EVEREST ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Pokhara University)

Sanepa, 2-Lalitpur

Subject code:GTE 210

A FIELD REPORT ON
‘Geological study along Dhading besi road section and Malekhu khola’
2023

Submitted by : Submitted to:

Aayush Koirala(21045708) Sushant Sapkota
Bigisha Shrestha(21045722) Anil Ghimire
Hritik Tiwari(21045736) (Geologists/lecturer)
Priyanka Kumari Singh(21045462)
Everest Engineering College
Roshani tamang(21045771)
Sagar Shrestha(21045773)
Sandesh Ale Magar(21045778)
Shivam B.K(21045790)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared for Geological Camp of BE 2nd year 1st part. From this trip
understanding the knowledge for identifying and solving various problems that may be occur
before and during construction period of any type of structure.
We want to give sincere thanks to our mind which gives heartily thanks to those individuals
for valuable guidance, advice and suggestions. Firstly, we would like to express our gratitude
to our teacher Mr.Sushant Sapkota and Mr.Anil Ghimire who introduce the subject Engineering
Geology and give us valuable information about the geology.
Acknowledgement would be incomplete without a word of appreciation to the hotel where we
stayed, which made our stay comfortable, bus which we used to travel and all our friends who
were always with us and made that time and place worth to be. We are also grateful to all other
people who were directly or indirectly involved in field visit to make it successful.
It is possible that some errors might be occurred during preparation of report on Geological
Camp. We will improve all the errors in future days. Further suggestion for improvement in
report will be very grateful.

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Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION
- Location of study area
- Accessibility

2. OBJECTIVES

3. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
- Primary structure
- Secondary structure

4. SITE INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE

5. HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS TO MEASURE

- Bed rock and its identification in field
- Attitude of geological plane and its components
- Geological compass and its components
- Handling of geological compass to measure the attitude of geological planes
- Attitude of geological planes measured in the field

6. PETROLOGY
- Types of rocks
- Identification criteria of igneous ,sedimentary and metamorphic rock
- Identification of rocks with the help of physical and engineering properties observed in
field
- Engineering significance of each type of rock

7. GEOMORPHOLOGY
- River channel morphology

8. MASS MOVEMENT AND ITS MITIGATION MEASURES

- Definition
- Types of mass movement
- Landslide
- Varnes classification of landslides
- Causes of landslides
- Mitigation measures of landslides

9. ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

- Rock mass classification system
- Different types of rock mass classification system
- Rock mass rating system and parameter used in it
- Rock mass rating (RMR) system observed in the field and support system

10. CONCLUSION

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Chapter 1-Introduction

1.1 Location
The study area lies in the mid zonal region and is part of Lesser Himalaya of Central Nepal.
Malekhu Bazzar which is a ancient terrace of Trishuli River and its adjoining part of Dhading
district. Geographically, it is situated between the latitude of 27”45’ to 27”05’ and longitude
84”58’ lying in the Mahabharat range. The study area cover about 20 sq. Km and the altitude
of the area is about 310m from the mean sea level. Malekhu lies in Bagmati Zone and 70km
NW from Kathmandu Valley along the Prthivi Highway. The area extends from Gajuri to
Benighat in EW direction and half km North of Bunchundovan to Beltar in NS direction.

1.2 Accessibility
Malekhu is the continuation of the Prithivi Highway linked with capital Kathmandu, is more
accessible by land transport. The area is also linked with its district head quarter Dhading Besi
by black topped road and rest part of the area can be accessed only by foot.

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Chapter 2-OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this geological field visit is for:-

1. Study and identification of rocks and minerals.

2. Study of geological structures (fold,fault,unconfirmtity,thrust,joint).
3. Handling of geological compass (Brontun compass) and geological hammer.
4. Study of geomorphology (river channel morphology).
5. Study of resource and reserve.
6. Study of site investigation of tunnel, dam,bridge,road.
7. Study of RMR (Rock Mass Rating) system and support system.
8. Study of rock slope analysis (kinematic analysis).

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Chapter 3- GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
The geometry features which is observable is known as the geological structure.

3.1 Types of Geological Structure

Primary Structure: The structural features which are developed in the body of rock during
its formation stage are termed as Primary Structures. Primary Structure are found in the
sedimentary rock. Examples: bedding, lamination, ripple marks, cross-beds.

Secondary Structure: The structure form by the external stress, pressure, force, tectonic
movement and developed geometric structure. Example: joint, fold, fault, foliation etc. are
the secondary structure.

3.2 Major Geological Structure Observed in Field and their Engineering Significance

3.2.1 Bedding Plane:

The basic structure in all environment is the sedimentary bed, which is a distinct layer of
sediment or rock that may differ in a variety of way from overlying & underlying layers. The
strata thickness more than 1cm are commonly referred as beds.

3.2.2 Joint:
In geology, a joint is a fracture dividing rock into two sections that moved away from each
other. A joint does not involve shear displacement, and forms when tensile stress breaches its
threshold. In other kinds of fracturing, like in a fault, the rock is parted by a visible crack that
forms a gap in the rock.

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3.2.3 Fold:
Location no: 7
The location lies about 200m away from Malekhu suspension bridge towards old Kalu-Pandey
highway.
Definition
Fold is known as the secondary structure when a rock deform in a ductile manner. They bend
and resulting structure are called folds. It is due to compressive stresses.

Components of fold:
a) Hinge line: The line formed by joining the points of maximum curvature (crest) on a fold
is called hinge line.
b) Limb: The side or flanks of fold touching front crest to tough is called limb.
c) Axial plane: The plane formed by joining hinge line from surface to core is called axial
plane.
d) Hinge zone: If the fold had no fix hinge line with curvature at top is called hinged zone.

TYPES OF FOLD:
1. On the basis of bend
a. Anticline: The folds which strata are convex upward is known as anticlines.
b. Syncline: The folds which strata are convex downward is known as synclines.
2. On the basis of Axial
a. Symmetric: The fold in which the dip amount of limb is same angle is known as
symmetric fold.
b. Asymmetric: The fold in which dip amount of limb is different angle is known as
asymmetric fold
3. On the basis of hinge line
a. Plunging: The inclined hinge line is known as plunging fold.
b. Non-Plunging: The horizontal hinge line is known as non-plunging fold.
4. On the basis of limb
a. Overturn fold: The fold with inclined axial planes in which both the limb are the same
general direction
b. Recumbent fold: The fold in which the axial planes is horizontal.

Recognition of fold in field

The process of recognition of fold in field are as follows:
a. Local of small scale folds are directly observed in the field in cut slopes during road
construction and excavation.
b. Folds in the field should be inferred by looking at the altitude of the beds.
c. Large scale folds are recognized in the field by plotting the attractive of the beds or foliation
plane in the geological map and their cross-sections.

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d. The repetition of beds in the field and varying thickness of strata in one plane than other of
the same geology also will indicate folds.

Engineering Significance of fold

The significance are as follows:
a. Folds develop in the areas of work are important for a civil engineer in that these make the
work more complicated.
b. Presence of fold affect designs, stability and economy of large scale structure like road
tunnel, dam, bridge, etc. the study about fold is necessary.
c. If not investigated and interpreted thoroughly, civil engineering projects standing on or
driven through the folded rocks may prove to be uneconomical and unsafe too.

Fig:Asymmetrical plunging anticline fold

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3.2.4 Fault:
Location No. 03
The location lies about 1.5 km upstream at the left bank of Malekhu khola from the old broken
bridge.

Definition
A fault can be defined as any brittle deformation-induced fracture where there has been
movement of the blocks on either side of the plane.

TYPES OF FAULT
The types of fault are as follows:
a. Normal fault: The fault in which the hanging wall block moves down relative to the
footwall block.
b. Reverse fault: The fault in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall
block.
c. Strike slip Fault: It occurs when there is shear stress, which helps to move the blocks in
opposite direction along the strike line (Horizontally) through the fault plane.

RECOGNITION OF FAULT IN FIELD

The process of recognition of fault in field are as follows:
a. Recognition of faults on the ground very often demands a through and systematic
geological and very often geophysical study of the area, often to a considerable depth.
b. Presence of slickenside, A slickenside is a smoothly polished surface, normally straighten
in the direction of movement, caused by frictional movement between rocks along the two
sides of a fault.
c. Some beds may repeat and found in more than once in certain section and some may be
omitted where it was normally expected.

ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF FAULT

The engineering significance are as follows:
a. Faults are the region where dislocation of ground has occurred in the past due to
deformation and where such dislocation cannot be entirely ruled out in future.
b. The shear of fault zone will be an easy pathway for water and cause leakage if left untreated
in dams and reservoirs
c. The fault zone once lubricated by water may slip further and prove critical for foundation
and abutments.

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d. Fault planes with easy pathway for groundwater creates problem if encountered along the
highway or tunnel alignment.

3.2.5 Ripple Marks

Location no. 5
About 4 km North from Ghyalchowk at Gorkha.
Definition
Ripple marks are sedimentary structures that form on the surface of loose, unconsolidated
sediment, such as sand or mud, due to the movement of water or wind. They are characterized
by a series of elongated, symmetrically arranged ridges and troughs. Ripple marks provide
valuable information about ancient environments and geological processes. Geologists can
study ripple marks in sedimentary rocks to interpret the direction and intensity of ancient
currents or winds, and to understand the conditions under which the sediments were deposited.

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Chapter 4- SITE INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE
Site investigation is a systematic process to collect and record all the necessary data which will
be needed or help in the design and construction processes.

A bridge may be defined as a structure built over a river, a dry valley or any depressed part of
land to provide a link between the two opposite sides.

4.2 FAILURE OF BRIDGE

Location 2
Malekhu old bridge
This bridge was taken away by the flood from 2052 B.S. After observing the site we can say
that,
 Metrological information of flood was not read.
 Relatively lower height of bridge than the expected calamities.
 Wrong placing of foundation as we can see the water directly hits on the foundation.
 Wrong site selection.
 Lack of morphological study.
 Scouring has also a greater impact for its failure.

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4.3 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE
Geological investigation of bridge must study following details.

•The foundation of bridge piers and abutments require a serious geological investigation.

•An ideal site for the construction of a bridge in is the one across the valley cut in a sound
rock and where the river flow is free from scouring due to bends, tributaries and other causes.

•The chief factors which govern the stability of bridges are lateral forces, earthquake forces
and scouring action of river.

•Piers should be founded at depth safe from scouring erosion.

•In many cases, the location of a bridge is decided more by socio-economic factors than
geological considerations. In big cities divided by streams and rivers, a bridge has to be
places where necessary irrespective of subsurface geology.

•In any major bridge construction project, the bridge abutment and piers should be kept on
sound, strong and stable rock foundation below as possible.

•River bed are covered by varying thickness of unconsolidated natural deposits of sand,
gravels and boulders not safe for foundation of bridge pier.

•Height of individual piers may vary according to the depth of the sound bedrock below the
surface as each them should be founded on the stable rock.

•Most igneous and massive sedimentary and metamorphic rocks like gneiss, quartzite are
considered sound for bridge foundation.

•Presence of harder rock over weaker rocks, rock heterogeneity, zones of weathering etc. are
not favourable sites for bridge foundation which should be treated.

•Fracturing and highly jointing is undesirable for the foundation as they might cause
settlement beyond allowable limits.

.•Fault zones are to be avoided as the foundation, as any further displacement along these
planes will adversely affect the bridge.

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 Chapter-5 HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS TO
MEASURE
Location No. 8
Below the Malekhu suspension bridge.

5.1 Attitude of Geological Planes and its Components

Behaviour of the bed rock is called attitude. The orientation in space by the convention,
altitude of plane is expressed as its strike, dip direction and dip amount. It is three
dimensional orientation of some geological feature such as
bed joint, fold etc.

Components of the Attitude

The various components of attitude are following:
1. Strike:
The strike is an imaginary horizontal line can be drown in any plane surface. It expressed the
compass direction of that line with the geological north direction.

2. Dip Direction:
It is the direction of inclination geological planes. Dip directions is always 90 degree of the
strike direction.

3. Dip Amount:
A Dip amount is the inclination of the geological plane surface and it is defined as the acute
angle (0-90°) between the geological plane surface and imaginary horizontal plane surface.
Dip represents the maximum inclination of the bed or foliation. It is measured in a vertical
plane that is at right angle to the strike of the bed.

4. Trend:
Trend is the direction of that particular linear feature from the geological north line. It is
represented in azimuth.

5. Plunge:
Plunge is the acute angle made by the linear feature with the imaginary horizontal plane.

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5.2 Geological compass and its Components

Geological Compass:
The attitude of geological structures are measured with the help of a compass. The brunton
compass is taken were as an example of the geological compass. The compass circle is
numbered from 0-360° increasing counter clockwise.

The several components of the compass are followings:

1. For determination of Horizontal angle/Bearing angle (Strike and Dip direction)
a. Compass Needle
b. Graduate Circle
c. Circular Bubble

2. For determination of Vertical angle (Dip angle/amount)

a. Knob

b. Cylindrical Bubble

c. Vernier (0-60/0-60)

d. Semi-Circle (0-90/0-90)

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5.3 Handling of the geological compass
It is handled as following ways:
1. If the plane is flat, smooth and non-magnetic the easiest way to measure the strike and dip
of the plane.
2. The plane is to touch the edge of the box (not all the rectangular side) with the plane while
centering the circular, bull's eye level. This will generate a horizontal line parallel to the
edge of the box on the plane intersect. This is the strike of the plane.
3. After the strike is measured, the magnitude of the dip of the plane is measured by putting
the entire rectangular side of the box perpendicular to the strike line and centering the
clinometer.
4. For dip amount, the compass should be put as vertical to the strike line and revolving the
back to centering the bubbles at centre and watch the dip amount by matching the zero of
60 to 60 reading with the inner reading of 90 to 90 at just front of the 60 to 60 reading scale.
5. If the plane is outward then the north mirror side of the compass should be up and when
the plane is outward or inside of the angle the sighting of the compass should be put as 90°
at upward direction then measured the dip direction of the plan.

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5.4 Attitude of geological planes measured in the field

Observation Table
SN strike Dip direction Dip amount Remarks

1. 95 189 74 Sagar
2. 85 175 72 Aayush
3. 85 170 73 Shivam
4. 88 178 82 Bigisha
5. 259 170 66 Sandesh
6. 265 172 70 Hritik

7. 88 176 62 Priyanka

8. 264 173 70 Roshani

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Chapter 6- PETROLOGY

6.1 Definition and types of Rocks

Rock is defined as the naturally forming hand and compact solid aggregate or assemblage of
minerals forming crust of the earth. Some of the rocks are monomineralic (formed by the
assemblage of one mineral) in nature while most of the rocks are multimineralic (formed by
the assemblage of two or more minerals).

Types of Rocks
Rocks are classified into three types:
1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic Rock

6.1.1 Igneous Rock:

Igneous rocks are those rocks which are formed by the solidification of magma (hot molten
mass) either below or above the surface of the earth.
Igneous rocks are of two types:
a) Intrusive or Plutonic Rock: Those rocks which are formed below the earth's surface are
known as intrusive or plutonic rock.
b) Extrusive or Volcanic Rock: Those rocks which are formed above or on the earth's surface
are known as extrusive or volcanic rock.

The important features of igneous rock are:

i. Generally, they are hard, compact with interlocking grains.
ii. Absence of fossils.
iii. It usually contains feldspar.

6.1.2 Sedimentary Rock:

Those rocks which are formed by the compaction and cement of sediments in a depositional
basin are called sedimentary rock. Erosion, Deposition and Transportation are the three
essential processes to form sedimentary rock.
According to the mode of deposition, Sedimentary rocks are of three types. They are:
a) Orthochemical sedimentary rock: The product of chemical decomposition are transported
by water up to lakes or seas and starts to precipitate and these precipitated mass after
compaction and nitrification gives rise to orthochemical sedimentary rock.
b) Allochemical sedimentary rock: If the precipitated minerals undergo some movement and
redeposition after crystallization and compaction gives allochemical sedimentary rock.
c) Terrigenous sedimentary Rock: These types of sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition,
compacting and cementing of solid fragments of rocks or minerals. These rocks are carried
in basin by rolling, creeping etc.

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The important features of sedimentary rock are:

i. They are generally soft.

ii. Fossils are commonly found.
iii. Common minerals are found such as quartz, calcite, dolomite, feldspar etc.

6.1.3 Metamorphic Rock

The pre-existing rocks which are formed by the action of temperature and pressure are
metamorphic rock. The metamorphic rock derived from igneous rock are ortho-metamorphic
rocks and form sedimentary rocks are para-metamorphic rock. Eg: Quartzite, Marble, Slate etc.
The process of formation of metamorphic rock is called metamorphism.
On the basis of texture and structure, they are divided into two types. They are:
a) Foliated metamorphic rock: Those are metamorphic rocks showing the development of
conspicuous parallelism in their mineralogical constitutents.

It is further classified into two types:

i. Well foliated: Eg:- Slate, Phyllite
ii. Weakly foliated: Eg:- Gneiss

b) Non foliated metamorphic rock: In this group, all metamorphic rocks doesn't have
parallelism in its structural constitution are included. They are named on the basis of
constituent minerals. They are named on the basis of constituent minerals. Eg :- Marble
(Calcite dolomite), Quartzite (quartz dolomite) etc.

6.2 Field identification criteria of rocks

i. Igneous rock
 Bedding plane if greater than 0.5 cm
 Non foliated
 Hard and massive
 Random orientation of the minerals
 Presence of xenolith

ii. Sedimentary rock

 Presence of bedding plane, cross bedding and distinct strata
 Strength less than igneous rock
 Small laminas are seen
 Presence of fossils

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iii.Metamorphic rock
 Foliation plane less than 0.5 cm
 Minerals orientation are in systematic pattern
 Wavy undulation, cleavage can be seen
 Non-foliated if same minerals

6.3 Physical properties

Sample 1
Location no.1
About 100m southward from Malekhu bridge (way to Talti)

Color Creamy
Structure Primary geological structure(bedding plane)
Texture Fine grain
Acid test Reactive with dil.HCl in powder form
Hammer test Metallic sound
Mineral composition Calcite, Magnesium
Rock type Sedimentary rock
Rock name Dolomitic limestone
Engineering significance Strength-medium
Drillability-medium
Blasticity-medium
Uses i)contains lime so can be in cement production
ii)as a mixture for color
iii)used as chicken grains
Geological formation Malekhu limestone

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Location no.4
3.5km south from Malekhu New Bridge at the bank of river

Sample 2
Color Creamy
Structure Non foliated
Texture Fine grained
Acid test Non-reactive with dil.HCl
Hammer test Metallic sound and hard
Mineral composition Quartz minerals
Rock type Metamorphic
Rock name Quartzite
Engineering significance Strength-high
Drillability-low
Blasticity-high
Uses i)construction of foundation,embankment
ii)for floorings and walls
Geological formation Robang formation

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Sample 3
Color Milky white
Structure Non foliated(granulose or scroidal)
Texture Coarse grain
Acid test Vigorously reacts with
Hammer test Metallic sound ,hardeness(2-3)
Mineral composition Calcite
Rock type Metamorphic
Rock name Marble
Engineering significance Strength-medium
Drillability-medium
Blasticity-medium
Uses i)manufacture of cement
ii)as flooring
Geological formation Bhaise Dobhan marble

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Sample 4
Color Black and white
Structure Hard and massive,xenolith
Texture Coarse grain
Acid test Non-reactive
Hammer test Metallic sound
Mineral composition Phesoclase,Biotite,Muscovite,Turmalin,Feldspar
Rock type Intrusive igneous rock
Rock name Granite
Engineering significance Strength-high
Drillability-low
Blasticity-high
Uses i)kitchen slab
ii)construction material
Geological formation Agra granite

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Sample 5
Color Greenish
Structure Foliated
Texture Fine grain
Acid test Non-reactive
Hammer test Poor sound
Mineral composition Chlorite,Mica
Rock type metamorphite
Rock name Phyllite
Engineering significance Strength-low
Drillability-high
Blasticity-low
Uses i) filling materials
ii) coloring pigment
Geological formation Robang

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Sample 6
Color Grey
Structure Foliated
Texture Fine to coarse grain
Acid test Non-reactive
Hammer test Dull sound
Mineral composition Biotite,Garnate,Quartz
Rock type Metamorphic
Rock name Schists/Granetic ferrous
Engineering significance Strength-medium
Drillability-medium
Blasticity-medium
Uses i)barely used for construction
ii)ornaments and aesthetic mineral extraction
Geological formation Radhuwa formation

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Location no.7
The location lies about 200m away from Malekhu suspension bridge towards old Kalu-Pandey
highway.

Sample 7
Color Grey
Structure Foliated
Texture Fine grain
Acid test Non-reactive
Hammer test Poor sound
Mineral composition Chlorite, Mica minerals clay
Rock type Metamorphic
Rock name Slate
Engineering significance Strength-low
Drillability-high
Blasticity-low
Uses i)roofing,flooring
Geological formation Benighat Slate

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Chapter 7 -GEOMORPHOLOGY
Location no: 06
The location lies at the 150 m upstream from the confluence between Trishuli River and
Thoppal khola at the right bank of Trishuli River.

River Channel morphology

The study of the channel pattern and the channel geometry at several points along a river
channel, including the network of tributaries within the drainage basin. Also known as River
Channel morphology.

7.1 Types of River Channel

When the river flows in its way, it follows a definite path, the path followed by the river during
its flow is called river channel. The river follows different path according to the energy level,
the velocity of river and the gradient of riverbed. There are three different types of river
channel.
Straight
The river follows a straight path in its high energy level. In this case erosion is predominant
and the velocity of river is maximum. In hilly region, the river follows straight path.

Meandering
In this type of flow, the river follows the path like as snake's movement. in valley region, the
river follows the meandering path. Erosion and deposition take place side by side in the same
time.

Braided
In this type of flow, the river follows multiple channels. Deposition is predominant in this flow.
The braided river tends to be very wide and relatively shallow. The river follows this type of
path in terai region.

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7.2 Landform created by running water
Higher Terrace
It is the land formed by the river as it was flowing in these areas in the past history. The higher
terrace is over the high flood level of the river in present. There may be finer and coarser
material layers alternately in the higher terrace.

Middle Terrace
As its name it is the middle part of the higher and lower terrace. This terrace will also over the
high flood level of the river.

Lower Terrace (Flood Plain)

During floods a river overflows its bank and submerges the adjacent low-lying areas where
deposition of alluvial material takes place. A wide belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on
either side of a stream, is called 'flood plain'.

Channel Bar
Many rivers are forced to rope a part of their load along their beds, especially in the flatter
regions along their course. Most commonly the deposits so formed tale the shape of long
narrow ridges called channel bars. Since they are made up of sand, they are also called sand
bar. The river will flow from both side of the channel bar. They are temporary in nature because
an increase in velocity, the river may cut down and take the sand along with it.

Oxbow Lake
The meanders grow by eroding its outer bank and depositing sediments at the inner bank.
During this process the sharpness of the river bends increases progressively and the neck of
meander becomes narrow and narrow. Finally a stage comes when the r iver cuts through the
neck and starts flowing straight leaving behind its roundabout course. Such left out old
meanders which remain filled with stagnant water, are called “oxbow lakes”.

Alluvial Fans
The alluvial material, which flows down from mountains, accumulates at foothills where the
stream enters a plain. The deposition occurs due to abrupt cha nge in the gradient of river valley.
Such deposits spread out in the shape of flat fans and are called “alluvial fans”. Usually the
coarse material is dropped near the base of the slope while finer material is carried further out
on the plain. Alluvial fans from many adjacent streams along a mountain may merge to form a
long wedge of sediment called “alluvial aprons”.

Point Bars
In meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur as point bars. The point bars are the crescent
shaped deposits, which occur at inside bends of a river channel.

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Natural Levees
“Natural levees” are the low ridges, which are formed on both sides of a river channel by the
accumulation of sediment. They tend to confine the flow of river water into its channel between
flood stages. The natural levees occur in rivers, which have broad flood plains. During floods
the river overflows its bank and its velocity decreases rapidly. As a result most of the coarse
sediment is deposited along the area bordering the river channel and finer sediments are
deposited more widely over the flood plain. In this way, successive floods build up ridges
on both sides of a river channel, which are called “natural levees”.

Deltas
Deltas are deposits built at the mouths of streams. The deltas are usually triangular in shape
with their apex pointed upstream. When a stream enters an ocean or lake, the currents of the
flowing water dissipate quickly. This results in the deposition of the series of sedimentary
layers, which make up the delta. The material of most deltas is well sorted and many deltas are
uniformly graded.

Oxbow lake Higher terrace

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 Chapter 8 -MASS MOVEMENT AND ITS MITIGATION
MEASURES

8.1 Definition
The movement of mass surface material such as soil, rock or mud under the influence of gravity
is known as mass movement. The mass movement is also known as mass wasting. It occurs
along hillsides and mountains and can be happen very slowly or very quickly. In context of
Nepal, it is divided into three types according to Varnes (1978).

8.2 Types of mass movement

1. Lanslide
2. Debris flow
3. Fall

Lanslide
Downward movement of earth material due to the influence of gravity in slip surface.

Debris flow
Downward movement of earth material maix with water (regolith) due to the influence of
gravity in slip surface.

Fall
Downward movement of earth material due to influence of gravity without slip surface.

8.3 Landslide and varnes classification of lanslide

The movement of mass at rock, debris down a slope is known as landslide. Landslides are type
of “mass wasting”, which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct
influence of gravity. The term “landslide” encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls
topples, slides, spreads and flows. These are further subdivided by the type of geological
material (bedrock, debris or earth). Debris flows (commonly referred to as mud flows or mud
slides) and rock falls are examples of common landslide types (Cruden and Varnes, 1996).

Varnes classification of landslide

1. Types of material
2. Types of movement/velocity

According to types of material

a) Bed rocks: Those rocks which lies horizontally to the earth surface called as bedrock.
b) Engineering soil
i. Coarser material (maximum)
ii. Finer material (maximum)
Types of movement
1. Fall
2. Topple
3. Slides
4. Lateral spread
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5. Flow
6. Complex

Fall:
Any materials without any rotation, translation is called fall (like apple falling).Most of the
movements occur due to free falls or by rolling or bouncing. Depending upon the type of slope
materials involve it may be called rock fall, debris fall and soil or earth falls.

i. Rock fall: Falling of rock without any rotation, translation.

ii. Earth fall: Earth material falling without rotation, translation up to 80% above of finer
materials.
iii. Debris fall: Having up to 80% coarser material which fall without any rotational,
transitional.

Topples:
The top surface is making any angle with surface if that angle is changed is known as topples.
Types of topples are rock topples, earth topples and debris topples.
i. Rock topple: If the angle made by the top surface of the rock is changed by some
geological effect than that is known as rock topple.
ii. Earth topple: Mixed with between the Earth fall and topple. Earth material falling up to
80% above of finer materials and the top surface making any angle with surface with
any cause it is rotate known as earth topples.

Slides:
These are movements caused by finite shear failure along one or more surface of rupture which
are visible or whose presence can be inferred. Types of slides:
i. Rotational: These slides refer to failure involving sliding movements on the circular or
near movements on the circular or near circular surface of failure. They generally occur
on slopes of homogeneous clay, shale, weathered rocks and soils.
ii. Translational: These are non-rotational block slides involving mass movement on move
or less planar surface.

Lateral spread:
Spreading of rock without slide, topples. These failure are caused by liquefaction where by
saturated loose cohesion less sediments are transformed into a liquid state. There are 3 types -
rock spread, earth spread and debris spread.

Flow:
It is a content of water. These can be debris flows. Flows are rapid movement of materials as a
viscous mass where inter granular movement predominate over shear surface movement. Types
are earth flow, debris flow.

Complex:
If there is combination of any two or more than two types of landslide then it is a complex type.

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8.4 Causes of landslide
 Heavy rains
 Earthquake
 Volcanic eruption
 Flood
 Ground water changes
 Rapid snow melt
 Quarrying

8.5 Mitigation Measures of landslides

1. By making engineering structures like Gabion wall, Masonry wall, Jute tunnel etc.
2. By making drainage pattern.
3. Bio-Engineering: plantation of trees in the open area to control landslides.
4. Construction of debris basins in different suitable areas.
5. Removal of top.

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Chapter 9 - ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Location no: 05
The location about 4km North from Ghyalchowk at Gorkha.

Background
Rock mass classification systems are used for engineering designs and stability analysis. These
are based on empherical relations between rocks mass parameters and engineering application
such as slopes, foundation. The first rock mass classification system in geotechnical
engineering was proposed in 1946 for tunnels with steel set support.

9.1 Rock Mass Classification System

It is the system which is carried out to determine the quality of rock. It includes following
topics:
a) RQD (Rock Quality Designation)
b) Q-System
c) RMR System (Rock Mass Rating)

The two numerical formula for RQD value are:

ℇ𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 10 𝑐𝑚
1. RQD =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

2. RQD = 115-3.3×JV where JV = Joint Volume

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9.2 Rock Mass Rating System
The process of rating the rock according to their strength, spacing of discontinuity etc is
called mass rating system. It was developed in Norway by Barton in 1974 of Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (NGI).
Some of the parameter used in the system are:
Short Form Long form
RQD Rock quality Designation
Jn Number of joints set
Jr Joint water reduction
Ja Joint alternative
Jw Joint water reduction factor
SRF Stress reduction FACTOR

Rock tunnelling quality index (Q system)

𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽𝑟 𝐽𝑊
Q= × ×
𝐽𝑁 𝐽𝑄 𝑆𝑅𝐹

9.3 Rock Mass Rating Observed in the field

The data taken from the direct field visit are present below:

S.N Properties Values Rating

1. Strength >250Mpa 15

2. RQD 50% -75% 13

3. Spacing of continuities 60-200mm 8

4. Condition of From guidelines for classification 14

discontinuities of discontinuity conditions
5. Ground Water Completely Dry 15

Total RMR 65

Rock mass Rating = 65 (Good rock)

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RQD(JV method)
Joint 1 (J1) = 11
Joint 2 (J2) = 9
Total number of joints (J) = 20
RQD=115-3.3JV
=115-3.3×20
=49%
Hence the rock mass class is “Good Rock” whose RMR value ranges from 61-80.

Support System Required for Rock Class Observed in Field

Based on the total value of the rock mass parameters the rock mass needs following type of
support system.
Rock mass Excavation Rock bolts Shotcrete Steel sets
classification
Good Rock Full face, 1-1.5 m Locally, bolts in crown 50mm in crown None
advance. Complete 3m long, spaced 2.5 m where required
RMR: 61-80
20 m from face. with occasional wire
mesh

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Chapter 10- CONCLUSION

Engineering geology is one of the vital subject for the civil engineering student and for
engineers. A trip to Malekhu area has provides a chances to learn the various structures,
resources etc. and gives the knowledge about geological curiosity.
After visiting the Malekhu area for about three days we were able to know about the practical
knowledge about geology. In this area we found different types of rocks and minerals, its
structure, mineral composition and further details of its. We become able to identify the
mineral. We found different sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rock and its form. We
become able to recognize the geological structure like fold, fault, joints etc. We also studied
about to calculate rock's dip angle, dip amount and strike of the bedding plane and join plane
by using geological compass (Brunton). We know how to handle the geological compass and
geological hammer and used it for various proposed. In additional we studied about mass
movement, their types and how to control mass movement. Most of the civil engineering
structure are placed in earth. So the scope of engineering geology is wide.
At last, this trip to the Malekhu area gives the knowledge about nature of rock, identifying the
rock and its engineering significance. It is helpful for engineering students to understand about
geological structure.

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