Electrical Circuit Analysis

Terms of Electricity

Voltage: Voltage is the electrical pressure, a potential force or difference in the electrical charge
between two points. Voltage is measured in volts(V).

Current: Current is the electrical flow moving through a wire. Current flow in a wire pushed by
voltage. The following equation relates charge to current.
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
Where, I= current, Q= charge, t= time

Resistance: Resistance opposes current flow. It is like electrical “friction”. This resistance slows
the current flow. Every electrical component or element has resistance. And this resistance changes
electrical energy into another form of energy-heat, light, motion. Resistance is measured in ohms
(Ω).

The resistance of an element is determined from the resistivity (𝜌), length(L), and cross-sectional
area (A).
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴

Electrical Circuit Elements (Components)

Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to form a complete
circuit. If these connecting conductors are ideal conductors (i.e. they have no resistance) then all
parts of the circuit can be classified into two main categories depending on whether they deliver
or absorb energy from the circuit:
• Active components
• Passive components

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Active Component
An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit. Active
elements have the ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All
electronic circuits must contain at least one active component.
Common examples of active components include:
• Voltage sources
• Current sources
• Generators
• Transistors
• Diodes
Question: Why transistor is an active element?
Ans: Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active circuit
component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal.
As this amplification is essentially controlling the flow of charge – transistors are hence classified
as an active component.

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Passive Components
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can
either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not
need any form of electrical power to operate.
As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive
components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.
Common examples of passive components include:
• Resistors
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Transformers

Question: Why transformer is a passive element?

Ans: A transformer is a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising since
transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that power is kept constant.
When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on the
primary and secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified
as a passive element.
Question: Explain active and passive elements in electrical circuit with appropriate examples.

Electrical Network
Any interconnection of electric circuit elements or components is called as networks. There are
different types of networks like lumped network, distributed network, linear network, active and
passive network.
Active network
A network consisting of active elements such as op-amps, transistors,
along with other elements is called an active network. An active element
is an electronic component that supplies energy to a circuit.

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Passive network
A network consisting of passive elements only such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors in known as passive network. A passive element is an
electrical component that does not generate power, instead dissipates or
stores it.

Question: Explain Active and passive network with appropriate circuit diagram.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that at constant temperature the current through a conductor between two points
is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Mathematically, Ohm’s law can be expressed as,
𝐼𝛼 𝑉
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the conductivity G in the above equation, we get,
𝐼 = 𝐺𝑉

1
Or, 𝐼 = 𝑅 𝑉

Or, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where,
• R is the resistance of the conductor in Ohm (Ω),
• G is the conductivity of the conductor in Siemens (S),
• I is the current through the conductor in Amperes (A),
• V is the voltage or potential difference measured across the conductor in Volts (V).

Ohm’s law is applicable to both DC and AC.

Conductance: Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured

in siemens (S).

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Plotting Ohm’s Law
Ohm's Law tells us that if a conductor is at a constant
temperature, the current flowing through the conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage across it. This means that
if we plot voltage on the x-axis of a graph and current on the
y-axis of the graph, we will get a straight-line.

Figure 1: The I-V characteristics graph

1
Where, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = of a linear resistor.
𝑅

Question: Explain Ohm’s law with appropriate graph.

Dissipated Power
The power at the terminals of a resistor is the product of the terminal voltage and current.

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

Power in a resistor in terms of current

𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅

Power in a resistor in terms of voltage

𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅

Problem 1: The 560 Ω resistor is connected to a circuit which causes a current of 42.4 mA to flow
through it. Calculate the voltage across the resistor and the power it is dissipating.
Solution: The voltage across the resistor is given by Ohm’s law
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.0424 ∗ 560 = 23.7 𝑉
The dissipated power can be calculated in several different ways. For instance,
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 23.7 ∗ 0.0424 = 1.005 𝑊
Alternatively,
𝑉 2 23.72
𝑃= = = 1.003 𝑊
𝑅 560
Or,
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 0.04242 ∗ 560 = 1.003 𝑊

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Nodes, Branches, Loops

Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2 has five
branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three resistors.

Node: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two
nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2. has three nodes a, b, and c.
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Kirchhoff’s Law

The conservation of energy and conservation of charge when applied to electrical circuits are
known as Kirchhoff’s law. These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s First Law: Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which
requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

The total current or charge entering into a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving
the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node.
In other words,
The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero.

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
This law represents a mathematical statement of the fact that charge
cannot accumulate at a node. A node is not a circuit element, and it
certainly cannot store, destroy, or generate charge.
Mathematically, KCL implies that

∑ 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∑ 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
Figure 2: Currents at a node
Or, ∑ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0 illustrating KCL.

Consider the node in Fig. 2. Applying KCL gives

𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖5
Or,
𝑖1 + (−𝑖2 ) + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + (−𝑖5) = 0

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the principle of conservation of
energy. This requires that the total work done in taking a unit positive charge around a closed path
and ending up at the original point is zero.
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

In other words,

In any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is
equal to the sum of all voltage drops within the same loop.

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

Figure 3: A single loop circuit

∑𝑉 = 0 illustrating KVL.

Or, it may be interpreted as

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠

Applying KVL in Fig. 3,

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Question: Explain Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law with proper figure.

Current Source: A current source is a simple circuit, which will provide a current which remains
constant regardless of the load placed at its output.

Or,

A current source is a source that maintains the current at a particular value almost independent of
the load conditions.

𝑉
𝑖= ,𝑅 ≫ 𝑟
𝑅+𝑟

In voltage source, internal resistance remains almost zero.

Figure 4: Voltage source

When, r >>R; R+r = r;

𝑉 Figure 5: Current Source.

𝐼=
𝑟

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 2: Find the current flowing in the 40Ω resistor in the following figure shown in below.

Solution:

Applying KCL at node A : 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 (1)

Applying KVL at loop DABCD: 10𝐼1 + 40𝐼3 − 10 = 0 (2)
Applying KVL at loop EABFE: 20𝐼2 + 40𝐼3 − 20 = 0 (3)
Using equn (1) in equn (2), we get
10𝐼1 + 40(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 10 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 50𝐼1 + 40𝐼2 − 10 = 0 (4)
Using equn (1) in equn (3), we get
20𝐼2 + 40(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 20 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 40𝐼1 + 60𝐼2 − 20 = 0 (5)
Now, Applying 3 X (4) – 2 X (5), we get
70𝐼1 + 10 = 0
1
𝑂𝑟, 𝐼1 = − 𝐴
7
Putting the value of I1 into equation (4)
1
40 (− ) + 40𝐼2 − 10 = 0
7
𝐼2 = 0.429 𝐴
From equation (1)
𝐼3 = −0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 𝐴

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 3: Determine the electric current that flows in circuit as shown in Figure below.

Solution:
5 Ω and 20 Ω are connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑝 5 20
Or, Rp = 4 Ω

Applying KVL at loop ABCDA

10I + 6I + 12 + 4I - 20 = 0
Or, 20I = 8
Or, I = 0.4 A

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 4: Calculate the current that flows in the 1Ω resistor in the following circuit.

Solution:

We can denote the current that flows from 9V battery in I1 and it splits into I2 and I3 in the
junction.
Applying KCL at point E,
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 (1)
Now, consider the loop EFCBE and apply KVL,
𝐼2 + 3𝐼1 − 9 + 2𝐼1 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 5 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 9 (2)
Applying KVL at the loop EADFE,
−6 + 3 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 = 0
𝑂𝑟, −6 + 3 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) − 𝐼2 = 0 [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞. (1)]
𝑂𝑟, −6 + 3𝐼1 − 3𝐼2 − 𝐼2 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 3𝐼1 − 4𝐼2 = 6 (3)
Solving equation (2) and (3), we get
𝐼1 = 1.83 𝐴
𝐼2 = −0.13 𝐴
It implies that the current in the 1Ω resistor flows from F to E.

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 5: Given the circuit below with 3A of current running through the 4Ω resistor as
indicated in the diagram. Determine
a) The current through each of the other resistors.
b) The voltage of the battery on the left.

Solution:

a) Apply KVL in the loop CDGHC

2𝐼2 + 4𝐼4 − 20 = 0

𝑂𝑟, 2𝐼2 + 4 × 3 − 20 = 0

𝑂𝑟, 2𝐼2 = 8

𝑂𝑟, 𝐼2 = 4𝐴

Apply KCL at point D

𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4

𝑂𝑟, 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 4 − 3 = 1𝐴

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Apply KVL at the loop BAEDCB

𝐼1 − 3𝐼3 − 2𝐼2 = 0

𝑂𝑟, 𝐼1 − 3 − 8 = 0

𝑂𝑟, 𝐼1 = 11 𝐴

b) Apply KVL at EDGFE

−3𝐼3 + 4𝐼4 − 𝑉 = 0
𝑂𝑟, −3 × 1 + 4 × 3 − 𝑉 = 0
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉 = 9𝑉

Problem 6: Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in the Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: V1 = 3V, V2 = 2V, V3 = 5V, V1 = 3V, I1 =1.5 A, I2 =0.25A, I3 =1.25A.
Problem 7: Determine the unknown voltages for the networks shown in Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Answer: V1 = 2.8 V

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Resistors in Series
A circuit consists of any number of elements joined at terminal points, providing at least one closed
path through which charge can flow.

Two elements are in series if

1. They have only one terminal in common (i.e., one lead of one is connected to only one lead of
the other).
2. The common point between the two elements is not connected to another current-carrying
element.

Figure 6: Resistors in Series (left), Equivalent Circuit.

The two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 in Figure 6. Are connected in series to a source of emf
V. By current conservation, the same current, I, is in each resistor.
The current is the same through series elements.

The total voltage drop from a to b across both elements is the sum of the voltage drops across the
individual resistors.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

The two resistors in series can be replaced by one equivalent resistor (Figure 6) with the identical
voltage drop V = IReq that implies that

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

The above arguments can be extended to N resistors placed in series. The total resistance of a series
circuit is the sum of the resistance levels.

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +. . … … … … … . . = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

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Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Resistors in Parallel

Let consider two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected across a source of emf , V.

Figure 7: (a) Two resistors in parallel, (b) Equivalent circuit.

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.
By current conservation, the current I that passes through the source of emf must divide into a
current I1 that passes through resistor R1 and a current I2 that passes through resistor R2. Each
resistor individually satisfies Ohm’s law. V1 =I1R1 and V2 = I2R2 . However, the potential across
the resistors are the same, V = V1 = V2. Current conservation that implies

V V 1 1
I = I1 + I2 = + = V( + )
R1 R 2 R1 R 2

The two resistors in parallel can be replaced by one equivalent resistor Req with V = IReq.
Comparing these results, the equivalent resistance for the two resistors that are connected in
parallel is given by

1 1 1
= +
R eq R1 R 2

R1 R 2
Or, R eq =
R1 + R 2

This result easily generalizes to N resistors connected in parallel.

15 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
 N
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯…..= ∑
R eq R1 R 2 Ri
i=1

Problem 8: In the diagram below, R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 15Ω. The battery supplies an emf of
Ꜫ = 0.30V.
(i). What is the equivalent resistance, Rs?
(ii). What is the current through each resistor?
(iii). What is the voltage drop across each resistor?

Solution:

i) Since there are no nodes or branches between the three resistors, the three resistors are
in series. For series resistors, the equivalent resistance is
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 = 5 Ω + 10 Ω + 15 Ω = 30 Ω .

ii) Resistors in series each carry the same current as their equivalent resistance, RS. The
definition of equivalent means that the three resistors could be replaced by RS without
affecting any other aspect of the circuit.
Using Ohm's Law the current through RS is
𝜀 0.3
𝐼= = = 0.01 𝐴
𝑅𝑆 30
Thus R1, R2, and R3 each carry 0.01 A.

16 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
 iii) Again using Ohm's Law, the voltage across each resistor is given by V = IR. The results
are given below.
V1 =IR1 = 0.01 × 5 = 0.05 V
V2 =IR2 = 0.01 × 10 = 0.1 V
V3 =IR3 = 0.01 × 15 = 0.15 V

Problem 9: In the diagram below, R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 15Ω. The battery supplies an emf of
Ꜫ = 0.30V.
(i). What is the equivalent resistance, Rp?
(ii). What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
(iii). What is the current through each resistor?

Solution:
i) Since the three resistors share the two common points or nodes, the three resistors are
in parallel. For parallel resistors, the equivalent resistance is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
= + + = + + =
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 5 10 15 30
30
Or, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 2.727 Ω
11
ii) Resistors in parallel each have the same voltage drop as their equivalent resistance, Rp.
The definition of equivalent means that the three resistors could be replaced by Rp
without affecting any other aspect of the circuit. So, the voltage drops across, R p, and
thus across R1, R2, R3 is Ꜫ = 0.30V.

𝑉
iii) Using Ohm’s law, the current through each resistor is given by 𝐼 = 𝑅.
𝜀 0.30
𝐼1 = = = 0.06 𝐴
𝑅1 5

17 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
 𝜀 0.30
𝐼2 = = = 0.03 𝐴
𝑅2 10
𝜀 0.30
𝐼3 = = = 0.06 𝐴
𝑅3 5

Problem 10: Find the total equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in Figure below.

Solution:

4 Ω, 5 Ω, and 3 Ω are connected in series. So, their

equivalent resistance is
4 Ω + 5 Ω + 3 Ω = 12 Ω
12 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in parallel. Their equivalent
resistance is

1 1 −1
12 Ω II 4 Ω = ( + ) = 3Ω
12 4
3 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series and their equivalent
resistance is
3Ω+ 3Ω = 6Ω
6 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel and their equivalent
resistance is
1 1
6 Ω II 6 Ω = ( + )−1 = 3 Ω
6 6
4 Ω, 3 Ω, and 3 Ω are connected in series. So, their
equivalent resistance is
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 Ω + 5 Ω + 3 Ω = 12 Ω

18 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 11: Find Req for the circuit shown in Figure below.

Solution:

To get Req, we combine resistors in series and in parallel.

The 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent resistance is
1 1
6 Ω II 3 Ω = ( + )−1 = 2 Ω
6 3
Also, the 1 Ω and 5 Ω resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is
1Ω+5Ω =6Ω
Then, the two 2 Ω resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is
2Ω+2Ω =4Ω

Then, This 4 Ω resistor is now in parallel with the 6 Ω resistor their equivalent resistance is
1 1
4 Ω II 6 Ω = ( + )−1 = 2.4 Ω
4 6

Finally, the three resistors 4 Ω, 2.4 Ω, and 8 Ω are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistance for
the circuit is
R eq = 4 Ω + 2.4 Ω + 8 Ω = 14.4 Ω

19 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 12: Find the equivalent resistance at terminal a-b in the Figure shown in below.

Solution:

70 Ω and 30 Ω resistors are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is

1 1
70 Ω II 30 Ω = ( + )−1 = 21 Ω
70 30
12.5 Ω and 17.5 Ω resistors are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is
1 1 −1
12.5 Ω II 17.5 Ω = ( + ) = 7.292 Ω
17.5 12.5
15 Ω and 35 Ω resistors are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is
1 1
15 Ω II 35 Ω = ( + )−1 = 10.5 Ω
15 35
Then, the 7.292 Ω and 10.5 Ω resistors are in series, so the equivalent resistance is
7.292 Ω + 10.5 Ω = 17.792 Ω
Finally, 17.792 Ω and 21 Ω resistors are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is
1 1
17.792 Ω II 21 Ω = ( + )−1 = 9.632 Ω
17.792 21

20 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 13: Find the equivalent resistance at terminal a-b in the Figure shown in below.

Solution:
The 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes c and
b. Their combined resistance is
1 1
3 Ω II 6 Ω = ( + )−1 = 2 Ω
3 6
Similarly, the 12 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in parallel
because they are connected to the same two nodes d
and b. Their combined resistance is
1 1 −1
12 Ω II 4 Ω = ( + ) = 3Ω
12 4
Also, the 1 Ω and 5 Ω resistors are in series; hence,
their equivalent resistance is
1Ω+5Ω =6Ω
Then, the 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are in parallel, hence
equivalent resistance is 2 Ω. The equivalent 2 Ω
resistance are connected in series with 1 Ω resistance
and the combined resistance is
1Ω+2Ω =3Ω
And we combine the 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors in parallel
to get
1 1
2 Ω II 3 Ω = ( + )−1 = 1.2 Ω
2 3
Finally, 1.2 Ω and 10 Ω are connected in series, so that
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 1.2 Ω + 10 Ω = 11.2 Ω

21 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 14: Find the total resistance for the network configuration shown in Figure below.

22 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 15: Find Rab for the circuit shown in Figure below.

Solution: Try it yourself

Answer: Rab = 19 Ω

23 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Voltage Divider Rule
In a series circuit,
the voltage across the resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance levels.

A method referred to as the voltage divider rule (VDR) that permits

determining the voltage levels without finding the current. The rule can
be derived by analyzing the network of Fig. 8.
R T = R1 + R 2
E
and, I =
RT
Applying Ohm’s law,
Figure 8: Developing
E R1
V1 = IR1 = ( ) R1 = E voltage divider rule.
RT RT
With
E R2
V2 = IR 2 = ( ) R 2 = E
RT RT
Note that the format for V1 and V2 is
Rx
Vx = E
RT
Where Vx is the voltage across Rx, E is the impressed voltage across the series elements, and RT is
the total resistance of the series circuit.
In words, the voltage divider rule states that the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal
to the value of that resistor times the total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by
the total resistance of the series elements.

Question: Explain Voltage Divider Rule with appropriate figure and equation.

24 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 16: Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages
V1 and V3 for the series circuit of Fig. 9.
Solution:
R1 2
V1 = E= × 45 = 6 V
RT 2+5+8
R3 8
V3 = E= × 45 = 24 V
RT 2+5+8
Figure 9

Problem 17: Design the voltage divider of Fig. 10 such that

𝑉𝑅1 = 4 𝑉𝑅2 .

Solution:
The total resistance is defined by Figure 10
E 20 V
RT = = = 5 kΩ
I 4 mA
Since VR1 = 4 VR2 , R1 = 4 R 2
Thus, R T = R1 + R 2 = 4R 2 + R 2 = 5R 2
And, 5 R2 = 5 kΩ
Or, R2 = 1 kΩ
and, R1 = 4 kΩ

Problem 18: Referring to Fig. 11.

a) Determine V2 by simply noting that R2 = 3R1.
b) Calculate V3.
c) Noting the magnitude of V3 compared to V2 or V1, determine R3 by
inspection.
d) Calculate the source current I. Figure 11
e) Calculate the resistance R3 using Ohm’s law, and compare it to the
result of part (c).
Solution: Try it yourself.

25 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Current Divider Rule
As the name suggests, the current divider rule (CDR) will determine how the current entering a set
of parallel branches will split between the elements.
For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide equally.
For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the resistance, the greater the share of input
current.
For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio equal to the inverse of
their resistor values.

The current-divider circuit shown in Fig.

12 consists of two resistors connected in
parallel across a current source. The
current divider is designed to divide the
current between R1 and R2. We find the
relationship between the current and the
Figure 12: Current Divider Circuit.
current in each resistor (that is, I1 and I2)
by directly applying Ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s current law.
V
The input current Is equals , where RT is the total resistance of the parallel branches. Substituting
RT
V = Ix R x into the above equation, where Ix refers to the current through a parallel branch of
resistance Rx, we have
V Ix R x
Is = =
RT RT
RT
And, Ix = Is
Rx
which is the general form for the current divider rule. In words, the current through any parallel
branch is equal to the product of the total resistance of the parallel branches and the input current
divided by the resistance of the branch through which the current is to be determined.
For the current I1,
RT
I1 = I
R1 s
And for the current I2,
RT
I2 = I
R2 s

Question: Explain Current Divider Rule with appropriate figure and equation.

26 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 19: Using current divider rule, find the current I1 for the network of figure shown in
below.

Solution:

6 Ω, 24 Ω and 48 Ω resistors are in parallel, their total resistance is

1 1 1
RT = ( + + )−1 = 4.363 Ω
6 24 48
RT 4.363
With I1 = Is = × 42 mA = 30.54 mA
R1 6

Problem 20: Determine the resistance R1 to effect the division of current in figure shown in below.

Solution:

Applying the current divider rule,

RT
I1 = I
R1
1 1 R +R R1 R2
Where, R T = (R + R )−1 = ( R1 R 2)−1 =
1 2 1 2 R1 +R2

RT R2
So, I1 = I=R I
R1 1 +R2

Or, (R1 + R 2 )I1 = R 2 I

Or, R1 I1 + R 2 I1 = R 2 I

27 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
 Or, R1 I1 = R 2 I − R 2 I1

R2 (I−I1 )
Or, R1 = I1

Substituting values,
7Ω(27mA − 21mA)
R1 = = 2Ω
21mA

Problem 21: Using the current divider rule, find the unknown currents for the networks of Figure
shown in below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

Problem 22: Using the current divider rule, find the unknown currents for the networks of Figure
shown in below.

Solution: Try it yourself.

28 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Open and Short Circuits
An open circuit is simply two isolated terminals not connected by an element of any kind, as shown
in Fig. 13(a). Since a path for conduction does not exist, the current associated with an open circuit
must always be zero. The voltage across the open circuit, however, can be any value, as determined
by the system it is connected to. In summary, therefore,
an open circuit can have a potential difference (voltage) across its terminals, but the current is
always zero amperes.

Figure 13: Two special network configurations.

A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection between two terminals of a network, as
shown in Fig. 13(b). The current through the short circuit can be any value, as determined by the
system it is connected to, but the voltage across the short circuit will always be zero volts because
the resistance of the short circuit is assumed to be essentially zero ohms and 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼(0Ω) =
0𝑉. In summary, therefore,

a short circuit can carry a current of a level determined by the external circuit, but the potential
difference (voltage) across its terminals is always zero volts.

29 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 23: Determine the unknown voltage and current for each network of Fig. 14.

Figure 14.

Solution:
For the network of Fig. 14 (a), the current IT will take the path of least resistance, and, since the
short-circuit condition at the end of the network is the least-resistance path, all the current will pass
through the short circuit. The voltage across the network is the same as that across the short circuit
and will be zero volts, as shown in Fig. 15(a).

Figure 15: Solution to Problem 23.

For the network of Fig. 14(b), the open-circuit condition requires that the current be zero amperes.
The voltage drops across the resistors must therefore be zero volts, as determined by Ohm’s law
[VR = IR= (0)R= 0V], with the resistors simply acting as a connection from the supply to the open
circuit. The result is that the open-circuit voltage will be E = 22 V, as shown in Fig. 15(b).

30 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 24: Determine V and I for the network shown in below if the resistor R2 is shorted out.

Solution:
The redrawn network appears in Fig. 16.

Figure 16: Help to solve Problem 24.

The current through the 3 Ω resistor is zero due to the open circuit, causing all the current I to pass
through the jumper. Since 𝑉3Ω = 𝐼𝑅 = (0)𝑅 = 0𝑉, the voltage V is directly across the short, and
V= 0 V
𝐸 6𝑉
With 𝐼 = 𝑅 = = 3𝐴
1 3Ω

31 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 25: For the network of Fig. 17.
a) Determine Is and VL.
b) Determine Is if RL is shorted out.
c) Determine VL if RL is replaced by an open
circuit.

Figure 17.

Solution: Try it yourself

Problem 26: For the network of Fig. 18:

Figure 18.

a) Determine the open-circuit voltage VL.

b) If the 2.2-kΩ resistor is short circuited, what is the new value of VL?
c) Determine VL if the 4.7-kΩ resistor is replaced by an open circuit.

32 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Resistors in Series and Parallel

Problem 27: Find the of the circuit below. Calculate the voltage drop over, and current through
each resistor. Put your results in a table.

Solution:

The 12 Ω, 6 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in parallel. So, their combined resistance is

1 1 1 −1
12 Ω II 6 Ω II 4 Ω = ( + + ) = 2Ω
12 6 4
The 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are in series and their combined resistance is
2Ω+3Ω =5Ω
And the 5 Ω and 20 Ω resistors in parallel to get
1 1
5 Ω II 20 Ω = ( + )−1 = 4 Ω
5 20
The 4 Ω and 16 Ω resistors are in series and the total resistance is
𝑅𝑇 = 4 Ω + 16 Ω = 20 Ω
Now, the current flow through 20 Ω is
𝑉 1200 𝑉
𝐼= = = 60 𝐴
𝑅𝑇 20 Ω
So, the current flow through 4 Ω and 16 Ω resistors will be 60 A.
The voltage drop across 4 Ω resistor is = 60 A× 16 Ω = 960 V
The voltage drop across 4 Ω resistor is = 60 A× 4 Ω = 240 V
Therefore, the voltage drop across 5 Ω and 20 Ω resistors is 240 V.

33 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
So, current flow through 5 Ω resistor is 240/5= 48 A
and current flow through 20 Ω resistor is 240/20= 12 A.
And we can say current flow through 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors is 48 A.
Voltage drop across 3Ω resistor = 3 × 48 = 144 V
Voltage drop across 2Ω resistor = 2 × 48 = 96 V
So, voltage drop across the 12 Ω, 6 Ω and 4 Ω is 96 V.
current flow through 12 Ω resistor = 96/12= 8 A
current flow through 6 Ω resistor = 96/6= 16 A
current flow through 4 Ω resistor = 96/12= 8 A

We can summarize all the findings in a table.

Resistor, R (Ω) Voltage, V (V) Current flow, I (A)
16 960 60
20 240 12
3 144 48
12 96 8
6 96 16
4 96 24

N.B.: The circuit flow chart of this problem is shown in the next page.

34 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
35 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 28: Answer the following questions for the circuit shown in below.

i) What is the total resistance in the circuit?

ii) What is the current supplied by the battery?
iii) Determine the voltage drop over, and current flow through each resistor.
Solution:
The 10 kΩ and 5 kΩ resistors are in series and their combined resistance is
10 kΩ + 5 kΩ = 15 kΩ
The 15 kΩ, 1 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors are in parallel. So, their combined resistance is
1 1 1 −1
15 kΩ II 1 kΩ II 4 kΩ = ( + + ) = 0.76 kΩ
15 1 4
The 0.76 kΩ and 3 kΩ resistors are in series and the total resistance is
𝑅𝑇 = 0.76 kΩ + 3 kΩ = 3.76 kΩ
Now, the current flow through 3.76 kΩ is
𝑉 15 𝑉
𝐼= = = 3.99 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑇 3.76 𝑘Ω
So, the current flow through 0.76 kΩ and 3 kΩ resistors will be 3.99 mA.
The voltage drop across 3 kΩ resistor is = 3.99 mA× 3 kΩ = 12 V
The voltage drop across 0.76 kΩ resistor is = 3.99 mA× 0.76 kΩ = 3 V
Therefore, the voltage drop across the 15 kΩ, 1 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors is 3 V.
So, current flow through 15 kΩ resistor is 3V / 15 kΩ = 0.2 mA
Current flow through 1 kΩ resistor is 3 V / 1 kΩ = 3 mA.
and current flow through 4 kΩ resistor is 3 V / 4 kΩ = 0.75 mA.
And we can say current flow through 10 kΩ and 5 kΩ resistors is 0.2 mA.
Voltage drop across 10 kΩ resistor = 0.2 mA × 10 kΩ = 2 V
Voltage drop across 5 kΩ resistor = 0.2 mA × 5 kΩ = 1 V
N.B.: The circuit flow chart of this problem is shown in the next page.

36 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
37 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)
Problem 29: Find all the currents and voltages in the network in Fig. 19.

Figure 19.
Solution: Try it yourself.
4 2
Answer: I1 = 12 mA, I2 = 6 mA, I3 = 4 mA, I4 = 2 mA, I5 = mA, I6 = mA; V1 =
3 3
8
24 V, V2 = 4 V, V3 = V
3

Problem 30: Find Req and io in the circuit of Fig. 20.

Figure 20.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: Req = 12.5 Ω, i0 = 3.2 A.
Problem 31: Find i and V0 in the circuit of Fig. 21.

Figure 21.
Solution: Try it yourself.
Answer: i = 0.5 A, V0 = 1.5 V.

38 | P a g e
Md. Rakib Hossain, Lecturer, Department of CSE, Dhaka International University. (Mobile: 01858940488)