.2 below. The two
vertical lines between the inductors indicate a solid core that the wires of the inductor are wrapped
around. "n:m" shows the ratio between the number of windings of the left inductor to windings of the
right inductor.

The inductive transducers work on the principle of the electromagnetic induction. Just as the resistance
of the electric conductor depends on number of factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends
on a number of variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic
material, and the permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are
used in the flux path and there are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change
in the inductance of the circuit and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the working of the
instrument.
There are two common type inductive transducers:

 simple inductance type and

 two-coil mutual inductance type.

Simple inductance type inductive transducers

In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is used as the transducer.
When the mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is moved, it changes the
permeance of the flux path generated by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and the
corresponding output.

The output from the circuit is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly gives the
valve of the parameter to be measured.

Fig. 18.3 shows the single coil inductive circuit.

Here the magnetic material is connected to the electric circuit and it is excited by the alternating current.
At the bottom there is another magnetic material that acts as the armature. As the armature is moved,
the air gap between the two magnetic material changes and the permeance of the flux generated by the
circuit changes that changes the inductance of the circuit and its output. The output meter directly gives
the value of the input mechanical quantity. This type of transducer can be used in a filpack machine to
count the number of packets filled with milk.

In the Fig. 18.4, coil is wound around the round hollow magnetic material and there is magnetic core
that moves inside hollow magnetic material. In the above circuits the change in the air gap or the change
in the amount of the magnetic material in the circuit can be used to produce the output proportional to
the input. In the above arrangements the supply of the current and the output is obtained from the
same coil or circuit.

Two-coil mutual inductance type inductive transducer

In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the first coil the excitation is generated by
external source of the power and in the second coil the output is obtained. The output is proportional to
the mechanical input.

As shown in the figure 18.5 below, A is the excitation coil and B is the output coil.

The inductance of the output coil changes due to change in position of the armature which is connected
to the mechanical element whose motion is to be measured. As the armature position changes, the air
gap between the fixed magnetic material and the armature changes.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive transducer to
translate linear motion into electrical signal.

Construction

A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings. The windings are
arranged concentrically and next to each other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is usually of
a non-magnetic and insulating material.

A ferro-magnetic core (armature) in the shape of a rod of cylinder is attached to the transducers sensing
shaft. The core slides freely within the hollow portion of the bobbin.

In the simplex winding configuration, the linear variable displacement transformer LVDT is shown in
Fig.18.6. There is one primary and two secondary windings. The secondaries are connected so their
outputs are opposite. If an AC excitation is applied across the primary winding then voltages are induced
in the secondaries.

A movable core varies the coupling between it and the two secondary windings. When the core is in the
centre position, the coupling to the secondary coils is equal. As the core moves away from the centre
position, the coupling to one secondary becomes more and hence its output voltage increases, while the
coupling and the output voltage of the other secondary decreases.

Other inductive transducer:

1. Magnetic circuit transducer

Principle of operation: Self-inductance or mutual inductance of the ac-excited coil is varied by changes in
the magnetic circuit.

Applications: Pressure, displacement

2. Reluctance pickup

Principle of operation: Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing the position of the iron
core of a coil.

Applications: Pressure, displacement, vibration, position

3. Differential transformer

Principle of operation: The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a transformer are varied by
positioning the magnetic core through an externally applied force.

Applications: Pressure, force, displacement, position

4. Eddy's current gage

Principle of operation: Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy current plate.

Applications: Displacement, thickness

5. Magnetostriction gage

Principle of operation: Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress.

Applications: Force, pressure, sound.

 C. Resistive Transducers

The resistive transducers or resistive sensors are also called as variable resistance transducers. The
variable resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used types of transducers. They can be
used for measuring various physical quantities, such as, temperature, pressure, displacement, force,
vibrations etc.

These transducers are usually used as the secondary transducers, where the output from the primary
mechanical transducer acts as the input for the variable resistance transducer.

The output obtained from it is calibrated against the input quantity and it directly gives the value of the
input.

The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the
conductor.

Thus, if L is the length of the conductor (m) and A is its area (m2) as shown in Fig.16.1, then its resistance
R (ohms) is given by:

Where ρ is called as resistivity of the material measured in ohm and it is constant for the given material.

Some of the popular variable resistance transducers that are being used for various applications are as
below:

A. Sliding contact devices

In the sliding contact type of variable resistance transducers, there is a long conductor whose effective
length is variable. One end of the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is decided by
the slider (sweep) or the brush that can move along the whole length of the conductor. The slider is
connected to the body whose displacement is to be measured.

When the body moves the slider also moves along the conductor so its effective length changes, due to
which it resistance also changes. The effective resistance is measured as the resistance between the
fixed position of the conductor and the position of the sliding contact as shown in Fig. 16.2.

The value of the resistance is calibrated against the input quantity, whose value can be measured
directly. One of most popular sliding contact type of variable resistance transducer is the potentiometer.
These devices can be used to measured translational as well as angular displacement and are shown in
Fig 16.2 and 16.3.
Wire resistance strain gauge

The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its electric resistance, when mechanically strained. When
an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or
permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance
end-to-end.

Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten in
size, the changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end.

A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip, as shown in Fig. 16.3 (a), made in a zigzag
pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the direction of the orientation of the
parallel lines results in a multiplicatively larger strain over the effective length of the conductor Fig. 16.3
(b). The change in resistance of a strain gauge can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
Working principle of strain gauge

A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain. It is expressed quantitatively as
the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to
the fractional change in length (strain). The gage factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety
of applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. They
operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a
defined way. Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 210 mm2 in size. With careful installation,
the correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured.

The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the fundamental sensing element for many types
of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc.
Define bonded, and unbonded strain gauges? Differentiate their construction.

Thermistor

Thermistor works on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with the change in their
temperature. When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be
measured easily and calibrated against the input quantity. Thermistor has high negative temperature
correlation. The commonly used thermistors are made up of the ceramic like semiconducting materials
such as oxides of manganese, nickel and cobalt. Thermistor can be used for the measurement of
temperature, as electric power sensing devices and also as the controls for various processes.

In explanation of thermistor working principle; the concepts of NTC, and PTC

Since we’ve talked about NTC and RTC resistors earlier, let’s look at their relationship using a graph to
represent:

As you can tell from the graph, they have opposing curves which show their temperature coefficient. For
NTC, the resistance decreases when the temperature increases. For PTC, the resistance increases when
the temperature increases.

Their respective symbols can also be represented this way:

Both negative temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors’
values change as a result of temperature but impact their use differently.

For NTC thermistors, as temperature increases, the resistance drops from high to low and allows current
to pass through. In a circuit, they can limit in-rush current by self-heating when current is initially
applied, and then allow normal current flow since their resistance drops to a negligible amount during
steady-state operation. This capability makes NTC thermistors the most commonly used thermistor. They
are also the type most commonly used for temperature sensing applications.

In contrast, for PTC thermistors, as temperature rises, the resistance increases from low to high and
blocks the overcurrent. As a result, PTC thermistors are generally used as a fuse.

Both NTC and PTC thermistors are highly nonlinear, so even thought they can measure quite accurately
and repeatably, additional circuitry is required to linearize the output. Another design consideration is
the maximum temperature NTC thermistors can measure is less than 130°C.
The relationship between resistance, and temperature from these NTC and PTC can thus be described
by the diagram.

For temperature sensing, the sensor’s package dictates its more common applications. For example, due
to their high stability and ruggedness, glass probe thermistors are used for:

 Fluid level measurement

 Fluid flow measurements
 Temperature measurements
 Temperature compensation
 Thermal conductivity measurement

In contrast, glass bead thermistors with small size and fast-thermal response time are very sensitive to
both voltage and current changes. With these characteristics, typical applications include:

 Thermodilution cardiac catheters

 Biomedical assemblies
 Fluid flow
 Fluid level measurement
 Gas analysis
 Small surface is temperature measurements

Resistance temperature detector

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), commonly referred to generally as resistance thermometers, is a

temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.

RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature.

As the temperature of a metal increases, its resistance to the flow of electricity increases. An electrical
current is transmitted through a piece of metal, that is, the RTD element or resistor located in proximity
to the area where temperature is to be measured.

The resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is then
correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance temperature characteristics of the RTD
element.

Voltage and current transducers

1. Hall effect pickup

Principle of operation: A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate (germanium)

when magnetic flux interacts with an applied current.

Applications: Magnetic flux, Current

2. Ionization chamber

Principle of operation: Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to radioactive radiation.

Applications: Particle counting, radiation in Geiger tubes.

3. Photo emissive cell

Principle of operation: Electron emission due to incident radiation on photo emissive surface.

Applications: Light and radiation

4. Photomultiplier tube

Principle of operation: Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on photosensitive cathode.

Applications: Light and radiation, photo-sensitive relays.

In addition to the above,

Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and digital
transducers. Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of
time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.

Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives discrete
output. These transducers are becoming more and more popular now-a-days because of advantages
associated with digital measuring instruments and also due to the effect that digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and phase
shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-digital convertor) is called a
digital transducer.

Basic Requirements of a Transducer

In a measurement system the transducer is the input element with the critical function of transforming
some physical quantity to a proportional electrical signal. The following is the summary of the factors
influencing the choice of a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity:

I. Operating principle
II. Sensitivity
III. Operating Range
IV. Accuracy
V. Cross Sensitivity

Situations where the actual quantity is measured in one plane and the transducer is subjected lo
variations in another plane. More than one promising transducer design has had to be abandoned
because the sensitivity to variations of the measured quantity in a plane perpendicular to the required
plane has been such as to give completely erroneous results when the transducer has been used in
practice.

Errors

The transducer should maintain the expected input-out relationship as described by its transfer function
so as to avoid errors.

Transient and Frequency Response

The transducer should meet desired time domain specifications like peak overshoot, rise time, settling
time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a flat frequency response curve. In practice,
however, there will be cutoff frequencies and higher cut off frequency should he high in order to have a
wide bandwidth.

Loading Effects

The transducer should have high input impedance and a low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
Loading refers to the phenomenon that occurs when a load circuit having a low effective impedance is
connected to a supply circuit having a higher effective impedance. this happens because the net parallel
resistance is lower than any individual resistors making up the parallel combination.

Environmental Compatibility

It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified environmental conditions
maintains its input/ output relationship and does not break down. For example, the transducer should
remain operable under its temperature range. It should be able to work in corrosive environments,
should be able to withstand pressures and shocks and other interactions to which it is subjected to.

E.g., a transducer used to measure temperatures of a boiler need to have capability of withstanding high
temperatures.

Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals

The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.

Usage and Ruggedness

The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer versus its size and weight
must be considered while selecting a suitable transducer.

Electrical aspects

The Electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer include the length and type
of cable required. Attention also must be paid to signal-to-noise ratio in case the transducer is to be
used in conjunction with amplifiers.

Stability and Reliability

The transducers should exhibit a high degree of stability during their operation and storage life.
Reliability should be assured in case of failure of the transducer so for the functioning of the
instrumentation system to continue unaffected.

Static Characteristics

Apart from low static error, the transducers should have a low nonlinearity, low hysteresis, high
resolution and a high degree of repeatability. The transducer selected should be free from load
alignment effects. It should not need frequent calibration, should not have any component limitations,
and should be preferably small in size.

Resistive Transducer

The variable resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used types of transducers. The
variable resistance transducers are also called as resistive transducers or resistive sensors.

They can be used for measuring various physical quantities like temperature, pressure, displacement,
force, vibrations etc. These transducers are usually used as the secondary transducers, where the output
from the primary mechanical transducer acts as the input for the variable resistance transducer.

The output obtained from it is calibrated against the input quantity and it directly gives the value of the
input.

Principle of Working of Variable Resistance Transducer

The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the
conductor. Thus if L is the length of the conductor (in m) and A is its area (in m square), its resistance (in
ohms) is given by:
Where ρ is called as resistivity of the material and it is constant for the materials and is measured in
ohm-m.

Strain Gauges

Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application of force or strain. They can be
used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure, displacement, acceleration etc.

It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that can be felt easily by
some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like force, stress and strain that
cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges
are very useful.

There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when they are
stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily.

For applying the strain you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can be calibrated to
measure the applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance changes due to applied strain or applied
force are called as the strain gauges.

Principle of Working of Strain Gauges

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the strain. The more is the applied
force, more is the strain and more is the increase in length of the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the
wire and L2 is the final length after application of the force, the strain is given as:

Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its diameter decreases. Now, we know that
resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the length of the conductor increases
its resistance decreases.

This change in resistance of the conductor can be measured easily and calibrated against the applied
force. Thus strain gauges can be used to measure force and related parameters like displacement and
stress. The input and output relationship of the strain gauges can be expressed by the term gauge factor
or gauge gradient, which is defined as the change in resistance R for the given value of applied strain ε.

Consider a wire strain gage, as illustrated above. The wire is composed of a uniform conductor of electric
resistivity r with length l and cross-section area A. Its resistance R is a function of the geometry given by

The resistance change rate is a combination effect of changes in length, cross-section area, and
resistivity.
When the strain gage is attached and bonded well to the surface of an object, the two are considered to
deform together. The strain of the strain gage wire along the longitudinal direction is the same as the
strain on the surface in the same direction.

However, its cross-sectional area will also change due to the Poisson's ratio. Suppose that the wire is
cylindrical with initial radius r. The normal strain along the radial direction is

The change rate of cross-section area is twice as the radial strain, when the strain is small.

The resistance change rate becomes

For a given material, the sensitivity of resistance versus strain can be calibrated by the following
equation.
When the sensitivity factor S is given, (usually provided by strain gage vendors) the average strain at the
point of attachment of the strain gage can be obtained by measuring the change in electric resistance of
the strain gage.

Materials Used for the Strain Gauges

Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now being replaced by the metal foil
types of gauges. The metals can be easily cut into the zigzag foils for the formation of the strain gauges.
One of the most popular materials used for the strain gauges is the copper-nickel-manganese alloy. Some
semiconductor materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.

Types of Strain Gauges based on principle of working

1. Mechanical: It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has a ruled scale on it and
the top layer has a red arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack and one layer to the
other. As the crack opens, the layers slide very slowly past one another and the pointer moves over the
scale. The red crosshairs move on the scale as the crack widens. Some mechanical strain gauges are even
cruder than this. The piece of plastic or glass is sticked across a crack and observed its nature.

2. Electrical: The most common electrical strain gauges are thin, rectangular shaped strips of foil with
maze-like wiring patterns on them leading to a couple of electrical cables. When the material is strained,
the foil strip is very slightly bent out of shape and the maze-like wires are either pulled apart (so their
wires are stretched slightly thinner) or pushed together (so the wires are pushed together and become
slightly thicker). Changing the width of a metal wire changes its electrical resistance. This change in
resistance is proportional to the stress applied. If the forces involved are small, the deformation is elastic
and the strain gauge eventually returns to its original shape.

3. Piezoelectric: Some materials such as quartz crystals and various types of ceramics are effectively
"natural" strain gauges. When pushed and pulled, they generate tiny electrical voltages between their
opposite faces. This phenomenon is called piezoelectricity. By measuring the voltage from a
piezoelectric sensor we can easily calculate the strain. Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most sensitive
and reliable devices.

Electrical Strain Gauge: A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical
conductance. It does not depend on merely the electrical conductivity of a conductor, but also the
conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such
that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer. Similarly, when it is
compressed, it will broaden and shorten. The change in the resistance is due to variation in the length
and cross sectional area of gauge wire.
Gauge Factor:

The characteristics of the strain gauges are described in terms of its

sensitivity (gauge factor).

Gauge factor is defined as unit change in resistance for per unit change in length of strain gauge wire
given as;

Where;

ΔR - the change in resistance caused by strain,

RG - is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and

ε – Strain.

Types of strain gauge based on construction

Optical sensors are sensitive and accurate, but are delicate and not very popular in industrial
applications. They use interference fringes produced by optical flats to measure strain. Optical sensors
operate best under laboratory conditions.

The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an
electrical current that is proportional to strain. The gage length of these devices can be as short as 1/16
inch, but they are costly and delicate.

Semiconductor strain gauges: For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain gauges, so called
piezo-resistors, are often preferred over foil gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the piezo-
resistive effects of silicon or germanium and measure the change in resistance with stress as opposed to
strain.

Thin-film strain gauge: These gauges eliminate the need for adhesive bonding. The gauge is produced by
first depositing an electrical insulation (typically a ceramic) onto the stressed metal surface, and then
depositing the strain gauge onto this insulation layer. Vacuum deposition or sputtering techniques are
used to bond the materials molecularly. Because the thin-film gauge is molecularly bonded to the
specimen, the installation is much more stable and the resistance values experience less drift. Another
advantage is that the stressed force detector can be a metallic diaphragm or beam with a deposited layer
of ceramic insulation.

Diffused semiconductor strain gauges: This is a further improvement in strain gage technology as they
eliminate the need for bonding agents. By eliminating bonding agents, errors due to creep and hysteresis
also are eliminated.

The diffused semiconductor strain gage uses photolithography masking techniques and solid-state
diffusion of boron to molecularly bond the resistance elements. Electrical leads are directly attached to
the pattern. The diffused gauge is limited to moderate-temperature applications and requires
temperature compensation. Diffused semiconductors often are used as sensing elements in pressure
transducers. They are small, inexpensive, accurate and repeatable, provide a wide pressure range, and
generate a strong output signal. Their limitations include sensitivity to ambient temperature variations,
which can be compensated for in intelligent transmitter designs.

Types of strain gauge based on mounting

Bonded strain gauge

A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.

Unbonded Strain Gauge

The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium such
as air. One end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached to a movable element.

Applications of the Strain Gauges

The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:

1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high loads, they come under strain,
which can be measured easily with the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to carry out stress
analysis of the member.

2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in resistance due to applied force can also
be calibrated to measure a number of other quantities like force, pressure, displacement, acceleration
etc since all these parameters are related to each other. The strain gauges can sense the displacements
as small as 5 µm. They are usually connected to the mechanical transducers like bellows for measuring
pressure and displacement and other quantities.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

The variable inductance transducers work generally upon of the following three

principals

 Change of self-inductance
 Change of mutual inductance
 Production of eddy current

Linear Variable Differential Transformer – LVDT Transducer

Construction of the LVDT

The differential transformer transducer measures force in terms of the displacement of the
ferromagnetic core of a transformer.

The basic construction of the LVDT is given in Fig, 9. The transformer consists of a single primary winding
and two secondary windings which are placed on either side of the primary.

The secondaries have an equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the
emfs induced in the coils OPPOSE each other. The position of the movable core determines the flux
linkage between the ac-excited primary winding and each of the two secondary winding.

Relative positions of the core generate the indicated output voltages as shown in Fig. The linear
characteristics impose limited core movements, which are typically up to 5 mm from the null position.
With the core in the center, (or reference position or Fig.), the induced emfs in the secondaries are
equal, and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be 0 V. When an externally applied
force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux links the left-hand coil than the right-
hand coil and the Differential Output E0 = ES1 – ES2 Is in-phase with Ei as ES1 > ES2 . The induced emf of
the left hand coil is therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand coil. The magnitude of the
output voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages, and it is in phase
with the voltage of the left-hand coil. Similarly, when the core is forced to move to the right, more flux
links the righthand coil than the left-hand coil and the resultant output voltage is now in phase with the
emf of the right-hand coil, while its magnitude again equals the difference between the two induced
emfs. Ideally the output voltage at the null position should be equal to zero. In actual practice there
exists a small voltage at the null position.

This may be on account of presence of harmonics in the input supply voltage and also due to harmonics
produced in the output voltage due to use of iron Displacement core. There may be either an
incomplete magnetic or electrical unbalance or both which result in a finite output voltage at the null
position. This finite residual voltage is generally less than 1% of the maximum output voltage in the
linear range. Other causes of residual voltage are stray magnetic fields and temperature effects.

Advantages of LVDT

 High Range: the LVDTs has a very high range for measurement of displacement This can be used
for measurement of displacement ranging from 1.25 mm to 2.50 mm
 Friction and Electrical Isolation
 Immunity from External Effects
 High input and high sensitivity
 Ruggedness: The transducer can usually tolerate high degree of shock and vibration
 Low Hysteresis
 Low Power consumption

Disadvantage of LVDT

 Relatively large displacement are required for appreciable differential output.

 They are sensitivity to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible.
 Many times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
 The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signal
 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by
frequency of applied voltage.
 The frequency of the carrier of the carrier should be at least ten times the highest frequency
component to be measured.
 Temperature affects the performance.

Applications of LVDT

Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as a device to measure force, weight and pressure etc.
The force measurement can be done by using a load cell as the primary transducer while fluid pressure
can be measured by using Bourdon tube which acts as primary transducer.

The force or the pressure is converted into a voltage. In these applications the high sensitivity of LVDTs is
a major attraction.
 Capacitive Transducer

The capacitive transducer is used extensively for the measurement of displacement, pressure etc. Let us
see the principle of working of capacitive transducer or sensor also called as variable capacitance
transducer.

The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor with variable capacitance. The
capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the material such as
air, which is called as the dielectric material. In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates
is fixed, but in variable capacitance transducers the distance between the two plates is variable.

In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to change in
the value of the input quantity that is to be measured. This change in capacitance can be measured
easily and it is calibrated against the input quantity, thus the value if the input quantity can be measured
directly.

Wheatstone Brighe utility in transduction

The Wheatstone Bridge diamond-shaped circuit whose concept was developed by Charles Wheatstone
can be used to accurately measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating measuring
instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of variable resistance and a simple mathematical
formula.

Today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge can
be used to compare an unknown resistance to that of a known resistance to determine its value allowing
very low values of resistances down in the milli-Ohms (mΩ) range to be measured.

The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in several applications and today, with
modern operational amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface various
transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.

The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel arrangements of
resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference
between the two parallel branches when balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals
and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a familiar diamond-like arrangement
as shown. This is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

A simple circuit used to measure small changes in resistance of a transducer.

 Classic configuration consists of four resistors.

 Three fixed value and one variable value.
 Variable resistor is the sensing element (transducer) (See R4 in diagram below).
 Resistance of the variable resistor changes due to a change in an environmental factor such as
stress, pressure, or temperature.
If the value of R1 =R2 =R3 = R4, then the Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced. The Wheatstone
Bridge.

There are three concepts discussed here which are needed to understand Wheatstone bridges:

 Resistor voltage dividers

 Ohm’s Law (I=V/R)
 Kirchoff’s Circuit Laws

Bridge Networks or Circuits are one of the most popular and popular electrical tools, often used in
measurement circuits, transducer circuits, switching circuits and also in oscillators.

The Wheatstone Bridge is one of the most common and simplest bridge network / circuit, which can be
used to measure resistance very precisely. But often the Wheatstone Bridge is used with Transducers to
measure physical quantities like Temperature, Pressure, Strain etc.

Wheatstone Bridge is used in applications where small changes in resistance are to be measured in
sensors. This is used to convert a change in resistance to a change in voltage of a transducer. The
combination of this bridge with operational amplifier is used extensively in industries for various
transducers and sensors.

For example, the resistance of a Thermistor changes when it is subjected to change in temperature.
Likewise, a strain gauge, when subjected to pressure, force or displacement, its resistance changes.
Depending on the type of application, the Wheatstone Bridge can be operated either in a Balanced
condition or an Unbalanced condition.

A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors (R1, R2, R3 and R4) that are connected in the shape of a
diamond with the DC supply source connected across the top and bottom points (C and D in the circuit)
of the diamond and the output is taken across the other two ends (A and B in the circuit).
This bridge is used to find the unknown resistance very precisely by comparing it with a known value of
resistances.

In this bridge, a Null or Balanced condition is used to find the unknown resistance. For this bridge to be
in a Balanced Condition, the output voltage at points A and B must be equal to 0. From the above circuit:

The Bridge is in Balanced Condition if:

VOUT = 0 V

To simplify the analysis of the above circuit, let us redraw it as follows:

Now, for Balanced Condition, the voltage across the resistors R1 and R2 is equal. If V1 is the voltage
across R1 and V2 is the voltage across R2, then:

V1 = V2

Similarly, the voltage across resistors R3 (let us call it V3) and R4 ( let us call it V4) are also equal. So,

V3 = V4
The ratios of the voltage can be written as:

V1 / V3 = V2 / V4

From Ohm’s law, we get:

I 1 R1 I 2 R2
=
I 3 R3 I 4 R 4
Since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4, we get:

R1 / R3 = R2 / R4

From the above equation, if we know the values of three resistors, we can easily calculate the resistance
of the fourth resistor.

Alternative Way to Calculate Resistors

From the redrawn circuit, if VIN is the input voltage, then the voltage at point A is:

VIN ( R3 / (R1 + R3))

Similarly, the voltage at point B is:

VIN ( R4 / (R2 + R4))

For the Bridge to be Balanced, VOUT = 0. But we know that

VOUT = VA – VB.

So, in Balanced Bridge Condition,

VA = VB

Using the above equations, we get

VIN ( R3 / (R1 + R3)) = VIN ( R4 / (R2 + R4))

After simple manipulation of the above equation, we get:

R1 / R3 = R2 / R4

From the above equation, if R1 is an unknown resistor, its value can be calculated from the known values
of R2, R3 and R4. Generally, the unknown value is called as RX and of the three known resistances, one
resistor (mostly R3 in the above circuit) is usually a variable Resistor called as RV.

We can derive the mathematical expression for Wheatstone Bridge:

Example / The Wheatstone bridge calculate Rx when, R1=2Ω,R2 =4Ω,R3=4Ω;

Example:

Example/ when the bridge circuit below have

R1=2Ω

R2=4 Ω

R3=4 Ω

R4=8 Ω

R5=6 Ω

Calculate the equivalent resistance.

Load cell

A load cell is a device that is used to convert a force into electrical signal. Strain gauge load cells are the
most common types of load cells. There are other types of load cells such as hydraulic (or hydrostatic),
Pneumatic Load Cells, Piezoelectric load cells, Capacitive load cells, Piezo resistive load cells etc. Load
cells are used for quick and precise measurements. Compared with other sensors, load cells are
relatively more affordable and have a longer life span.

Advantages of Load cell

 Rugged and compact construction

  No moving parts
 Can be used for static and dynamic loading
 Highly Accurate
 Wide range of measurement
 Can be used for static and dynamic loading

Disadvantages of Load cell

 Mounting is difficult
 Calibration is a tedious procedure

Piezoelectric Transducers

Piezoelectric Effect

There are certain materials that generate electric potential or voltage when mechanical strain is applied
to them or conversely when the voltage is applied to them, they tend to change the dimensions along
certain plane. This effect is called as the piezoelectric effect.

This effect was discovered in the year 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. Some of the materials that
exhibit piezoelectric effect are quartz, Rochelle salt, polarized barium titanate, ammonium dihydrogen,
ordinary sugar etc.

The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect.

When mechanical stress or forces are applied to some materials along certain planes, they produce
electric voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the voltage measuring instruments,
which can be used to measure the stress or force.

The physical quantities like stress and force cannot be measured directly. In such cases the material
exhibiting piezoelectric transducers can be used. The stress or the force that has to be measured is
applied along certain planes to these materials.

The voltage output obtained from these materials due to piezoelectric effect is proportional to the
applied stress or force. The output voltage can be calibrated against the applied stress or the force so
that the measured value of the output voltage directly gives the value of the applied stress or force. In
fact the scale can be marked directly in terms of stress or force to give the values directly.

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

 High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response that means the parameter
changing at very high speeds can be sensed easily.
 High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect the events of microseconds
and also give the linear output.
 High output: They offer high output that be measured in the electronic circuit.

Thermoelectric Transducers

Thermocouples
In 1821 Thomas Seebeck' discovered that when two dissimilar metals were in contact, a voltage was
generated where the voltage was a function of temperature. The device, consisting of two dissimilar
metals joined together, is called a Thermocouple and the voltage is called the Seebeck voltage.

As an example, joining copper and Constantan produces a voltage on the order of a few tens of milli-
volts with the positive potential at the copper side.

An increase in temperature causes an increase in voltage. When two dissimilar metals such a iron and
copper are gained to form a closed circuit, current flow when one junction is at higher temperature and
the other one is at lower temperature as shown in the figure.

The emf driving the current is called a thermoelectric emf and the phenomenon is known as
thermoelectric effect or Seeback effect.

Usually a thermoelectric emf is very small. A pair of dissimilar metals welded together at their junction
forms what is called a thermocouple. When several thermocouples are arranged in series, the emf is
added together to give an appreciable output, this arrangement is called thermopile as shown in the
figure.

When two dissimilar metals are joined together, the free electrons move randomly across the junction.
Because of the different atomic structure of each metal, electrons pass more readily across the boundary
in one direction than in other. This results in displacement of charges, making one metal positive and
other negative.
Cold junction compensation

Application of see back effect to thermocouple requires that one end of the junction (cold) must be at
constant temperature.
The standard calibration data for all thermocouples are based on 0°C cold junction temperature. In
Practice it may not be possible to keep cold junction at zero degree temperature.

Hence standard data need to be corrected. One way is to add the environmental temperature to the
value of temperature determined by thermocouple measurement.

In another method, thermistor may be put in the thermo‐couple circuit. The voltage drop across
thermistor depends on environmental temperature which then compensates for the error.

Compensating wires

Compensating wires are those wires which are connected from the thermocouple to the temperature
indicator. Compensating wires should have same emf as that of thermocouples. Compensating wires are
color coded.

The negative wires in all thermocouples are red.

More modern techniques use electronic reference junctions that are not necessarily at 0 oC. This
junction is called the reference or cold junction due to the fact that this junction was in the ice bath.

Thermistors

Principle

A resistor is an electrical component that limits the amount of current flows through a circuit. Thermistor
is special type of resistor, whose resistance varies more significantly with temperature than in standard
resistors.

Generally, the resistance increases with the temperature for most of the metals but the thermistors
respond negatively i.e. the resistance of the thermistors decrease with the increase in temperature.
This is the main principle behind thermistor. As the resistance of thermistors depends on the
temperature, they can be connected in the electrical circuit to measure the temperature of the body.

Thermistors are mainly used as temperature sensors, in rush current limiters, self resetting over-current
protectors and self-regulating heating elements.

A thermistor is made from a semiconductor material. It is shaped into a disc, a rod or a bead. Bead
thermistors may be only a few millimetres in diameter. Some bead thermistors have the bead enclosed
in a glass capsule.

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC):

PTC thermistors increase their resistance as the temperature rises. The relationship between resistance
and temperature is linear, as expressed in the following equation: deltaR = k(deltaT) where deltaR is the
change in resistence, deltaT is the change in temperature and k is the temperature coefficient. When k is
positive, it causes a linear increase in resistance as the temperature rises.

PTC Uses:

 PTC thermistors can be used in place of fuses for circuit protection. As the circuit heats up,
resistance increases to prevent overload.
 They are also used as timing devices in televisions. When the unit is switched on, the degaussing
coil is activated to eliminate the magnetic field; the thermistor automatically switches it off
when the temperature reaches a certain point.

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):

Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a sintered
metal oxide.

They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of electrons able
to move about and carry charge – it promotes them into the conduction band.

The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material can conduct.

NTC Uses: NTC thermistors, on the other hand, are used as current-limiters and temperature monitors in
digital thermostats and automobiles.

Thermistor Applications:

 PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays.
 A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and
inexpensive.
 We can also use PTC thermistors as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat
inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine
injection.
 We can use PTC thermistors as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses.
 We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
  Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
 We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
 NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for food
storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to prevent
food borne illness.
 NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring
temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on
thermistors for proper temperature control.
 We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the heat
produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting the
plastic filament.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the
order of 10 K.
 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.

Radiation Pyrometer

Black body radiation

A body at higher temperatures emits electromagnetic radiation. The rate at which energy is emitted
depends on surface temperature and surface conditions.

The thermal radiation from a body is composed of wavelengths forming an energy distribution.

A black body absorbs all incoming radiation and transmits none. Black body is also a perfect emitter,
since it emits radiation of all wavelengths. Its total emissive power is theoretically the highest that can be
achieved at any given temperature.

Principles of radiation pyrometer

Temperature measurement is based on the measurement of radiation either directly by a sensor or by

comparing with the radiation of a body of known temperature.

The radiation pyrometer is a non-contact type of temperature measurement. A radiation pyrometer

consists of optical component to collect the radiation energy emitted by the object, a radiation detector
that converts radiant energy into an electrical signal, and an indicator to read the measurements.
The optical pyrometer is designed to respond narrow band of wavelengths that fall within the visible
range of the electro‐magnetic spectrum.

Thermal detectors are used as sensors. Their hot junction is the radiation sensing surface. Thermopiles
can detect radiation of all wavelengths.

A number of semiconductors are developed to sense the radiation. These are materials of Si, PbS, indium
antimonides etc. Their response is though instantaneous but it is selective to wavelength. Silicon is
suitable only around 0.8-0.9 µm and lead sulphide around 1 to 2µm.

Limitations of Radiation Pyrometer

 Availability of optical materials limit on the wavelengths that can be measured.

 The surface of the hot object should be clean. It should not be oxidized. Scale formation does
not allow to measure radiation accurately.
 Emissivity correction is required. Change in emissivity with temperature need to be considered.

The block diagram of a transduction system in measurements

The block diagram starts from the measurand (physical quantity being measured), this is taken by a
transducer unit (converts one form of energy to another), this then goes through an amplification unit if
the sensed signal is weak in magnitude. This is then fed to either an actuator to control a process, or to
move and indicator measurement system, or fed analog digital converters (ADC) to drive digital circuitry
and microprocessors, and controllers. The signal conditioning unit serves the purpose to filter unwanted
parts, and manipulate the sensed signal to conform to desired signal morphology.

Assignment:

1. Explain with working of a thermocouple couple as a transducer. Use a diagram.

2. Explain the working of NTC and PTC thermistor, use and show how the positive and negative
gradient curves are arrived at.
3. Classify, load cell, thermistor, thermopile, thermocouple, solar cell, in group of type of
transducers taught in this unit.
4. Write notes on transducers from this unit.
5. Discuss in short notes, classification of transducers.
6. Ascertain why a load cell is classified as a transducer.
7. Draw a Wheatstone bridge with a thermistor, show the output and input of the bridge. Explain
how the bridge can be used to measure change in temperature using a). NTC, b). PTC thermistor.