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Introduction to Petroleum
Engineering
PEP 101

‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﮫ ﻓﻲ ھﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺒﺘﺮول‬

Written By:
Dr. Ahmad Alkouh

Spring 2016

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Petroleum Engineering:

Origin of oil:
• Petroleum is a Latin, Petra (rock) and Oleum (oil)
• Also called, hydrocarbon because made of hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C), for
example, methane gas (CH4)
• Petroleum (Oil and Gas) was made from remains of animals and plant and
mostly plankton and algae through limited oxidation, bacterial action, thermal
maturation and high pressure from the overlaying formation
• Scientists believe that the present known hydrocarbon was made 10 to 440
million years

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Hydrocarbon Traps:
• Oil and gas migrate from its place of formation (Source Rock) to the traps by
the movement of underground water
• This happens when the oil is expelled out of the source rock because of the
increased pressure on the source rock as more layers are deposited on top
• These traps are part of sedimentary basins which are formed as fine and
coarse grains from eroding mountain or hill are carried out by wind or
running water
• The larger grains will result in larger pore sizes while the finer grains will
form small pore size
• The larger pores usually allow fluid to pass through them (permeable). The
smaller pore size may not allow fluid to pass through them (impermeable)
• For example, group of balls of football and tennis which has more space?

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Porosity ( Φ ):
• It is the ratio of the pore space in the rock to its bulk volume
• It represents the storage capacity of the rock
• Units for porosity (fraction) %
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Permeability ( K ):
• It is the ability of the rock to transmit fluid through it
• It represents the high or low production rate
• Units Darcy (1D or 1000 md)

Definition of Hydrocarbon Traps:

• Porous and permeable sedimentary rock that is surrounded from the top and
sides by impermeable formation
• This high pressure and temperature from the earth core causes the earth’s
crust to fold and break (fault). This may create a barrier between permeable
and impermeable formation (horizontally and vertically)
• This folding and faulting may result in oil traps, these traps capture the
moving hydrocarbon from reservoir. The speed of migration does not exceed
a few feet per year

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Types of traps:
1. Structural traps:
• Result of the structure of these sedimentary rocks (after folding and
faulting)
• Easy to discover

Two Types:
A. Dome Trap:
• Shape of a dome
• Result of folding of layers or salt dome
• Hydrocarbon accumulate in the top (anticline) because of
density difference
• Hydrocarbon is lighter than water
B. Fault Trap:
• Formed when layers are broken due to earthquak

2. Stratigraphic traps:
• Formed from isolated porous and permeable formation changes
surrounding and become impermeable
• Difficult to find

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Salt Dome

Fault Trap
Trap Rocks:
• The formation covering the trap is impermeable ( k = 0 ) and made of fine
grain (diameter = 0.004 – 0.06 mm)
• The rocks of the porous and permeable formation are coarse grain (diameter=
0.06 – 2 mm) and they are three types
• Three types of rock:
Ø Sandstone:
• Silica oxide SiO2
• Either loose or consolidated
• This rock is 60 to 90% quartz grain and the rest is cementing
material made up of silt and clay
Ø Limestone:
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• Calcium carbonate CaCO3

• Chalk is a special form of limestone and is formed from the
skeletons of small creatures
Ø Dolomite:
• Calcium magnesium carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2
• It is originally limestone but changed to dolomite by
underground water
• 2 CaCO3 + MgCl2 → CaMg(CO3)2 + CaCl2

Reservoirs:
• It is the part of the trap that contains hydrocarbons
• Range in area: few – several 100 squ km
• Range in thickness: few – several 100 m
• Reservoir formation types:
• Soft formation: poorly sorted sand / shale sequences
• Intermediate: fairly consolidated sandstone, limestone or dolomite
• Hard: limestone, dolomite, tight sandstone
• Completely impervious: salt beds like anhydrite or coal
• Two main types of reservoirs:

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• Volumetric Reservoir: has a constant hydrocarbon pore volume and no

water flow in the production (less oil, no water)
• Reservoir under hydraulic control: reservoir lies over a strong aquifer
which cause water to come out during production (more oil, more
water)

Reserves:
• The recoverable portion of the initial oil in place
• Oil reserve depends on: reservoir type, oil viscosity, reservoir rock
permeability and porosity, production operation, reservoir management and
technology
• There are four different types of reserves:
• Possible reserve: new discovery but not drilled
• Probable reserve: not drilled but compared to similar known
• Geological reserve: estimate of all oil in the reservoir ( produced and
not produced)
• Ultimate recoverable resources: proven reserve plus the accumulation
oil production
Hydrocarbon phases:
• Hydrocarbon exists in 3 phases: gas, liquid or solid depending on pressure,
temperature and compositions
• One phase: gas, solid and liquid (oil)
• Two phase: free gas and liquid (oil), liquid (oil) and solid hydrocarbon, gas
and solid hydrocarbon
• Three phase: gas, solid, liquid
• Live oil: liquid oil which contains dissolved gas
• Dead oil: liquid oil which does not contain dissolved gas

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Reservoir fluids:
• Include hydrocarbon (oil, gas) and formation water
• Formation water is called connate water (high salt, original water)
• Types of hydrocarbon in the reservoir:
• Solid hydrocarbon: attached to rock, not produced
• Tar
• Heavy oil
• Normal oil
• Condensate: produced from gas reservoir
• Gas: lightest phase of hydrocarbon
• Rich gas: high % of heavier gas
• Dry gas: low % of heavier gas
• Associated gas: gas come out with oil production
• Free gas: normal gas
• Sour gas: has H2S hydrogen sulfide
• Sweet gas: clean no H2S hydrogen sulfide
Impurities:
• Non-hydrocarbon materials, ex:
A. Sulfur compounds: H2S cause corrosion make oil price go down
B. Nitrogen and Oxygen: react with oxygen and cause corrosion and
plugging of pipe
C. Minerals: solid compounds plug equipment
D. Water: high salinity cause corrosion
E. Sediments: damage well

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Exploration and Formation Evaluation:

• In the past, oil come out to surface
• Depends on surface and subsurface studies:
1. Evaluation of surface geology: pictures taken from airplane or
satellite for evaluation
2. Evaluation of subsurface geology:
• Measure sound waves through subsurface formation
done by explosions in truck and measuring wave as can
be seen in the figures below
• Inspection of drilling mud or core

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Drilling Operations:
• The aim of drilling a well is to create a path between the trap and the surface
• Drilling is done by rotating a bit with the weight of the drill pipe on it

Oil Rig:
• Shallow depth ( < 10,000 ft ) use 1500 hp
• Deep depth ( > 10,000 ft ) use 3000 hp
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• Power is used to operate pumps, draw work, rotor

1. Pump is used to pump mud and cement
2. Draw work for lifting equipment
3. Rotor is for rotating drill pipe and bit

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Drill Ship

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Rotary Rig Components and Operations:

The rotary rig consists of five major systems: engines, hoisting, rotating, mud systems
and blowout prevention (BOP).

A typical onshore rotary drilling rig

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Engines:

Engines or prime movers supply the power to the rig:

• Depending on the rig size may have 2 to 4 engines.
• Engines are diesel and used to generate electric power
• Used primarily to turn the drill string and raise and lower equipment and
pumps.

Diesel-electric power transmission system for a rotary drilling rig

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Hoisting:

The hoisting system is used to raise and lower and to suspend equipment in the well.

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Rotating:
The rotary system is used to drill the hole.
• Swivel allows the pipe to rotate while the pipe is suspended from the
derrick.

Swivel picture (L) and schematic (R)

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 • The Kelly is a four to six-sided pipe used to turn the pipe in the hole (just like
a pencil).

• The rotary table is a circular table in the derrick floor (engines) and used to
rotate the Kelly.

• Drill pipe comes in approximately 30 foot sections called “joints”.

• Depending on the depth 2 – 20 collars are often used.
• Drill collars are below the drill pipe.

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a. Adds weight to the bottom of the drill pipe. (WOB)

b. Helps control drilling and prevents the drill pipe from breaking/kinking.

• The bit screws into the bottom of the drill collars.

a. Most common bit is the tricone bit, which has three rotating cones
b. Cones have teeth designed to chip and flake away the rock as the bit is
rotated
c. Different bits are used for different rock hardness
i. Average bit wears out after 24 hours
ii. Tripping out/tripping in. (Time = $)
• The drillstring includes the swivel, Kelly, drillpipe, drill collars & bit

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Mud system/circulating system:

The mud system circulates drilling mud in the hole.

Components of the circulating system for a rotary drilling rig

• Mud is stored in steel pits beside the rig.
• Mud is pumped through the drill string and jets out through holes in the bit.

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• The drilling mud picks up cuttings and transports them to the surface via the
annulus
• The shale shaker (series of screens) is designed to separate the cuttings from the
drilling mud.
1. Mud cleans and cools the bit as it flows across the nozzles.
2. Mud controls pressure in the well and prevents blowouts.
3. Mudcake stabilizes the well.

hydrocyclones

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Other drilling methods:

1. Directional drilling: to reach different reservoir from drilling rig (sea)
2. Horizontal drilling: to improve contact with reservoir
3. Turbine drilling: only the head rotate not pipe
4. Offshore drilling

Well Completion:

Well completion concepts "bridge" the gap between drilling of a well and the
production from that well. Completion elements include:
• Casing
• Cement
• Perforating and sand or gravel packs
• Production equipment: tubing, packers
• Surface flow control - wellhead or Christmas tree

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Casing & Cement:

a. Supports sides of hole
b. Prevents unwanted communication of fluids and pressure between
different formations
c. Allows control of pressures
d. Provides a base- for surface and subsurface equipment

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Openhole & Perforated Completion:

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Surface flow control:

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Oil production:
• Natural forces assist oil to flow from reservoir to well to the top
• These forces can be supported or enhanced
• Natural Forces are:
Ø Displacement forces: a decrease in pressure between the
reservoir and the well, water drive or gas cap drive
Ø Expansion forces: the oil and dissolved gas will expand,
hydrocarbon volume will increased, oil and gas will flow to
the well (low pressure)
Ø Gravity forces: gravity will make gas on top, then oil, then
water
Ø Combination drive: water drive with a gas cap

Recovery factor (N):

• The ratio of cumulative oil produced to the initial oil in place
• Depends on type of reservoir

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR):

• After the natural force is depleted, EOR methods are used
• Injecting cheap material ex, water, gas and heat (steam)
• EOR methods are:
Ø Water injection: inject water to move oil toward well, cheap but
problem with water fingering
Ø Gas injection: inject dry gas (methane and ethane), inject it into gas
cap (increase pressure) or into oil to move it (ex, mud and water)
Ø Heat injection: inject hot steam to clean well bore and to improve oil
flow

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Fracture Unit

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Beam Pump Unit

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Reservoir fluid separation:

• Separate oil, gas and water using gathering centers (GC)
• Crude oil is sent to tank farm
• Gas is compressed and sent separately
• Water is treated and reinjected
• Reservoir Barrel (Rbbl): a barrel of oil under the reservoir pressure and
temperature with gas in it
• Stock tank barrel (STB): a barrel of oil at surface with no gas in it
• Pound per Square Inch (PSI): units for pressure used in petroleum
• Associated gas: the gas produced with the oil

Hydrocarbon transportation:
• It requires transport by pipelines, tankers
• Graph shows onshore ports and offshore ports

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Hydrocarbon Flow From Reservoir to Usages and Industries:

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Units Conversion:

• Conversion factor is an expression for the relationship between units

• Unit conversion factor is a fraction in which the numerator and
denominator represent the same quantity, but in different units
• Unit conversion factor can be used to convert, measurements from one
unit to another
• Multiplying a quantity by a unit conversion factor changes only its
units, not its value
• To convert between units, use the tables shown below

Example 1,

Show what you are given on the left, and what units you want on the right.

Step 1. Insert the required conversion factors to change between units. In

this case we need only one conversion factor, and we show it as the
fraction, 1hr/60min. We put the units of minutes on the bottom so that
they will cancel out with the minutes on the top of the given.

Step 2. Cancel units where you can, and solve the math.

Example 2,

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A student determines that the density of a certain material is 4.46 g/cm3. What
would be the density of this material in g/L?

Well, in order to solve this problem you must remember that 1000 cm3 =
1L. Then follow the same steps as the previous problem.

Step 1. Show what you are given on the left, and what units you want on
the right.

Step 2. Insert the required conversion factors to change between units.

Step 3. Cancel units where you can, and solve the math.

Example 3,

Imagine that water is leaking from a container, at a rate of 1.2 ml/hour. If this rate
does not change, how many liters of water will be lost in a week?

We can make a list of the conversion factors that we will need.

1 L = 1000 ml 24 h = 1 day 7 day = 1 week

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Step 1. Show what you are given on the left, and what units you want on
the right.

Step 2. Insert the required conversion factors to change between units.

Step 3. Cancel units where you can, and solve the math.

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Conversion Factors:
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
A
acres x 0.404 69 = hectares
acres x 43,560 = square feet (ft2)
acres x 4,046.873 = square meters (m2)
acre-feet x 43,560 = cubic feet (ft3 or cf)
acre-feet x 7,758 = barrels
Angstrom units x 1.0E-10 = meters (m)
atmospheres x 14.70 = pounds/square inch
atmospheres x 1.033 = kilograms/square centimeter
atmospheres x 1.013250E+05 = pascal
atmospheres x 33.90 = Feet of water
atmospheres x 76.0 = centimeter of mercury

B
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
barrels (crude oil) x 5.6146 = cubic feet of crude oil
barrels (crude oil) x 0.158 987 3 = cubic meters of crude oil
barrels (crude oil) x 42 = gallons of crude oil, US
barrels (crude oil) x 158.987 3 = liters of crude oil
barrels (crude oil) x 0.136 = metric tons of crude oil
barrels/day x 0.0292 = Gallons(US)/minute
barrels/day<> x 1.84 = cubic centimeters/second
barrels (crude oil) x 0.15 = short tons of crude oil
barrels, US liquid x 0.75 = barrels of crude oil
barrels, US liquid x 31.5 = gallons, US
bars x 0.98 = atmospheres
bars x 14.50 = pounds/square inch
British thermal units (Btu) x 3.931E-04 = horsepower-hours
British thermal units (Btu) x 0.000 292 8 = kilowatthours (kWh)
bushels, US x 0.035 239 07 = cubic meters (m3)

C
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
calories (cal) x 4.186 8 = joules (J)
centimeters (cm) x 0.394 = inches (in)
centimeters of mercury x 0.44 = feet of water
centimeters/second x 0.036 = kilometers/hour
centipoise x 0.01 = poise

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centipoise x 0.01 = grams/cm-sec

centipoise x 0.0010 = pascal-second
centipoise x 6.72E-04 = pounds/ft-sec
cubic centimeters (cm3) x 3.531E-05 = cubic feet (ft3 or cf)
cubic centimeters (cm3) x 0.06102 = cubic inches (in3)
3
cubic centimeters (cm ) x 2.642E-04 = gallons, US liquid
3
cubic centimeters (cm ) x 1.0E-03 = liters (L)
cubic feet (ft3 or cf) x 28,320 = cubic centimeters (cm3)
cubic feet (ft3 or cf) x 1728 = cubic inches (in3)
3
cubic feet (ft or cf) x 7.48 = gallons, US liquid
cubic feet (ft3 or cf) x 28.316 8 = liters (L)
3
cubic feet (ft or cf) x 2.831685E-02 = cubic meters
cubic feet/minute x 472 = cubic centimeters/second
cubic feet/minute x 4.72E-4 = cubic meters/second
cubic feet/minute x 0.12 = gallons/second
cubic feet/minute x 0.471 947 4 = liters/second
cubic inches (in3) x 16.38706 = cubic centimeters (cm3)
3
cubic inches (in ) x 1.639E-05 = cubic meters (m3)
cubic inches (in3) x 4.329E-03 = gallons (gal)
cubic inches (in3) x 0.016387 06 = liters (L)
3
cubic meters (m ) x 35.315 = cubic feet (ft3 or cf)
3
cubic meters (m ) x 264.20 = gallons, US liquid
cubic meters (m3) x 1,000 = liters (L)
3/s
cubic meters/sec (m ) x 15,850 = gallons/minute
cubic meters/sec (m3/s) x 2118 = cubic feet/minute
3/s
cubic meters/sec (m ) x 60,000 = liters/minute
cycles/second x 1.0 = hertz

D
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
darcy x 0.9869E-12 = meter squared
days (mean solar) x 86,400 = seconds
degrees (angle) x 0.0111 = quadrants
degrees (angle) x 0.017 453 29 = radians
degrees (angle) x 3,600 = seconds
degrees/second x 0.16667 = revolutions/minute
dynes x 1.0E-05 = joules/meter (newtons)
dynes/square centimeter x 1.0E-06 = bars

E
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
em (pica) x 0.42 = centimeters (cm)

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ergs x 1.0E-07 = joules (J)

ergs x 2.78E-14 = kilowatthours (kWh)
ergs/second x 1.3E-10 = horsepower (hp)
ergs/second x 1.0E-10 = kilowatts

F
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
feet (ft) x 30.48 = centimeters (cm)
feet (ft) x 12 = inches (in)
feet (ft) x 0.3048 = meters (m)
feet (ft) x 1.645E-04 = miles (nautical)
feet (ft) x 1.894E-04 = miles (statute)
feet of water x 0.029499 = atmospheres of water
feet of water x 0.8826 = inches of mercury
feet of water x 0.433515 = pounds/square inch
feet/minute x 0.5080 = centimeter/second
feet/second x 1.09728 = kilometers/hour
feet/second x 0.59248 = knots
feet/second x 0.681818 = miles/hour
foot-candles x 10.763 91 = lumens/square meter
foot-pounds x 3.77E-07 = kilowatthours (kWh)
foot-pounds/minute x 2.26E-05 = kilowatts (kW)
foot-pounds/sec x 0.00181 = horsepower

G
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
gallons, US (gal) x 0.031 75 = barrels
gallons, US (gal) x 0.02381 = barrels of crude oil
gallons, US (gal) x 3,785.41 = cubic centimeters (cm3)
gallons, US (gal) x 0.1337 = cubic feet (ft3 or cf)
gallons, US (gal) x 3.785412E-03 = cubic meters (m3)
gallons, US (gal) x 0.832675 = gallons, imperial
gallons, US (gal) x 3.785412 = liters (L)
gallons, liquid British imperial x 1.2014 = gallons, US liquid
gallons of crude oil x 0.02380952 = barrels of crude oil
gallons/minute, US x 8.0208 = cubic feet/hour
gallons/minute, US x 0.134 = cubic feet/minute
gallons/minute, US x 6.309E-05 = cubic meters/sec
gausses x 1.0E-04 = webers/square meter
grains x 0.064798 91 = grams (g)
grams (g) x 0.0353 = ounces
grams (g) x 2.204623E-03 = pounds (lb)

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grams/centimeter x 5.6E-03 = pounds/inch

grams/cubic centimeter x 62.43 = pounds/cubic foot
grams/cubic centimeter x 8.347 = pounds/gallon
grams/liter x 1,000 = parts/million
grams/liter x 8.34 = pounds/1,000 gallons
grams/liter x 0.06243 = pounds/cubic foot
grams/square centimeter x 2.04816 = pounds/square foot
gram-calories x 1.56E-06 = horsepower-hours
gram-calories x 1.16E-06 = kilowatthours (kWh)

H
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
hectares (ha) x 2.471 = acres
hectares (ha) x 107,600 = square feet (ft2)
hectares (ha) x 10,000 = square meters (m2)
horsepower (hp) x 1.014 = horsepower (metric)
horsepower (hp) x 42.44 = British thermal units/minute
horsepower (hp) x 550 = foot-pounds/second
horsepower-hour (hp-hr) x 2.684520E+6 = Joules
horsepower (hp) x 0.746043 = kilowatts
horsepower (metric) x 0.986 = horsepower
horsepower (metric) x 542.5 = foot-pounds/second

I
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
inches (in) x 2.54 = centimeters (cm)
inches (in) x 0.0254 = meters (m)
inches (in) x 1.578E-05 = miles (mi)
inches of mercury x 0.4912 = pounds/square inch
inches of water at (4oC) x 2.458E-03 = atmospheres
inches of water at (4oC) x 0.03 = pounds/square inch

J
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
joules (J) x 9.48E-04 = British thermal units (Btu)
joules (J) x 2.778E-04 = watthours (Wh)

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K
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
kilograms (kg) x 2.204 6 = pounds (lb)
kilograms (kg) x 9.84E-04 = tons, long
kilograms (kg) x 1.1E-03 = tons, metric (t)
kilograms/cubic meter x 1.42E-03 = pounds/square inch
kilograms/meter x 0.67197 = pounds/foot
kilograms/square centimeter x 0.9678 = atmospheres
kilograms/square centimeter x 14.223 = pounds/square inch
kilograms/square meter x 9.81E-05 = bars
kilogram-meters x 2.72E-06 = kilowatthours (kWh)
kilometers (km) x 3,280.84 = feet (ft)
kilometers (km) x 0.621 4 = miles (mi)
kilometers/hour x 0.91134 = feet/second
kilometers/hour x 0.53995 = knots
kilometers/hour x 0.62137 = miles/hour
kilowatts (kW) x 1.341 = horsepower (hp)
kilowatts (kW) x 1,000 = watts (W)
kilowatthours (kWh) x 3,413 = British thermal units (Btu)
kilowatthours (kWh) x 3.60E+06 = Joules

L
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
liters (L) x 0.0063 = barrels of oil
liters (L) x 0.0084 = barrels
liters (L) x 0.035315 = cubic feet (ft3 or cf)
liters (L) x 61.02 = cubic inches (in3)
liters (L) x 0.264 = gallons
long tons x 1,016.047 = kilograms (kg)
long tons x 1.016047 = metric tons (t)
long tons x 2,240 = pounds (lb)
long tons x 1.12 = short tons (st)

M
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
meters (m) x 3.281 = feet (ft)
meters (m) x 6.21E-04 = miles (statute)
meters/second x 2.23 = miles/hour
meters/second x 196.8 = feet/minute
metric tons (t) x 1,000 = kilograms (kg)
metric tons (t) x 2,204.62 = pounds (lb)

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metric tons (t) x 1.1023 = short tons (st)

metric tons of crude oil x 7.33 = barrels (bbl)
microns x 1.0E-06 = meters (m)
miles, statute x 161,000 = centimeters (cm)
miles, statute x 5,280 = feet (ft)
miles, statute x 1.609344 = kilometers (km)
miles, statute x 1,609 = meters (m)
miles, statute x 0.868975 = miles, nautical
miles/hour x 44.70 = centimeter/second
miles/hour x 1.4667 = feet/second
meters (m) x 3.281 = feet
meters (m) x 6.21E-04 = miles (statute)
millimeters x 0.03937 = inches
milligrams/liter x 1 = parts/million
million gallons/day x 1.5472 = cubic feet/second
minutes (angles) x 0.0167 = degrees

N
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
newtons x 0.22481 = pounds force
newtons x 100,000 = dynes

O
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
ounces (oz) x 28.34 = grams (g)
ounces (oz) x 0.0625 = pounds (lb)

P
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
pascal x 1 = newton/sq meter
pascal x 9.871E-06 = atmosphere
parts/million x 8.34 = pounds/million gallon (gal)
pints, US liquid x 0.125 = gallons, US (gal)
poise (P) x 1 = grams/centimeter second
poundals x 13,826 = dynes
pounds (lb) x 4.45E+05 = dynes
pounds (lb) x 453.59 = grams (g)
pounds (lb) x 4.5359E-04 = Tons (metric)
pounds (lb) x 4.448 = joules/meter (newtons)

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pounds (lb) x 0.45359237 = kilograms (kg)

pounds (lb) x 16 = ounces (oz)
pounds of water x 27.68 = cubic inches (in3)
pounds of water x 0.11983 = gallons (gal)
pounds/cubic foot x 0.1337 = pounds/gallon (US)
pounds/cubic foot x 0.006944 = pounds/sq inch/foot (psi/ft)
pounds/cubic foot x 0.016026 = specific gravity
pounds/cubic foot x 0.016026 = grams/cubic centimeter
pounds/cubic foot x 16.026 = kilograms/cubic meter
pounds/cubic inch x 27.68 = grams/cubic centimeter
pounds/cubic inch x 27,680 = kilograms/cubic meter
pounds/foot x 1.4882 = kilograms/meter
pounds/inch x 178.60 = grams/centimeter
pounds/gallon (ppg) x 0.12005 = specific gravity
pounds/gallon (ppg) x 0.052 = pounds/sq inch/foot (psi/ft)
pounds/gallon (ppg) x 7.48 = pounds/cubic foot
pounds/gallon (ppg) x 0.1198 = grams/cubic centimeter
pounds/square inch x 0.0680 = atmospheres
pounds/square inch x 2.3095 = feet of water
pounds/square inch x 2.03602 = inches of mercury
pounds/square inch x 703.0696 = kilograms/square meter
pounds/square inch x 6.894757E+03 = pascal
pounds/square inch x 144 = pounds/square foot
pounds/sq inch/foot(psi/ft) x 19.23 = pounds/gallon (US)
pounds/sq inch/foot(psi/ft) x 144 = pounds/cubic foot
pounds/sq inch/foot (psi/ft) x 2.3095 = specific gravity

Q
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
Quadrants, angle x 90 = degrees
Quadrants, angle x 1.5708 = radians
quarts, liquid x 57.75 = cubic inches (in3)
quarts, liquid x 9.46E-04 = cubic meters (m3)

R
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
radians x 57.29 = degrees
radians x 3,438 = minutes
radians x 206,000 = seconds
revolutions x 360 = degrees
revolutions x 4 = quadrants
revolutions x 6.283185 = radians

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S
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
seconds (angle) x 2.78E-04 = degrees
seconds (angle) x 4.848137E-06 = radians
short tons (st) x 0.8929 = long tons
short tons (st) x 0.9071847 = metric tons (t)
short tons (st) x 2,000 = pounds (lb)
short tons of crude oil x 6.65 = barrels (bbl)
specific gravity x 1 = grams/cubic centimeter
specific gravity x 0.433 = pounds/sq inch/foot (psi/ft)
specific gravity x 8.33 = pounds/gallon (US)
specific gravity x 350.5 = pounds/barrel
specific gravity x 62.4 = pounds/cubic foot
square centimeters (cm2) x 1.08E-03 = square feet (ft2)
2
square centimeters (cm ) x 0.1550 = square inches (in2)
square inch (in2) x 6.4516 = square centimeter
square feet (ft2) x 2.2956E-05 = acres
2
square feet (ft ) x 929.03 = square centimeters (cm2)
2
square feet (ft ) x 144 = square inches (in2)
square feet (ft2) x 0.09290304 = square meters (m2)
2
square feet (ft ) x 3.59E-08 = square miles (mi2)
2
square kilometers (km ) x 247.10 = acres
2
square kilometers (km ) x 100 = hectares
square kilometers (km2) x 0.386 = square miles (mi2)
square meters (m2) x 2.471E-04 = acres
square meters (m2) x 10.763915 = square feet (ft2)
square meters (m2) x 3.86E-07 = square miles (mi2)
2
square miles (mi ) x 640 = acres
square miles (mi2) x 27,900,000 = square feet (ft2)
square miles (mi2) x 2.589988 = square kilometers (km2)

T
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
therms x 100,000 = BTUs of natural gas
therms x 1.054804E+08 = joules (J)
tonnes x 1.0 = tons, metric
tons, long x 1,016.047 = kilograms (kg)
tons, long x 1.016047 = metric tons (t)
tons, long x 2,240 = pounds (lb)
tons, long x 1.12 = short tons (st)
tons, metric (t) x 7.33 = barrels of crude oil
tons, metric (t) x 1,000 = kilograms (kg)

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tons, metric (t) x 2,204.62 = pounds (lb)

tons, short (st) x 6.65 = barrels of crude oil
tons, short (st) x 0.8929 = long tons
tons, short (st) x 0.9071847 = metric tons (t)
tons, short (st) x 2,000 = pounds (lb)
W
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
watts (W) x 3.41219 = British thermal units/hour
watts (W) x 0.001341 = horsepower (hp)
watts (absolute) x 1 = joules/second
Watthours (Wh) x 3.41219 = British thermal units (Btu)
Watthours (Wh) x 2,656 = foot-pounds
weeks x 168 = hours
Y
Multiplied Conversion
Original Unit Equals Final Unit
By Factor
years (mean of 4-year period) x 365.25 = days
years (mean of 4-year period) x 8,766 = hours
years (mean of 4-year period) x 526,000 = minutes (time)
years (mean of 4-year period) x 31,558,150 = seconds (time)
years (mean of 4-year period) x 52.17 = week

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Prefixes Of International System Of Units

Exponential
Numerical Value Prefix Symbol Meaning
Expression

1 000 000 000 000 000 000 exa E Quintillion 1018

1 000 000 000 000 000 peta P Quadrillion 1015

1 000 000 000 000 tera T Trillion 1012

1 000 000 000 giga G Billion 109

1 000 000 mega M Million 106

1 000 kilo k Thousand 103

100 hecto h Hundred 102

10 deca or da Ten 101

deka

1 100
0.1 deci d One-tenth 10-1

0.01 centi c one-hundredth 10-2

0.001 milli m one-thousandth 10-3
0.000 001 micro µ one-millionth 10-6

0.000 000 001 nano n one-billionth 10-9

0.000 000 000 001 pico p one-trillionth 10-12

0.000 000 000 000 001 femto f one-quadrillionth 10-15
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 atto a one-quintillionth 10-18

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Dr. Ahmad Alkouh PEP 101 Spring 2016