EE2024 Electrical Machines in Power Systems

Lecture 12 Lecturer
Dr. (Mrs) R. M. M. Ruwanthika
[email protected]
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
• When an ac power source is connected to a transformer as shown in
figure, a current flows in its primary circuit, even when the
secondary circuit is open circuited.
• This current is the current required to produce flux in a real
ferromagnetic core.
• It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current 𝑖𝑀 , which is
the current required to produce the flux
in the transformer core

2. The core-loss current 𝑖ℎ+𝑒 which is the

current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses
• Ignoring the effects of leakage flux, the average flu x in the core is
given by

• If the primary voltage is given by the expression 𝑣𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 V,

then the resulting flux must be

• If the values of current required to produce a given flux (Figure (a))

are compared to the flux in the core at different times, it is possible to
construct a sketch of the magnetization current in the winding on the
core (Figure (b)).
Figure
(a) The magnetization curve of the transformer core.
(b) The magnetization current caused by the flux in the
transformer core.
If the flux in the transformer core is known, then the magnitude of the
magnetization current can be found directly from Figure (b).
• Notice the following points about the magnetization current:
1. The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal. The higher
frequency components in the magnetization current are due to magnetic
saturation in the transformer core.
2. Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core, a small
increase in peak flux requires a very large increase in the peak
magnetization current.
3. The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the voltage
applied to the core by 90°.
4. The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current can be
quite large compared to the fundamental component. In general, the
further a transformer core is driven into saturation, the larger the harmonic
components will become.
The Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a
Transformer
• The voltage rating of a transformer serves two functions.
1. Protect the winding insulation from breakdown due to an excessive voltage
applied to it.
2. Relate to the magnetization curve and magnetization current of the
transformer.

• If a steady-state voltage 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝑴 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 is applied to a transformer’s

primary winding, the flux of the transformer is given by
• If the applied voltage 𝒗 𝒕 is
increased by 10 percent, the
resulting maximum flux in the
core also increases by 10
percent.
• Above a certain point on the
magnetization curve, though, a
10 percent increase in flux
requires an increase in
magnetization current much
larger than 10 percent.
• This concept is illustrated in
Figure. Figure: The effect of the peak
flux in a transformer core upon
the required magnetization
• As the voltage increases, the current.
high-magnetization currents
soon become unacceptable.
• The maximum applied voltage (and therefore the rated voltage) is
set by the maximum acceptable magnetization current in the core.

• Notice that voltage and frequency are related in a reciprocal fashion

if the maximum flux is to be held constant:
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜔𝑁𝑃
• Thus, if a 60-Hz transformer is to be operated on 50 Hz, its applied
voltage must also be reduced by one-sixth or the peak flux in the core
will be too high. This reduction in applied voltage with frequency is
called derating.
• Similarly, a 50-Hz transformer may be operated at a 20 percent higher
voltage on 60 Hz if this action does not cause insulation problems.
The Problem of Current Inrush
• A problem related to the voltage level in the transformer is the
problem of current inrush at starting.

• Suppose that the voltage is applied at

the moment the transformer is first connected to the power line.

• The maximum flux height reached on the first half-cycle of the

applied voltage depends on the phase of the voltage at the time the
voltage is applied.
• If the initial voltage is

and if the initial flux in the core is zero, then the maximum flux during
the first half-cycle will just equal the maximum flux at steady state:

• This flux level is just the steady-state flux, so it causes no special

problems.
• But if the applied voltage happens to be

• The maximum flux during the first half-cycle is give n by

• This maximum flux is twice as high

as the normal steady-state flux.

• If the magnetization curve of

transformer is examined, it is easy
to see that doubling the maximum
flux in the core results in an
enormous magnetization current.
 • For part of the cycle,
the transformer
looks like a short
circuit, and a very
large current flows.

The current inrush due to a transformer's magnetization

current on starting.
• For any other phase angle of the applied voltage between 90°, which
is no problem, and 0°, which is the worst case, there is some excess
current flow.
• The applied phase angle of the voltage is not normally controlled on
starting, so there can be huge inrush currents during the first several
cycles after the transformer is connected to the line.
• The transformer and the power system to which it is connected must
be able to withstand these currents.
Explanation 2

• When the electrical power transformer runs normally, the flux

produced in the core is in quadrature with applied voltage.

• The flux wave will reach its maximum value, 1/4 cycle or π/2 angle
later, reaching the maximum value of the voltage wave.
• As per the waves shown in the figure above, at the instant when the
voltage is zero, the corresponding steady state value of flux should be
the negative maximum (i.e. minimum value).
https://www.electrical4u.com/magnetizing-inrush-current-in-power-transformer/
• But it is not practically possible to have flux the instant you switch on the
supply to the transformer. This is because there will be no flux linked to the
core prior to switching on the supply.

• The steady state value of flux will not be reached instantly. Although it’s
very fast from our perspective – it takes a non-zero amount of time. The
speed of this process depends on how fast the circuit can take energy.

• This is because the rate of energy transfer to a circuit cannot be infinity.

• So the flux in the core also will start from its zero value at the time of
switching on the transformer.
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the voltage
induced across the winding is given as e = dφ/dt. Where φ is the flux in the
core. Hence the flux will be integral of the voltage wave, which can be
calculated using the formula below:
• If the transformer is switched on at the instant of voltage zero,
the flux wave is initiated from the same origin as voltage
waveform, the value of flux at the end of first half cycle of the
voltage waveform can be calculated using:

• Where φm is the maximum value of the steady-state flux.

• The transformer core is generally saturated just above the
maximum steady state value of flux.
• But in our example, when switching on the transformer the
maximum value of flux will jump to double its steady state
maximum value.
• After the steady state
maximum value of flux, the
core becomes saturated and
the current required to
produce the rest of flux is
very high.
• So the transformer primary
will draw a very high peak
current from the source.
• This is known as the
transformer inrush current
or magnetizing inrush
current of the transformer.
• Magnetizing inrush current in transformer is the current which is drown by
a transformer at the time of energizing the transformer.
• This current is transient in nature and exists for few milliseconds.
• The inrush current may be up to 10 times higher than normal rated current
of transformer.
• Although the magnitude of inrush current is so high but it generally does
not create any permanent fault in transformer as it exists for very small
time.
• But still inrush current in power transformer is a problem, because it
interferes with the operation of circuits as they have been designed to
function.
• Some effects of high inrush include nuisance fuse or breaker interruptions,
as well as arcing and failure of primary circuit components, such as
switches.
• High magnetizing inrush current in transformer also necessitate over-sizing
of fuses or breakers.
• Another side effect of high inrush is the injection of noise and distortion
back into the mains.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn9QOF5d-Sw
Transformer Taps and Voltage Regulation
• In almost all real distribution transformers, turns ratio is not
completely fixed.
• Distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to
permit small changes in the turns ratio of the transformer after it has
left the factory.
• A typical installation might have four taps in addition to the nominal
setting with spacing of 2.5 percent of full-load voltage between
them.
• Such an arrangement provides for adjustments up to 5 percent above
or below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer.
Example
A 500-kVA, 13,200/480-V distribution transformer has four 2.5 percent taps
on its primary winding. What are the voltage ratios of this transformer at
each tap setting?

Solution
The five possible voltage ratings of this transformer are
+5.0% tap 13,860/480 V
+2.5% tap 13,530/480 V
Nominal rating 13,200/480 V
-2.5% tap 12,870/480 V
-5.0% tap 12,540/480 V
• The taps on a transformer permit the transformer to be adjusted in
the field to accommodate variations in local voltages.
• However, these taps normally cannot be changed while power is
being applied to the transformer. They must be set once and left
alone.

• Sometimes a transformer is used on a power line whose voltage

varies widely with the load.
• Such voltage variations might be due to a high line impedance
between the generators on the power system and that particular load
(perhaps it is located far out in the country).
• Normal loads need to be supplied an essentially constant voltage.
• How can a power company supply a controlled voltage through high-
impedance lines to loads which are constantly changing?
• One solution to this problem is to use a special transformer called a
tap changing under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator.
• Basically, a TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to
change taps while power is connected to it.
• A voltage regulator is a TCUL transformer with built-in voltage sensing
circuitry that automatically changes taps to keep the system voltage
constant.
• Such special transformers are very common in modem power
systems.
Earthing Transformer
• A grounding transformer or earthing transformer is
• A type of auxiliary transformer used in three-phase electric power systems
• Provide a ground path to either an ungrounded wye or a delta-connected system.
• Grounding transformers are part of an earthing system of the network.
• They let three-phase (delta connected) systems accommodate phase-to-neutral
loads by providing a return path for current to a neutral.

• Grounding transformers are typically used to:

• Provide a relatively low-impedance path to ground, thereby maintaining the system neutral
at or near ground potential.
• Limit the magnitude of transient over voltages when restriking ground faults occur.
• Provide a source of ground fault current during line-to-ground faults.
• Permit the connection of phase-to-neutral loads when desired.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7Z-7e2Stgc
• In cases where the neutral point of three phase system is not
accessible like the system connected to the delta connected side of a
electrical power transformer, an artificial neutral point may be
created with help of a zigzag connected earthing transformer.
• This is a core type transformer with three limbs.
• Every phase winding in zigzag connection is divided into two equal halves.
• One half of which is wound on one limb and other half is wound on another
limb of the core of transformer.
• 1st half of Red phase winding is wound on the 1st limb of the core and 2nd half of same
Red phase is wound on 3rd limb.
• 1st half of Yellow phase winding is wound on the 2nd limb of the core and 2nd half of
same Yellow phase is wound on 1st limb.
• 1st half of Blue phase winding is wound on the 3rd limb of the core and 2nd half of same
Blue phase is wound on 2nd limb.
• End point of all three winding ultimately connected together and
forms a common neutral point.
• Now if any fault occurs at any of the phases in delta connected
system, the zero sequence fault current has close path of circulating
through earth as shown in the figure.
• In normal condition of the system, the voltage across the winding of the
earthing transformer is 1/√3 times of rated per phase voltage of the
system.

• But when single line to ground fault occurs on any phase of the system, as
shown in the figure,
• zero sequence component of the earth fault current flows in the earth and returns to
the electrical power system by way of earth star point of the earthing transformer.
• It gets divided equally in all the three phases.
• Hence, as shown in the figure, the currents in the two different halves of two
windings in the same limb of the core flow in opposite directions.
• And therefore the magnetic flux set up by these two currents will oppose and
neutralize each other.
• As there is no increase in flux due to fault current, there is no change of dφ/dt means
no choking effect occurs to impede the flow of fault current.
• So it can be concluded like that, the zigzag type earthing or grounding transformer
maintains the rated supply voltage at normal current as well as when a solid single
line to ground fault current flows through it.
https://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-earthing-transformer-or-grounding-transformer/
 • The rated voltage of an earthing or grounding transformer is the line
to line voltage on which it is intended to be used.
• Current rating of this transformer is the maximum neutral current in
Amperes that the transformer is designed to carry in fault condition
for a specific time.
• Generally the time interval, for which transformer designed to carry
the maximum fault current through it safely, is taken as 30 second.

Zigzag transformer coil connections

https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/zigzag-transformer-connection-overview
http://www.electricalunits.com/earthing-transformer-or-neutral-grounding-transformer/
Advantages of Zig-Zag Transformer
• The ∆ -zigzag connection provides the same advantages as the ∆-Y
connection.
• Less costly for grounding purpose
• It is typically the least costly than Y-D and Scott Transformer.
• Third harmonic suppression
• The zigzag connection in power systems to trap triple harmonic (3rd, 9th,
15th, etc.) currents. Here, We install zigzag units near loads that produce large
triple harmonic currents. The windings trap the harmonic currents and
prevent them from traveling upstream, where they can produce undesirable
effects.
• Ground current isolation
• If we need a neutral for grounding or for supplying single-phase line to
neutral loads when working with a 3-wire, ungrounded power system, a
zigzag connection may be the better solution. Due to its composition, a zigzag
transformer is more effective for grounding purposes because it has less
internal winding impedance going to the ground than when using a Star type
transformer.
• No phase displacement
• There is no phase angle displacement between the primary and the
secondary circuits with this connection; therefore, the ∆-zigzag connection
can be used in the same manner as Y-Y and ∆- ∆ transformers without
introducing any phase shifts in the circuits.
Thank You