UNIT - 3

Wind Energy

WIND ENERGY

3.1. WIND ENERGY PRINCIPLES

Wind energy is an indirect fonn of solar energy. In the world, it is around 1 % of solar
energy in converted to wind energy. Wind is a kind ofsolar power that owes its origin to various
environmental factors. The uneven Earth's terrains get unequally heated by the sun rays. It
make s some regions ofthe earth warmer than others. The hot air in the warmer regions becomes
less dense and light and thus it rises up. This upward movement of hot air creates a vacuum
which is immediately filled up by cold air from the adjacent cooler realms.

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy such as using
wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for water
pumping or drainage or sails to propel ships. The total amount of economically extractable
power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all
sources. Wind power as an alternative to fossil fuels is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean and it produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and the cost per unit of
energy produced is similar to the cost for coal and natural gas power production.
 3.2 Renewable Energy System

3.1.1. Source or Origin of Wind

Wind is produced by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by energy from the Sun.
The poles of the Earth receive less energy from the Sun than the equator. Among these two,
the dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than sea. The differe ntial heating drives
a global atmospheric convection system reaching from earth's surface to the stratosphere which
acts as a virtual ceiling.

Since the Eart h's surface is made of different types of land and water, it absorbs sun's
radiant energy at different rates. Much ofthis energy is converted into heat as it is absorbed by
land areas, bodies ofwater and the air over these formations. On a global scale, the non-uniform
thermal effects combine with the dynamic effects from the Earth's rotation to produce
prevailing wind patterns. There are also minor changes in the flow of the air as a result of the
differential heating of sea and land. The nature of terrain ranging from mountain and valleys
to more local obstacles such as buildings and trees also has an important effect on the origin of
wind.

Generally, during day time, the air above land mass tends to heat up more rapidly than the
air above water. In coastal regions, it manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. In night time,
the process is reversed because ofthe air cools down more rapidly over the land and the breeze,
therefore, blows off-shore similar process occurred in mountains and valleys. Thus, it creates
local wind. The speed of wind is affected by the surface over which it blows. Rough surfaces
such as areas with trees and buildings produce more friction and turbulence than smooth surface
such as lakes or open cropland. The greater friction means that the wind speed near the ground
is reduced.

Most ofthe energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitude where
the continuous wind speed of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occurs. Eventually, the wind energy is
converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout earth's surface and atmosphere.

3.1.2. Characteristics of Wind Energy

1. Wind-power systems do not pollute the atmosphere.

2. Fuel provision and transport are not required in wind-power systems.

3. Wind energy is a renewable source of energy.

4. Wind energy when produced on small scale is cheap but it is competitive with
conventional power generating system when produced on a large scale.
Wind Energy 3.3

3.1.3. Wind Speed

Power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed. It is well known that the
highest wind velocities are generally found on hill tops, exposed coasts and out at sea. Various
parameters need to be known regarding wind including the mean wind speed directional data
and variations about the mean in the short-term (drafts), daily, seasonal and annual variations
as well as variations with height. These parameters are highly site specific and they can only
be determined with sufficient accuracy by measurements at a particular site over a sufficiently
long period. They are used to assess the performance and economics of a wind energy-
conversion system.

General meteorological statistics may overestimate the wind speed at a specific site.
Therefore, not only the mean wind speed published by the meteorological organisations but
also the wind-frequency distribution have to be taken into account in order to calculate the
amount of electricity that can be produced by wind turbines in a certain region.

3.1.4. Vertical Wind Speed Gradient

The wind speed varies with the height above the ground. It is called wind shear. The wind
speed at the surface due to the friction between air and surface of the ground is zero. The wind
speed increases most rapidly near the ground with height and it increases less rapidly with
greater height. The change in wind speed becomes nearly zero at a height of about 1 km above
the ground. The vertical variation of the wind speed and the wind-speed profile can be
expressed by many functions. The two more common functions that have been developed to
describe the change in mean wind speed with height are based on experiments.
(i) Power exponentfunction:
The power exponent function is given by

or-±;]
where z= Height above the ground level,
V, = Wind speed at the reference height Zr above the ground level.
A typical value of a is 0.1.

(ii) Logarithmicfunction:

The power exponent function is given by

 3.4 Renewable Energy System

where z = Height above the ground level,

zo = Roughness length
V,= Wind speed at the reference height Zr above the ground level.

The parameters a and zo varies with different types ofterrain. A typical value of a is from
0.01 to 0.28 and the value of zo is from 0.001 to 0.3.

3.1.5. Distribution of Wind Speed

For the wind industry, it is very necessary to be able to describe the variation in wind
speeds. Turbine designers need the information to optimise the design of their wind turbines in
order to minimise the generator cost. Wind-speed variations and their distributions at any given
site can be described in terms ofa Weibull distribution. The probability that the wind will blow
at some wind speed including zero must be 100% since the area under the curve is always I.
The Weibull function can be expressed as

whe re
P(V) = V C
r #eC
exp -
Il
P(V)= Frequency ofthe wind at wind speed V,
C = Scale parameter orcharacteristic wind speed,
k = Shape par_ameter.

The Weibull distribution also expresses the proportion of time for which the wind speed
exceeds the value V and is expressed as

o- l}
For a typical value of k = I, the distribution is called a cumulative

Rayleigh distribution:

The probability ofwind distribution between wind speeds Vi and Vi can be given by

The plot of In V versus In {-(In V)} gives

-
the parameters C and k for the Weibull
.
frequency
distribution. The graph gives a straight line in which the slope is equal to k and parameter C is
equal to exp (In V) or V where In {-(In )} is zero.
Wind Energy 3.s l
800.------------------------,
700
600 Energy curve
0
soo ,,.,,.,.----
::s
0 400 /
O
c I \ Frequency
.... 300 \ curve
.c I \
; 200
5 I \_ .
100 I
0 " • ---
5 10 15 20 25
Wind speed (m/s)

Figure 3.1 Distribution ofwindpower

The strength of wind varies and an average value for a given location does not alone
indicate the amount of energy of a wind turbine. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a
particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different
locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Rayleigh model closely mirrors the
actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. Figure 3.1 shows the typical·
Rayleigh distribution. Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the
energy comes in short bursts. The Lee Ranch sample proved that half of the energy available
arrived in just 15% of the operating time. The consequence is that wind energy from a particular
turbine or wind farm does not have as consistent an output as fuel-fired power plants. Making
wind power more consistent requires that various existing technologies and methods are
extended in particular the use of stronger inter-regional transmission lines to link widely
distributed wind farms. Problems of variability are addressed by grid energy storage, batteries,
pumped-storage hydroelectricity and energy demand management.

3.2. SITE SELECTION FOR WIND SYSTEMS

Mainly, four sites are selected to install windmills for the extract" of wind energy. They
are as follows:

(i) Plane site

(ii) Hill top site
(iii) Sea-shore site
(iv) Off-shore shallow water site.
 3.6 Renewable Energy System

Apart from the· location selection, some other factors need to be considered such as
technical, environmental, social, economic and other factors. The main considerations for
selecting a site for wind turbine installation are as follows:

I. Wind farms are located away from main cities to avoid resistance to the air movement
created by buildings. So, the flat area is advisable to locate windmill. There should
not be any high structure to obstruct wind for a distance of 3 km to the windmill.
2. Wind power is based on the wind velocity as the wind power is proportional to the
cubic power of wind speed. The basic requirement for a successful use of a windmill
is an adequate supply of wind speed.
3. The selected site should provide good average of wind velocity throughout the year
for continuous generation of energy.
4. The proposed site should be checked for high altitude due to strong winds which will
increase the electric power output of wind energy conversion system .
5. A stable ground is selected.
6. Small trees and grass are avoided under windmill in order to minimise the installation
cost because the height oftower needs to. be increased in such case.
7. The selected site should be easily accessible to provide a transport facility for the
erection of equipment and structures as well as for maintenance.
8. The site should be near the consumer for reducing the cost and transmission losses of
the generated power.
9. The land cost should be favourable so that the total project cost is minimal.
10. Wind direction is also considered for the site selection.
11. Topography such as mountain gap helps to channelise and speed up winds.
12. The selection of coastal area or lake area for windmill installation is favourable
because differential heating ofwater and land generates wind of sufficient speed. The
wind blows from the land to the sea during day time and it is reversed during night
time.

3.3. WIND RESOURCES ASSESSMENT

Wind resource assessment is the important step in planning a community wind project
because it is the basis for determining initial feasibility and cash flow projections. There are
several stages in wind assessments as follows.
Wind Energy 3.7

1. Initial assessment
2. Detailed site characterization
3. Long-term validation of data
4. Detailed cash flow projection and acquiring financing.

3.3.1. Initial Assessment

It is the first step which utilizes existing data from state wind resource maps, nearby
publicly available wind resource data and other weather measurement sites to make rough
projections about the financials of the project. This step should be used as an indicator to justify
a more substantial investment to install equipment and hire professionals for a detailed site
characterization.

Usually, initial assessment of the site is simple in most states with publicly available high
resolution wind resource data. Through recent advances in computer modeling and internet
accessibility to public, wind data sources are easily accessible.

The availability and reliability of wind speed data is extremely poor in many regions of the
world. Large areas of the world appear annual average wind speeds below 3 mis and they are
unsuitable for wind power systems, and almost equally large areas have wind speeds in the
intermediate range from 35 mis to 4.5 mis where wind power may or may not be an attractive
option. In addition, significant land areas have average annual wind speeds more than 4.5 mis
where wind power will be economically competitive.

3.3.2. Detailed Site Characterization

After completing the preliminary evaluations, a promising site to install wind turbines is
necessary to assure the investors and banker about the project feasibility. The level of detailed
analysis about site requirement depends on the size of intended project. The larger is the project
or investment under consideration, the larger and more expensive resource assessment effort is
warranted.

The instrumentation used for wind resource assessment includes three major components
such as

1. Anemometers and wind direction vane sensors to measure the wind speed and direction
2. A data logger and
3. A meteorological mast or tower.
 3.8 Renewable Energy System

Measurement of temperature and pressure needs additional sensors of standard types.

Meteorological towers are at least 50 m lattice or monopole towers supported by guy wires.

Site-specific measurements using anemometers are considered the reliable estimates ofthe
wind resources for a project. However, they are costly and require from one to several years to
complete. Other methods also exist where large scale computer weather models are shaped to
extrapolate wind conditions at a specific site from historical data. Many times, these computer
models of a site's wind resource can be less expensive than meteorological readings for a year
or' more. Sometimes, they may need a combination of site-specific meteorological
measurements coupled with computer models from long-term weather data for validation of
conditions at the site.

Also, wind turbines require locations where constant high wind speeds occurs. The term
"Wind Power Density (WPD)" is used to decide the intensity ofwind speeds. It is a calculation
including the effective force ofthe wind at a particular location. In addition; wind velocity and
mass are also considered to calculate the wind power density. Color coded maps are also used
for a particular area mentioned. The calculated results are added in an index developed by the
National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS."

3.3.3. Long-Term Validation of Data

In this stage, data are compared at the site to long term weather data over the course often
years ormore. It will help to determine whether the data represents a low, medium or high wind
year and-allow adjustments to your long-term production estimates.

Once both short-term and long-term data from the site and from other sources have been
collected, some comparisons are made between historical data and collected data at your site.
Ifthere is an airport or a weather station within several miles ofthe site withsimilar topography
to the site, the on-site data is determined with the help of meteorological consultant during a
year that was windier or less windy than the historical average. It will help to ensure the
production estimates which are descriptive of the site and not inflated due to an abnormally
windy year.

Computer models are developed based on many years of historical weather data and in
more and more cases can stand on their own or complement data taken with a meteorological
tower with instrumentation at a project site._
 Wind Energy 3.9

3.3.4. Detailed Production Estimates and Cash-flow Projections

.
The detailed site profiles are combined for the validated production and revenue estimates
from the sale ofelectricity produced with initial financing sources and any incentives available
to the project. This projection is to help the lenders and investors to cover debt and generate
required returns. The revenue estimates are refined as the project progresses. After obtaining a
solid estimation ofthe wind at the site and the project is financially viable: To ensure a positive
project cash flow, the projected cost, cost of financing, required returns from investors and
price ofenergy are considered.

3.4. FACTORS INFLUENCING WIND

Wind is horizontal movement of air. Winds are the mechanism by which uneven
distribution ofpressure is balanced globally. Also, winds are an integral part ofthermodynamic
mechanism of atmosphere through which heat, moisture and other properties are transferred
from one place to another.

The sun is the ultimate force to drive the wind. The pressure difference causes the wind to
flow from high pressure to low pressure. Pressure difference is caused by uneven heating of
the Earth's surface by solar radiation. If the earth was stationary and had a uniform surface, air
would flow directly from high pressure areas to low pressure areas because the direction and
speed ofwind are controlled by a number offactors such as pressure gradient, Coriolis effect,
centripetal acceleration and friction.

Surface wind is subjected to friction. The rotation ofthe earth also affects the movement
ofthe wind. The force exerted by the Earth's rotation is known as the Coriolisforce. Horizontal
winds near the surface respond to the combined action of three forces such as (i) pressure
gradient force (ii) frictional force and (iii) Coriolis force. Also, gravity acts downwards.
Centripetal acceleration creates a circular flow pattern around the center of high and low
pressure.

(i) Pressure gradientforce:

Differences in atmospheric pressure create pressure gradient forces. The rate ofchange in
air pressure over distance is called pressure gradient. Pressure gradient forces act from high
pressure to low pressure thereby causing wind movement. The pressure gradient is stronger
where the isobars are closer and weaker where the isobars are farther apart. The narrower slopes
also indicate stronger wind speeds as the mean steeper pressure changes. Wind direction
follows the direction ofpressure change.
 3.10 Renewable Energy System

(ii) Coriolisforce:
The rotation of the Earth around its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is also
known as Coriolis force. It has a great effect on the wind direction because of the Earth's
rotation. Due to· rotation, the wind does not cross isobars at right angles as determined by the
pressure gradient force but it is diverted from its original path. This misalignment is a result of
the Earth's rotation and is called Coriolis effect or Coriolisforce.

Coriolis effect roots the wind to deflect to the right of its path in the northerri hemisphere
and the left in the southern hemisphere, according to Farrell's law. It states that winds deflect
to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The southern
hemisphere derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air masses. This deflection
force appears to exist only when the air begins to move and increases with increasing wind
speed, air mass and latitude. The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient
force. Because of these two mutually perpendicular forces, winds blow in the low-pressure
areas around them similar to cyclonic conditions.

(iii) Frictionalforce:
The unevenness of the earth's surface resists wind movement in the form of friction by
affecting the wind speed. It is the largest on the surface of the earth and its influence extends
to altitudes of 1 to 3 km. At sea level, friction is minimum. However, the friction is high which
makes the wind direction to a large angle with the isobars and the speed slows down in rough
terrain.

(iv) Centripetalforce:
It ·only works on air flowing around the center of circulation. Centripetal acceleration
creates a force perpendicular to wind motion and directed inward toward the center of rotation.
This force produces a circular flow pattern around a center of high and low pressure. Centripetal
acc.eleration is more significant in smaller circulations than in mid-latitude cyclones.

(v) Atmospheric pressure:

Wind speed and direction are the net results of the forces to create the wind. Upper
atmospheric winds, 2-3 km above the surface, are not affected by surface friction and are
controlled by pressure gradients and the Coriolis force. Ifthe isobar is straight and frictionless,
the pressure gradient force balances the Coriolis force and resulting wind blows parallel to the
isobar. The movement of the wind in the region of the cyclone is called cyclonic circulation.
In the area of high pressure, it is called anticyclonic circulation. The direction of the wind
around such a system varies with different hemispheric positions. Wind movement or wind
Wind Energy 3.11

circulation at the Earth's surface in cyclones and anticyclones is often closely related to wind
circulation at higher levels. Generally, air over low-pressure areas converge and rises. In areas
of high pressure, air sag from above and diverges at the surface. Apart from convergence of
some eddies such as convection, topographic uplift and uplift along fronts lift the air. It is
essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.

3.5. WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL

The power available in the wind over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6x10' MW
which is more than the present energy requirement of the world. Wind power has emerged as
the most economical of all renewable energy sources. The installation cost of wind power is
Rs. 4 crore / MW which is almost same of conventional thermal power plants. Wind power
generation is the fastest growing energy source and it is expanding at a rate of more than 30%
annually.

As per GWEC's Global Wind Report 2023, globally, 77 .6 GW of new wind power capacity
was connected to power grids in 2022 with total installed wind capacity to 906 GWl, a growth of
9% compared with 2021.

The world's top five markets for new installations in 2022 were as follows.

(i) China
(ii) USA
(iii)Brazil
(iv) Germany
(v) Sweden.

Asia was the largest regional market for the thirteenth consecutive year, representing
nearly 48% ofadded capacity of 178.6 Tera Watt hours (TWh) by the end ofyear 2022). China's
total wind farm operational capacity was 278,353 MW as of January 2023, according to data
from Global Energy Monitor (GEM). In 2021, China recorded the world's largest offshore
wind installation capacity with 12.7 GW installed, according to World Forum Offshore Wind
data.

Europe installed 19 GW(l6 GWin the EU-27) ofnew wind capacity in 2022. 87% ofthe
new wind installations in Europe last year were onshore wind. Sweden, Finland, Germany, and
France built the most onshore wind. Europe now has 255 GW ofwind capacity. North America
wind industry installed 13,413 MW ofnew wind capacity in 2021, bringing the cumulative total
 3.12 Renewable Energy System

to 135,886 MW as per Wind Market Reports: 2022 Edition. GWEC Market Intelligence expects
26.5 GW of onshore wind to be added in this region in 5 years with Brazil, Chile and Colombia
contributing 78% of the additions.

As per the report by global offshore wind report, China leads the world in terms of total
installed wind capacity 71 % and followed by USA 5%, Europe, Africa/Middle East and Latin
America at the end of 2021.

Wind power generation grew by more than 17% in 2021 to reach 273 TWH. Wind power
is contributing 6.59% of total world electricity generation in 2021. It is more than the total
power generation of Russia, the world's fourth largest power generator.

Wind has become an important contributor to European electricity generation. In

Denmark, wind power production 19 TWh with 52.75% of power generation in 2022. Wind
power now provides 18% or more of power generated in Ireland, Lithuania, Germany, Portugal,
and Spain. Wind has a much smaller share in the US where it contributed just under 10% of
power generation in 2021 and in China, where wind provided just under 6% of power.

Wind energy potential in India

The development of wind power in India began in the 1986 with first wind farms being
set up in coastal areas of Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), Gujarat (Okha) and Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin)
t

with 55 kW Vestas wind turbines. The capacity has significantly increased in the last few years.
Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry,India has the fourth largest installed wind
power capacity in the world after China, USA and Germany. Wind power has seen a
phenomenal growth of around 33% CAGR (compound annual growth rate) in the last 5 years.

A total capacity of 77.6 GW has been established upto December, 2021. The short
gestation periods for installing wind turbines and the increasing reliability and performance of
wind energy machines has made wind power a favoured choice for electricity generation in
India. The wind power projects in India are mainly spread across south, west and north regions
while east and north-east regions have no grid connected wind power plant.

Wind power generation in India is highly influenced by the monsoon in India. The strong
south-west monsoon, starts in May-June, when cool, humid air moves towards the land and the
weaker north-east monsoon, starts in October, when cool dry air moves towards the ocean.
During the period of March to August, the winds are uniform and strong over the whole Indian
peninsula, except the eastern peninsular coast. Wind speed during the period of November to
March is relatively weak.
Wind Energy 3.13

As ofFeb 2023, Renewable energy sources including large hydropower have a combined
installed capacity of 178. 79 GW. Wind power capacity installed is 42.6 GW in India.

Most ofthe capacity (9 GW) is installed in the state ofTamil Nadu in India. Other states
contribute most of the wind power are: Gujarat (7.86 GW), Maharashtra (4.79 GW) and
Karnataka (4.8 GW).
Table 3 .1 provides the State-wise potential and installed wind energy capacity as per April
2023.
Table 3.1 State-wise potential and installed windpower capacity as per April.2023

S.No. State Installed capacity (GW)

1. Andhra Pradesh 4.1

2. Gujarat 10.14

3. Karnataka 5.29

4. Madhya Pradesh 2.84

5. Maharashtra 5.03

6. Rajasthan 5.19

7. Tamil Nadu 10.07

8. Telangana 0.13

9. Kerala 0.063

10. Other states 4.3

Total 47.153

3.6. BASICS OF WIND ENERGY ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Typical components of a wind turbine are gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly being
lifted into position. In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium
voltage (usually 34.5 k) power coJlection system and communication networks. At a
substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for
the connection to high voltage electric power transmission system.
 3.14 Renewable Energy System

Wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is directly used by the machinery such as a pump
or grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is
converted into electricity, the machine is called a wind generator, wind turbine, Wind Power
Unit (WPU), Wind Energy Converter (WEC) or aero-generator.

3.6.1. Capacity Factor

Due to variations in wind speed, a wind farm's annual energy production is not same as
the sufn ofthe generator ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio between actual
productivity in a year and theoretical maximum is called capacityfactor.

. f: _ Actual ·productivity in a year

Capacity actor Tj . . d . . .
eoretica, 1 maximum pro ucttv1ty ma year

Typical capacity factors are 20-40%. The capacity factor is affected by several parameters
such as the variability in wind at the site and generator size. Sometimes, a smaller generator

. .
might be cheap and it provides high capacity factor. In opposite, a bigger generator sometimes
will be costly and they generate slightly extra power and stall out at low wind speed. Therefore,
an optimum capacity factor can be used, usually, it is around 20-35%.

3.6.2. Penetration

Wind energy penetration is defined as the fraction of energy produced by wind from the
total available generation capacity. The penetration depends on the existing generating plants,
pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management and· other factors. An
interconnected electricity grid includes reserve generation and transmission capacity to allow
for equipment failures. This reserve capacity can also serve to regulate the varying power
generation by wind plants. A few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%.

3.6.3. Variability and lntermittency

Electricity generated from wind power is highly variable at different time scales: from
hour to hour, daily and seasonally. Wind power forecasting methods are used but the
predictability ofwind plant output is again less for short-term operation. Intennittency and non-
dispatchable nature ofwind energy production increase the cost for regulation and incremental
operating reserve. The variation in load and allowance for failure of large generating units
require at low level of wind penetration reserve capacity thereby regulating the variability of
Wind Energy 3.15

wind generation. Hybrid wind power can be used during low wind period. Wind power can be
replaced by other power stations during low wind period.

3.7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER

Advantages ofwindpower:
1. Wind power emits absolutely no greenhouse gases. Therefore, there is no pollution.

2. Wind is obtained at free of cost.

3. Wind power is helpful in supplying electricity to remote areas.
4. Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The wind will never run out.
5. The potential of wind power is enormous i.e. 20 times more than what the entire
human population needs.
6. Wind power generation is cost effective and reliable.
7. Wind power is an ideal choice for micro-generation.
8. Wind turbines are fairly low in maintenance.
9. As wind energy is free, running costs are often low.
10. Wind turbines are incredible space-efficient.

Disadvantages ofwindpower:
1. Wind is a fluctuating (intermittent) source of energy and it is not suited to meet the
base load energy demand.
2. Wind energy requires some form of energy storage e.g. batteries and pumped hydro.
3. The manufacturing and installation of wind turbines require heavy upfront
investments.
4. Wind turbines can be a threat to wildlife (e.g. birds, bats).
5. Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be unpleasant.
6. Wind energy has low energy density but it is favourable in many geographical
locations from cities and forests.
7. Wind turbine rotors are not very efficient as they extract only 10% to 40% of the
available wind energy.
8. Wind power can even affect the national security because wind farms cause holes in
-
RADAR coverage as the blades on turbines confuse the system.
 3.16 Renewable Energy System

3.8. WIND DATA

The wind is measured on the basis of many factors such as time availability, budget
allocated for the measurement and accuracy needed for the estimation. If time and money are
available, the highest accuracy can be achieved. At the same time, the cost compromise should
be followed to balance the power output and money spent. It is better to use metro logical data
or civil aviation data. Basically, the measurements are wind speed and wind direction.

The standardized wind data should be used similar to a metrological department. The
metrological department collects data continuously about wind from many airports and data
from anemometers located at 10 m height in order to follow the world standard. But the height
ofthe hub in a wind turbine is generally kept at more than 10 m. In that condition, the variations
in speed of the wind with height are to be incorporated for predicting the energy available in
the wind.

Sometimes, anemometers provide inaccurate data due to the friction in bearings rotating
slowly. The main factor to size the wind speed data is really unanswerable. It is mostly
oversized instead of undersized .

Unfortunately, the general availability and reliability ofwind speed data is extremely poor
in many regions ofthe world. Large areas ofthe world appear to have mean annual wind speed
below 3 mis and they are unsuitable for wind power generation and almost equally large areas
have wind speeds in the intermediate range 3 to 4.5 mis where wind power may or may not be
an attractive option. In addition, significant land areas have mean annual wind speeds
exceeding 4.5 mis where the wind power would most certainly be economically competitive.

Wind turbines require locations with constantly high wind speeds. A yardstick frequently
used to determine good locations is referred as Wind Power Density (WPD). It is a calculation
related to the effective force ofthe wind at a particular location and the frequently is expressed
in terms ofthe elevation above ground level over a period oftime. Wind velocity and mass are
taken into account. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area described.

3.8.1. Wind Data Measurement

In the first option, the wind data measurement is either for hourly or daily for each month.
Hourly based wind data will provide more accurate measures. The average wind speed and
wind direction is calculated for daily and monthly by comparing with the near metrological
station weather reports to calibrate the difference:
Wind Energy [ 3.17

Hourly Daily wind

wind data data

Monthly wind data Monthly wind data

(Number of hours at (Number of hours at
each wind speed) each wind speed)

Average wind speed = Wnd Average wind speed= Wind

speedx speedx
,No. of hours/Total No. of hours No. of hours/Total No. of hours

Monthly average wind speed

Annual wind= Total monthly

wind of each month /12

Figure 3.2 Wind dataflow chart

At the same time, the weather should be from 20 to 60 miles within the limit of the
proposed. Otherwise, the adjusted wind data will become invalid. Ifthe nearby weather station
is not available, the average wind data alone is calculated for the wind energy estimation. The
annual wind speed data calculation procedure as a monthly report for future reference is
summerised in Figure 3.2.
The second option considers only limited on-site data where the place has clear wind. The
wind data is collected for each hour. In this case also, the wind data sheet is made for the whole
year based on first three months. This method is really cost worth of wind data measurement.
If hourly basis wind data is difficult to get, at least daily basis wind data should be used for the
 Renewable Energy System
3.18

wind data sheet. It is then calibrated with near weather station reports by regression analysis to
find the irregularity of wind data.
The third option is collection of on-site wind data throughout the year. Then, it is
standardized with local inhabitant's discussions.

3.9. WIND ASSESSMENT OR VIND ENERGY ESTIMATION

3.9.1. Wind Power and Wind Power Density

The theoretical wind energy or wind power is the energy available in wind for the
extraction. It is calculated as follows:
Wind power available in the wind or wind energy,
P, = Kinetic energy of the wind
_V; .... (3.1)
n, 2

where m. = Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) = pA Vi

Vi= Incoming velocity of wind (mls)
"
Substituting the value of m in the above equation (3 .1 ), it becomes

p = pAV;3 .... (3.2)

2
2 2
where A= Cross sectional area of the wind stream (m ) = '!!:..D
4
D = Diameter of turbine rotor (m)
p = Density of air (kg/m')
From above equation (3.2), it is· clear that the power available in the wind is proportional
to the cube of wind velocity.
Substituting the value of A in the above equation (3.2), it becomes

_onD'?
P,,, - 8

The wind energy is indirectly the output of wind turbine estimated by aerodynamic
principle. Therefore, the total power output, P is affected by the overall conversion efficiency
of the wind turbine. By taking this efficiency is into account, the equation (3.2) can be rewritten
as
Wind Energy 3.19

. p- pAV/
:. Wind power, =n;
where
n = Fraction of power extracted by a wind turbine or the overall conversion
efficiency of the machine.

Overall conversion efficiency can also be given in another term called power coefficient
(C,). It is defined as the ratio ofthe output power produced to the power available in the wind.
The power coefficient is a function of both tip speed ratio and blade pitch angle.

The overall conversion efficiency of the machine is a function of the following factors.

» Wind velocity
> Angular of velocity of rotor in the wind turbine

► Pitch angle
► Design of aerofoil section and
Number of blades.

N
,.. t

c:: ·,'
s '
t

i
5
c
(I)
O
...
(I)

3a.
-0

=
C:.

2 3 4
\/Vind velocity, mis

Figure 3.3 Windpower density and wind velocity

Windpower density or wind energy density is another important factor used in wind energy
calculation. It is the ratio of wind power to the cross-sectional area ofthe wind stream.
3
. d d . P p pV
W m power ens1ty, .,. = A = llv ----;f-
 3.20 Renewable Energy System

Ifthe incoming velocity ofwind velocity ()is in mls, then at sea level (where the density
ofair is 1.2 kg/m'), the power in the wind is given by

Wind power= 0.6 x V, watts per m2 ofrotor swept area.

It means that the wind power density in the wind will range from 10 WIm? at 2.5 mis (a
light breeze) to 41,000W/m2 at 40 mis (a hurricane). This variability ofthe wind power density
resources strongly influences almost all aspects of wind energy conversion system design,
construction, citing, use and economy.

At the same time, the trade-off is made among many factors in selecting the number of
blades which are: cost ofblades, transmission efficiency, energy capture and speed ofrotation.
The single blade machine produces less energy than multi-blade machine due to the rotor speed
of1500 to 1800 rpm. A three blade machine is more stable and it has higher capture with better
orientation in the wind stream but it will lead to higher cost ofblade and transmission.

Then the ratedpower output ofthe wind energy generation at a given site can be written
as
3 .
P,=p AV, n()

where V, is the rated wind speed of the wind energy generation and n() is the
corresponding value ofoverall efficiency. The energy produced per annum by the machine can
be expressed as

E=P,CF x8760

The capacity factor (CF) of a wind energy generation has been defined as the ratio of
actual energy output to its rated value on an annual basis.

3.9.2. Maximum Wind Power and Maximum Wind Efficiency

Betz's law indicates the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind, independent
ofthe design ofa wind turbine in open flow.
Betz's law applies to all Newtonian fluids including wind. Ifall ofthe energy coming from
wind movement through a turbine is extracted as useful energy, the wind speed afterwards
would drop to zero.
Betz's equation deals with the upstream from the turbine wind speed V1 and the
downstream wind speed Vi.
Wind Energy 3.21

Betz was developed on the basis of global theory of wind machines at the Gottingen
Institute in Germany. The wind rotor is assumed to be an ideal energy converter. It means,
I. It does not possess a hub.
2. It possesses an infinite number ofrotor blades which do not result in any drag resistance
to the wind flowing through them.

Additionally, uniformity is assumed over the whole area swept by the rotor and the speed
of the air beyond the rotor is considered to be axial. The ideal wind rotor is taken at rest and it
is placed in a moving fluid atmosphere.

.
The whole available energy in wind cannot be converted into mechanical power as the
output. The incoming air is considered between i and 1 as a thermodynamic system.

According to the steady flow energy equation applied between i and 1,

v? V
U; +pv,+'-+Z,+ q =u,+ PiV1 + -·1- +Z,+ W
2g 2g

The following assumptions are made.

(i) Change in potential energy is negligible, Z1= Z2
(ii) Change in internal energy is negligible, u1= u2
(iii) The system is well i11sulated, Q = 0.
(iv) There is no expansion of wind in turbine, W= 0
The above equation reduces to.
? v?
"a.B"3
Multiplying both sides by density, p
p = p; = p1 for the same fluid and volume v = V; = vi at i and I
V:2 v.2
" 5, =# ...... (3.3)

Similarly, the reduced steady flow equation between 2 and exit, e

? v°
5# ...... (3.4)

The pressure difference between I and 2,

2 2

P-P = [ V:2 - V,
P; + p i 2g i
]
-
[ v V:2 ]
_
P, + p • 2g 2
 3.22 Renewable Energy System

2 2
V -V ·: p 1 = p,= pat ambient · ]
-=l
( a )
[ v; = VV,= v for thin: sections
Axial force in the direction ofwind,
2 2
v
F.=(-,)A=dl ( a
-V )
...... (3.5)

According to Newton's second law,

Force= Change in momentum.
1 .
F,, =-m(v;-v,)
g
1
F, =-AV.,(,-Y.) ...... (3.6)
g
Substituting equation (3.5) in (3.6),
2 2

PA( v; -V, ) = I_ PAV,(,-V,)

a , e
2g g
2
v;i -V, = V (V -V)
a I ,:
2

v_Y-g
a 2(v;-V,)
_Y.+,
u 2

Wind power, le
P=m(K.E; -K.E,)=-m v; -V,)
2g

P=-pAV
1 (e
V; -v;,·) 0
2g .

V+V
Since v;, =, the above equation becomes

P-'4, 4g
+)(°-,) ...... (3.7)

p = -4g1-pA(V, 3 -VV 2 2 3
, , + V, V, -V, ) ...... (3.8)

At maximum power, dP = 0
dV,
Wind Energy 3.23

Differentiating equation (3.8),

dP =3V 2 +2VV -V 2 =0
dV e e I 1
e

The condition for maximum power generation is V. = ;

Substituting V. =; in equation (3.7),

..-±eje-lj]
max 4g , 3 3 ,

Therefore, maximum wind power,

8
Pmax =- -pAV 3 = 0.593(.!_ pAV/) = 0.593.R
27g 1 g Total
2

Therefore, maximum wind efficiency,

Maximum power, F, 27g

a'
llmax = Poweravailablein wind P = pA V:3
2g

16
n
'lmax - = 0.593 = 59.3%
27

3.9.3. Betz Criteria or Betz Limit

Betz criteria or Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency of a wind turbine.
It states that no turbine.can convert more than 59.3 % of wind kinetic energy into mechanical
energy. Thus, the value of power coefficient (C,) is limited to Betz limit. For. a well-designed
turbine, the efficiency lies in the range of 35-45 %.

3.9.4. Force on Blades and Axial Thrust on Turbines

The power developed by rotating system is given by

P = Torque V elocity

Torque, r- r
rDN
w here D = Diameter of blade in m and
N = Speed of wind turbine in rps
 [ 3.24 ] Renewable Energy System

p
·Efficiency, 11=-
E%
Power,
3
1 pAf;
We know that pTota/ =,i.---
2 g

Torque, r-»} 4Y
2g rrDN

T=n
·{
l p 4
-
.· '
2g 1r.DN
3
T = ri--i' pDf;
8g N
• Torque will be maximum, when the efficiency is maximum.
3
T-
-«, w l pDf;

r _I61_Dr
max 27 8g N

l,=
2 D?
27g N
We know that
1
Axial force, F,=-A,,-,)
g

F
a
= I.gp ,it Y; + V. )(v . . v)
2 1 e .
·:V
[ a
= V;+V.]
2

F,, 1. pA
=- i(
V; -V.·)
2g .

8g pD (v, ve
2 2 2
Fa = ..!!._ - )

Maximum force will be at maximum efficiency,

Wind Energy 3.25

F·..=8g
D ;--V,
9 >.)
E,
«.
--D,&
8g 9 1

TI 2 2

.- 5
The turbine wheel diameter (D) is limited because the axial force is directly proportional
to the square of the turbine wheel diameter.

3.10. SOLVED ANNA UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS

AU Problem 3.1

A horizontal shaft, propeller type wind-turbine is located in area having speed of wind
10 mis at 1 atm and l5°C Calculate thefollowing:
(i) Air density p, kg/m',
(ii) Total power density in wind stream, Wini,
(iii) Maximum possible obtainable power density, Wm",
(iv) Actual obtainable power density, Wini,
() Total powerfrom the wind-turbine of120 m dia.
(vi) Torque and axial thrust (Na) on the wind-turbine operating at 40 rpm and at
maximum efficiency of42%. [Nov'19]
Given data:
Speed or velocity of wind, Vi = 10 mis
Pressure, p = 1 atm = 101.3 kN/m2
Temperature; T = 15°C
Diameter of blade, D = 120 m
Speed wind turbine, N = 40 rpm
Maximum efficiency, n = 42% = 0.42
@ Solution:

(i) Air density:

Air density, o=3.4852

T
 3.26 Renewable Energy System

where pis the pressure in kPa = 101.3 kNm

Tis the temperature in K = 15 + 273 = 288 K

=3.485I0l.> 1.226 kg/n Ans.

288

(ii) Total power density in wind stream:

Wind power density, P =; ?

1
= x 1.226 x 103 = 613 Im? Ans.
2
(iii) Maximumpossible obtainable power density:
According to the Betz Limit or Betz' Law, the theoretical maximum power efficiency of
any design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind
can be extracted by a wind turbine).

Maximum possible obtainable power density,

= 0.59 x 613 = 361.67 WIn Ans.

(iv) Actual obtainable power density:

Actual obtainable power density = Wind power density x Efficiency
= 613 x 0.42 = 257.46 W/m2 Ans.

(v) Totalpowerfrom the wind-turbine of120 m dia.:

nD r 12o?
Cross sectional area of the wind stream, A =j= T =11309.7 m'

Total power from the wind-turbine, P =P x A= 613 X 11309.7

= 6932846 W =6.933 MW Ans.

(vi) Torque and axial thrust (Fa) on the wind-turbine:

p = 2rcNT
Power, 60

Torque, T = P x 60 _ 6932846 x 60 = 1655095 N-m Ans.

2rcN 2rc x 40
Wind Energy 3.27

Axial thrust, F =;5A?

1
=2 X 1.226 x 11309.7 X 102

= 693284.6N Ans.

AU Problem 3.2

Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure and l5°C temperature has a velocity of10 mis.
The turbine has diameter of120 m and its operating speed in 40 rpm at maximum efficiency,
Calculate the:

i) total power density in the wind stream

ii) maximum obtainable power density assuming n = 40%
iii) total power produced in kW
iv) torque and axial thrust. [Nov'20]
Almost same as AU Problem 3.1 on Page 3.25 except efficiency value.

AU Problem 3.3

In a particular site, the atmospheric pressure is 1.01325 bar and temperature is 25°C.
The wind is available at 9 ms. Evaluate the following:

i) Power density available in the site

ii) Maximum power density possible
iii) Obtainable power density assuming the overall efficiency as 35%
iv) Power density ofthe windmill if the diameter is 50 m and
iv) Axial thrustforce action on the wind mill blade. [Apr'23J
Similar to AU Problem 3.1 on Page 3.25 except thrust calculation.

[Ans:- (i) Total power density in wind stream, P = 431.93 W!m2

(ii) Maximum possible obtainable power density = 254.84 In

(iii) Obtainable power density = 151.18 Im
(iv) Total power from the wind mill if50 m diameter, P =0.85 MW
(v) Axial thrust on the wind mill blade, Fa= 94233.27 NJ
 3.28 Renewable Energy System

3.11. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS (WECS)

3.11.1. Principle of Wind Energy Conversion

The wind energy can be extracted from lift force alone or drag force alone or combination
I

of lift and drag forces. It is known that the lift force acts perpendicular to the air flow direction
and drag force acts parallel to the wind direction. The lift is produced by the change in velocity
of air stream which speeds up the air flow thereby creating a pressure drop. So, the pressure
drop forces the lift surface from high pressure side to low pressure side ofan aerofoil. If the air
pressure increases on the low pressure side, enormous turbulence is produced which reduces
the lift force and it leads to increase the drag significantly called stalling.

The basic features which characterize lift and drag are as follows:

(i) Drag is in the direction of airflow.

(ii) Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.

(iii) Gerreration of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed.
(iv) With a good aerofoil as shown in Figure 3.4, the lift produced can be thirty times
greater than the drag.
(v) Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices.

Lift

Figure 3.4 Lift and dragforces on an aerofoil

3.11.2. Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine

In wind turbines, aerodynamics deals with the relative motion between moving air and
stationary aerofoil. The aerofoil is the cross section of the blade of the wind turbine. It is the
shape designed to create maximum lift force when air flows over it. In the wind turbine, linear
kinetic energy associated with the wind is converted into the rotational motion that is required
to turn the electrical generator for power generation. This change is accomplished by a rotor
that has one, two or three blades, or aerofoils attached to the hub. The wind flowing over the
 [ 3.29
Wind Energy

surfaces ofthese aerofoils generates the forces that cause the motor to run. The basic principle
ofaerodynamics ofa horizontal-axis wind turbine is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Aerodynamics ofwind turbine

Net lift force

-
-,.., _.
. ..
, _ ___ -
High pressure

Figure 3.6 Aerodynamic liftforce on aerofoil section ofwind turbine

 3.30 Renewable Energy System

Wind passes more rapidly over the longer (upper) path ofthe aerofoil in comparison to
the shorter (lower) path as shown in Figure 3.6. High and low pressures regions can be
identified by using Bernoulli's equation. The pressure is low at locations where the flow
velocity is high and the pressure is high at locations where the flow velocity is low: Therefore,
low pressure is created in the upper surface ofthe aerofoil and high pressure in its lower surface.
The pressure difference between top and bottom surfaces of the aerofoil results a force called
aerodynamic lift as air moves from high-pressure region to low-pressure region. The upward
force due to aerodynamic lift pushes the blades to move up. Since the blades ofthe wind turbine
are constrained to move up with the hub at its centre, the lift force causes the rotation of the
blade about the hub. Air flowing smoothly over an aerofoil produces two forces such as the
force perpendicular to the air flow and drag which acts in the direction of flow.

In wind turbines, the drag force perpendicular to the lift force also acts on the blade
causing the impediment or rotor rotation. The prime objective in wind turbine design is for the
blade (aerofoil-shaped) to have a relatively high lift to dra g ratio. This ratio can be varied along
the length of the blade to optimise the output energy of the turbine at various wind· speed.
Hence, in aerodynamic analysis of wind turbines, both lift and drag forces are, important for
their optimisation in efficient design.

3.12. WIND TURBINES COMPONENTS

A Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) is simple in construction which is operated

I

and maintained by the local population.

The main components of a wind energy conversion system are as follows:

Wind turbine
• Nacelle
• Rotor, i.e. the assembly of blades

• Hub and shaft.

► Transmission system

► Electric generator

► Yaw control system

► Storage

> Energy converters

► Tower to support the rotor system.

Wind Energy 3.31

Figure 3.7 snows the various parts of a wind energy conversion system.

1) Wind turbine or windmill:

The main component ofa wind energy conversion system is the windmill or wind turbines
alone. A system of blades fixed on a tower is rotated by the wind to either produce mechanical
work or electrical energy. The wind turbine may be located either unwind or downwind of the
power. In the unwind location, the wind encounters the turbine before reaching the tower.
Downwind rotors are generally preferred especially for the large aero generators.

Various components ofthe wind turbine are as follows:

Rotor tip

...Wind Transmission
f(Speed increaser, drive shaft,
Nacelle / clutch, coupling etc.,)

/,________~
Shaft Electrical
generator

Blades
Supporting
structure or tower

Footing or
Ground level control building

Figure 3. 7 Components of wind turbine

 3.32 Renewable Energy System

(i) Nacelle:

It includes gearbox, low- and high-speed shafts, generator controller and brake. It is
placed on the top of the tower and it is connected to the rotor.

(ii) Rotor:

The hub and the blades together compose the rotor. Most of the horizontal-axis wind
turbines use two or three blades in an upwind design. Blades are manufactured from
Fibreglass-Reinforced Polyester (FRP), wood laminates, steel or aluminium. A FRP blade is
comparatively lighter and it exerts less stress on bearing and rotor hubs. Hence, it is used by
most of the wind-turbine manufacturers. Other manufacturers use steel blades because of the
ease of fabrication, greater strength and lower cost. Sometimes, wood laminates blades are also
used due to their excellent fatigue resistance properties. Vertical- axis. wind-turbine
manufacturers often use extruded aluminium blades.

(iii) Hub and shaft:

Rotors of the wind turbine are attached with the shaft and hub assembly. The hub is front
portion of the shaft which faces the wind direction. It is normally of conical shape. The other
end of the shaft is attached to the transmission system of the wind turbine.

(iv) Anemometer:

This device is used for the measurement of speed. The wind speed is also fed to the
controller as it is one of the variables for controlling pitch angle and yaw.

Wind turbines are available in various sizes according to the potential to generate electricity
in ideal wind conditions. It is called "rated capacity." Wind turbines capacity rating ranges
from 250 W to 1.65 MW. Electricity production and consumption are referred in kilowatt-hours
(kWh).

2) Transmission system:

The mechanical power generated by the wind turbine (rotor blades) is transmitted to the
electric generator by a transmission system located in the nacelle. The transmission system
contains a gearbox, clutch and braking system to stop the rotor in an emergency. The purpose
of the gearbox is to increase the speed of the rotor typically from 20 to 50 rpm or from 1000 to
1500 rpm which is required for driving the most types of electric generators. The transmission
system must be designed for high dynamic torque loads due to the fluctuating power output
from the rotor.
Wind Energy 3.33

3) Electric generator:
There are two main options for the generator used in constant- speed wind turbines namely
asynchronous (induction) or synchronous generators. Most of the grid-connected wind turbines
installed so far use induction generators. These turbines have to be connected to the electricity
grid before they can generate electricity. The major disadvantage of the induction generators is
that they draw reactive power from the grid system. Synchronous generators do not require
reactive power so they are favoured by utilities. Wind turbines driving electrical generators
operate at either variable or constant speed. In variable-speed operations, rotor speed varies
with wind speed. In constant speed machines, rotor speed remains constant despite changes in
the wind speed.

4) Yaw control system:

It is used to continuously orient the rotor in the direction of the wind. The horizontal-axis
wind turbine has a yaw control system that turns the nacelle according to the actual wind
direction, using a rotary actuator attached to the gear ring at the top of the wind tower. The
wind direction must be perpendicular to the swept rotor area during normal operation of the
wind turbine. A slow closed-loop control system is used to control the yaw drives. A wind vane
mounted on the top of the nacelle senses the relative wind direction and the wind-turbine
controller then operates the yaw drives.

5) Storage:
There are different energy storage systems available to store energy. Storage systems are
used to store energy when there is excess power developed and to discharge it when there is a
lack in power. The most common storage device is the lead-acid battery. If the wind energy
conversion system is to pump water and the pumped storage system of water is followed.

6) Energy converters:
Usually, the electricity produced from wind energy is direct current (DC). So, it should be
converted into alternating current (AC) using an alternator before supplying it to the
transmission grid for industrial and household appliances.

7) Towers:
Mainly, wind turbines are kept on high towers due to light in weight. In addition, wind
turbines use light-weight towers than conventional mechanical windmills. Towers are basically
made up of tubular steel or steel lattice. There are two types of towers such as guyed (lattice or
 3.34 Renewable Energy System

pole) towers and free-standing self-supporting towers. If the location of windmill has good
topography, a guyed tower is used because ofless cost.
The towers are designed to withstand wind loads and gravity loads. The wind tower has
to be mounted to a strong foundation inthe ground. It is designed so that either its resonant
frequencies do not coincide with induced frequencies from the rotor or they can be damped
out.
Usually, the range oftower is from 12 m to 37 m for small wind applications and it is from
30 m to 75 m or higher for moderate wind turbines.

3.13. CLASSIFICATION OF WECS DEVICES

There are two types of wind energy-conversion devices· based on the force exerted on
blades namely, aerodynamic lift and aerodynamic drag wind turbines (rotors).

(i) Lift type wind turbine:

A high-speed turbine depends on lift forces to move the blades ofthe wind turbine. The
linear speed ofthe blades is usually several times higher than the wind speed. The torque of
lift force is low as compared to the drag type.

(ii) Drag type wind turbine:

Low-speed turbines are slower than the wind. They are mainly driven by the drag force.
The torque at the rotor shaft is relatively high.
Based on the axis ofrotation ofthe rotor, wind turbines are further classified as follows:

I. Horizontal-axis wind machines and

2. Vertical-axis wind machines.

3.13.1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

In horizontal axis turbines, the axis ofrotation is horizontal with respect to the ground. In
this case, the rotating shaft is parallel to the groundand the blades are perpendicular to the
ground. Horizontal-axis or propeller-type turbines are more common and highly developed
than vertical-axis turbines. Figure 3.8 shows a schematic arrangement ofa horizontal axis wind
turbine. Although the common wind turbine with a horizontal axis is simple in principle yet
the design of a complete system especially a large one that would produce electric power
economically is complex. It is of prime importance that the components such as rotor,
Wind Energy [ 3.35 l
transmission, generator and tower should not only be as efficient as possible but also they must
function effectively in combination.

Wind
d

Rotor
Wind mill head

Supporting
structure

Figure 3.8 Horizontal axis wind machine

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator
at the top of a tower and it must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple
wind vane while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most
of them have a gearbox which turns the blades slowly into a quicker rotation which is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent blades from being pushed into the tower by
high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed at a considerable distance in front of the tower
and they are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built despite the problem of turbu.lence because they do
not need an additional mechanismfor keeping them in line with the wind and high winds. The
blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus, it reduces their wind
resistance. Since cyclic turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind
machines.
 3.36 Renewable Energy System

Advantages:
I. Variable blade pitch which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
2. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
3. Efficiency is high· in receiving power through the whole rotation since the blades
always move perpendicularly to the wind.
i

4. The face of a horizontal axis blade is struck by the wind at a consistent angle regardless
of the position in its rotation.

Disadvantages:
I. HAWTs have difficulty operating in near ground, turbulent winds. Therefore, tall
towers are required.
2. The tall towers and blades up to 90 m long are difficult to transport.
3. Tall HAWTs are difficult to install and it needs very tall and expensive cranes and
skilled operators.
4. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox and
generator.
5. Reflections on tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating signal
clutter, although filtering can suppress it
6. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes, creating local opposition.
7. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence
when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow.
8. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades towards wind.

3.13.2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

In Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs), the main rotor shaft arranged vertically and
the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground. Figure 3.9 shows a vertical axis type
wind machine.

The key advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into
the wind streams to be effective because their operation is independent of wind direction and
these vertical axis machines are called panemones. It is an advantage on sites where the wind
direction is highly variable. With a vertical axis turbine, the generator and gearbox can be
Wind Energy 3.37

placed near the ground so the tower does not need to support it and it is more accessible for
maintenance. Drawbacks are that some designs produce pulsating torque.

Aerofoil blades
(Catenary shape)
------------ ----·t
6.Sm

_________L

Figure 3. 9 Vertical axis wind machines

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers because they are often installed
near the base on which they rest such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is
slow at a lower altitude. So, less wind energy is available for a given size of turbine. Air flow
near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow which can introduce issues of
vibration including noise and bearing wear which may inc rease the maintenance or shorten the
service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects
wind over the roof and it can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop
mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, it is near the optimum
point for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Various types of vertical-axis wind turbines are as follows:

1. Darrieus rotor
2. Savonius rotor (turbo machine)
3. Multiple blade rotor
4. Musgrove rotor
5. Evans rotor.
(a) Darrieus rotor:
This rotator is shaped such as an egg beater and it consists of two or three curved blades
shaped such as aero foils. The driving forces are lifting forces. This windmill needs much less
 3.38 Renewable Energy System

surface area. The maximum torque occurs when a blade is moving across the wind ofa speed
much high than wind speed. Initial movement may be initiated with the electrical generator
used as a motor.

Multiblade type

Four-blade dutch wind mill

Savonius typ()\
Air foil
Sail ty pe I
I
\

Propeller type Darrieus type

Figure 3.10 Types ofwindmills

(b) Savonius rotor:

This type of windmill has hollow circular cylinder sliced in half and the halves are
mounted on a vertical shaft with a gap in between them. There is a complicated motion ofwind
through and around the two curved sheet aerofoils rotates by drag force. Torque is produced
by the pressure difference between two sides ofthe halffacing the wind. It is quite efficient but
it needs a large surface area. It is simple in construction and it is inexpensive.
Wind Energy 3.39

(c) Multiple blade type:

It is the most widely used type of windmill. It has 15 to20 blades made from metal sheets.
The sail type has. three blades made by stitching out triangularpieces of canvas cloth. Both
these types run at low speed of 60 to 80 rpm.

(d) Musgrove rotor:

In this rotor, the blades are vertical for normal power generation. This rotor
I
has an
advantage of fail-safe shut down in strong winds.

(e) Evans rotor:

Vertical blades twist about a vertical axis speed for control and a fail-safe shut down.
Other types of windmills available for the power generation are: Four-blade Dutch windmill
and propeller type. Figure 3.10 shows various types of vertical-axis wind turbines rotors.

Rotors can also be classified on the basis of their movement at variable speed rotor or
constant speed rotor. For water pumping and small-battery operation, it is desirable to allow
the rotor speed to vary. However, for the large scale generation of electricity, it is common to
operate wind turbines at constant speed. It allows the use of simple generators whose speed is
fixed by the frequency of the electrical network. Variable-speed wind turbines are sometimes
used for electricity generation but a power electronic frequency converter is then required to
connect the variable frequency output ofthe wind turbine to the fixed frequency ofthe electrical
system.

Advantages:
1. A massive tower structure is less frequently used as VAWTs are more frequently
mounted with lower bearing mounted near the ground .
2.
.
Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor designs.

3. The generator of a VAWT can be located near the ground making it easy to maintain
moving parts.
4. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start to generate
electricity at 6 mph (10 km/h).
5. VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
6. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take the advantage of locations where mesas,
hilltops and ridgelines. They pass funnel the wind and increase the wind velocity.

7. VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.

 3.40 Renewable Energy System

Disadvantages:
1. A VAWT which uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress at the bottom bearing as
the whole weight of the rotor is on the bearing.
2. The stress in each blade due to wind loading changes sign twice during each revolution
as the apparent wind direction moves through 360°. This reversal ofthe stress increases
the chance of failure by fatigue.

3. While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the weight
of the structure above it which can make changing of parts nearly impossible without
dismantling the structure if it is not designed properly.
4. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speed is low due to the ground's
surface drag, VAWTs may not produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT
with the same footprint or height.

Comparison of HAT and VAVT:

S. No. Reference HAWT VAWT

1. Axis of rotation with The axis of rotation of The axis ofrotation of the
respect to wind stream turbine is parallel to turbine is perpendicular to
the wind stream. the wind stream.

2. Location of electric The electric generator The generator is installed

generator is installed at the top of on the ground.
the tower.

3. Location of gearbox The gearbox is The gearbox is installed at

installed at the top of the bottom of the turbine.
the turbine tower.

4. Need ofyaw mechanism The yaw mechanism is The vertical axis wind
required to orient the turbine does not require
turbine in the direction yaw mechanism because
of wind. it receives wind from all
directions.

5. Self-starting It is self-starting. It is not self-starting. So,

it needs a starting
: mechanism.
Wind Energy 3.41

6. Design and installation The design and The design and

installation of a installation of a vertical
horizontal axis wind axis wind turbine is
turbine is complex. comparatively simple.

7. Operation space of blades It needs large space for It needs small space for
blade's operation. blade's operation.

8. Dependency on wind The operation is The operation is

direction dependent on wind independent ofthe wind
direction. direction because it
receives wind from all
directions.

9. Height from ground The height ofturbine It is installed at smaller

from ground is large. distance from the ground.

10. Need of nacelle A heavy nacelle is There is no need of

installed at the top of nacelle.
the tower.

Power coefficient It has high-power It has low-power

11.
coefficient. coefficient.

Tip speed ratio (TSR) It has high tip speed It has considerably low
12.
ratio. tip speed ratio.

Noise produced The operation is noisy. It produces comparatively

13.
less noise.

Efficiency The ideal efficiency is The ideal efficiency is

14.
50%to 60 %. more than 70%.

Hindrance for birds It may cause high It may cause less

15.
obstruction for birds. hindrance for birds.

Cost It is more expensive It is less expensive

16.
due to their complex because their design and
design and installation. installation is quite
simple.
 3.42 Renewable Energy System

3.13.3. Wind Turbine Design and Construction

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location.
Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems,
number of blades and blade shape. Wind turbines convert the wind energy into electricity for
distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components.

1. The rotor component which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost includes
the blades for converting the wind energy to low speed rotational energy.
2. The generator component which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost
includes the electrical generator, the control electronics and a gearbox component for
converting the low speed incoming rotation into high speed rotation suitably for
generating the electricity.
3. The structural support component which is approximately 15% ofthe wind turbine cost
includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.

3.13.4. Small Wind Turbines

Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use.
Small units have direct drive gene rators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades and lifetime
bearings. They use vanes to focus the wind. Larger and costly turbines generally have geared
power trains, alternating current output and flaps. They are actively pointed into the wind.
Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.

3.14. CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND TURBINE ROTORS

To understand and analyse the characteristics of a windmill rotor, some technical

parameters need to be discussed.

1) Solidity:
Solidity is defined as the percentage of circumference of the rotor which contains the
material instead of air. If the machine has high-solidity machines, it will contain more material
and have coarse blade angles. So, high-solidity machines need more starting torque than low-
solidity machines. At the same time, high-solidity machines are less efficient than low-solidity
machines. The cost of components will increase due to the use of extra materials. To avoid it,
low-solidity machines should be manufactured with high precision by reducing the cost.
Solidity is calculated by

Percentage of solidity= 31.8 x Number of blades x Blade width x Rotor diameter

Wind Energy 3.43

2) Tip-speed ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of speed of the blade tip of a windmill rotor to the speed of free
wind. It is a measure to know the 'gearing ratio' of the rotor.

. . _ Blade tip speed

Ttp-speed ratio Wind speed

Usually, a drag device has tip-speed ratio less than one. So, it rotates slowly. At the same
time, a lift device has high tip-speed ratio and hence, it rotates relatively faster than the wind.
The tip speed of the rotor is given by

Tip-speed ratio= 0.052 x Rotor diameter x Rotation speed x Wind Speed

3) Performance coefficient:
The proportion of power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed as performance
coefficient (C,). It is a function of tip speed ratio which is normally used to classify the type· of
rotor.

C = Power delivered by the rotor

P Maximum power available in the wind

C, does not exceed 0.593 for horizontal axis wind machine.

0.6

0.5 Ideal rotor

+..
t
~-
'5
E
(I)
0
O
(I)
O
Savonius

~ D~~
« (3 blade)

C
U 0.1
E
5
't:

-
(I)
0.. 1 2 . 3 4 5 6 7
"Tip-speed ratio

Figure 3.11 Variation ofperformance coefficient with tip speed ratio

Figure 3 .11 shows the variation of performance coefficient with tip speed ratio for
different types of rotor. Practically, it is impossible to extract the whole available wind energy
 3.44] Renewable Energy System

into wind power without losses: The losses occur during the air reaching behind the rotor to a
standstill. The maximum loss in wind energy conversion is 59.3%. Sometimes, it goes upto
45% for practical wind rotors.

4) Torque:
It i~ the turning moment produced by the rotor. It does mainly depend on solidity and tip
speed ratio of the rotor. Usually, the rotors with high solidity and low tip-speed ratio produce

.
more torque than rotors with low solidity and high tip-speed ratio. At the same time, high speed
machines produce maximum performance coefficient but they have low starting torque. Figure
3.12 shows the variation of torque with tip speed ratio for different types ofrotor.

0.4

·j Four blade rotor

Three blade rotor

A+
D
:,
g 0.2
0
I-

0 2 4 6 8 10
Tip-speed ratio ►
Figure 3.12 Variation torque with tip-speed ratio

5) Rotor power control:

While designing, one ofthe important issues in a wind turbine is to limit the power output
at high wind speed. There are two options for constant speed machines.

(i) Stall-regulated wind turbines:

The pitch angle distribution along the blades is constant for all wind speeds. The angle of
attack of the aerofoil over blades is increased until the flow separation (stall) occurs at high
wind speeds. It results in a loss of lift but the drag force rises. The effect of this process can be
influenced by an appropriate choice of blade profile, the thickness and chord distribution and
the blade twist. The great advantage of stall regulation is its simplicity and relatively low cost.
Wind Energy 3.45

(ii) Pitch-regulated wind turbines:

The blades can be rotated about their radial axis during operation as the wind speed
changes. It is therefore possible to have an optimum pitch angle at all. wind speed· and a
relatively low cut-in wind velocity. The pitch angle changes in order to decrease the angle of
attack at high wind speed. It ensures that the power output from the rotor is limited to the rated
power of the generator. Pitch regulation is more expansive and it requires a relatively
complicated· control system. It is more efficient than stall regulation.

3.15. CONTROL SYSTEMS OF WIND TURBINE

The principal objectives of the control systems are as follows: Among others, it needs in
allowing an automatic operation, coupling and uncoupling the generator, rotor direction and
speed control, load control, pitch control, warning operators of failures or maintenance. The
control structure for a wind generator includes several sensors, actuators and a system with
hardware and software to process the input signals for the sensors as well as to generate the
output signals for actuators.

Wind turbines are optimized to produce maximum power output at the most probable wind
speeds around 15 mls, 33 mph, or 33 knots. It would be uneconomical to design them for the
operation at the improbable higher wind speeds.
I
It is necessary to limit the power output in high wind conditions on all wind turbines.
Otherwise, a runaway turbine will be overloading its rotors and mechanical power train as well
as its electrical generator leading to catastrophic failure.

Wind turbines have to also be oriented perpendicular to the wind stream using wind
orientation mechanism or yaw control. In addition, their brakes must be applied under
unfavourable high wind conditions. Some of these controls are performed mechanically in
older wind machines but in newer machines, they are performed hydraulically, and in the most
recent designs, they are done electrically using stepped up motors.

Currently, modern wind turbines use two different principles of aerodynamic control to
limit the power extraction of the wind turbine. They are known as

(i) stall control and

(ii) pitch control.
 3.46 Renewable Energy System

Although in the past the majority of the wind generators used a simple stall control,
however, with the increased size ofthe machines the manufacturers increasingly are opting for
the pitch control system which offers greater flexibility in the operation ofwindgenerators.

3.15.1. Stall Control of Wind Turbines

The stall control is a passive system that reacts to the wind speed. The rotor blades are
fixed in pitch angles and cannot rotate around its longitudinal axis. The pitch angle is chosen
based on wind speed which is higher than continuous speed. The flow around the profile ofthe
rotor blade detaches from the surface of the blade (stall) reducing the aerodynamic lift and
increasing the drag forces. Lower aerodynamic lifts and higher drag forces act against the rotor
power output increasing.

The wind generators with a stall control when compared with the wind generators with
pitch control present usually the following advantages.

(i) Simple structure ofthe rotor hub

(ii) Lower maintenance because the lower number ofmoving parts
(iii) Self-reliability ofthe power control.

However, at starting when the wind speed is lower the turbine with stall control has Mt a
sufficient starting torque. Therefore, an auxiliary starting motor is required. Worldwide, the
concept of the stall control is dominant. The majority of the manufacturers use this simple
possibility ofpower control which needs a rotor constant speed usually assured by the induction
generator directly connected to the network.

3.15.2. Pitch Control of Wind Turbines

The pitch control is an active system which usually needs information from the system
controller which is the most important application consisting ofcontrol ofthe generator power
output. When the power output ofthe generator is exceeded due to an increasing in the wind
speed, the rotor blades rotates around its longitudinal axis, in order to assure that the turbine
produces only its continuous power. The reduction of the angle of attack decreases the
aerodynamic forces in the blade and consequently, the power output production. Before all
wind conditions, the flow around the profiles ofthe rotor blades is quite adherent to the surface,
producing aerodynamic lift and small drag forces. The turbines with pitch control allow the
power active control under all wind conditions and under partial powers. In addition, the
Wind Energy 3.47

continuous rated power even under low air density is reached and a soft rotor start by pitch
changing is allowed.

On the other hand, strong brakes are not required to perform emergency stops ofthe rotor,
the rotor blades loads decrease with winds to increase the continuous power more and it is
possible to realize the flagging of rotor blades for small loads in extreme winds.

(a) Pitch power control of the turbine blades:

Fixed speed variable
pitch baldes Synchronous
generator

Wind
Gear box } AC power
turbine

d] Speed control [sI

Pitch control

Figure 3.13 Pitch power control of turbine blades

In a pitch power-controlled wind turbine, an electrical controller senses the power output
of the turbine several times per second. If the power level exceeds a prescribed safe level, an
electronic signal is generated which turns or pitches the blades out ofthe wind. When the power
- .
level is lower, they are pitched back to catch the wind at the optimal angle of attack of the
blade's aerofoil. This control system is shown in Figure 3.13. In pitch power control, the rotor
blades are rotated around their longitudinal axis a fraction of a degree at a time while the rotor
continues its normal rotation. Clever design is needed to pitch the rotor blades to the optimal
amount so as to maximize the power output at all wind speed.

(b) Mechanical control of the turbine blades:

With change of wind speed, the pitch of the blades is adjusted to control the frequency of
wind-turbine rotation. In a spring-operated mechanism, the higher rotational speed ofthe rotor
generated a centrifugal force on a regulating balancing weight which compresses a spring as
shown in Figure 3.14 (a). The force ofthe weight rotates the blade about a pivot decreasing the
angle ofattack ofthe aerofoil to the wind stream and reducing its speed. The compressed spring
tends to restore the aerofoil to its original angle of attack once the wind speed decreases. The
 3.48 Renewable Energy System

power in the. wind is wasted. The control method can be expensive and unreliable. Force (F)
appears once blade rotation begins. This control system is shown in Figure 3 .14 (b).

Blade pivot

--- Wind
)-

Compressed cut-in spring

(a)

5
Controller
Controlled

--
--+- 4om__

Wind AC power

Feedback to blade pitch

(b)
Figure 3.14 Mechanical control ofturbine blades

3.15.3. Flap Power Control of Wind Turbines

Some wind machines have their rotors equipped with ailerons offlaps such as aircraft. In
this case, the geometry ofthe wing airfoil is altered to provide increased or decreased air lift.
Wind Energy 3.49

3.15.4. Yaw Power Control of Wind Turbines

It is possible to yaw or rotate the whole rotor mechanism out of the wind to decrease its
rotational speed and power output. This technique is used for small wind turbines of I kW rated
power or less. It would subject large wind turbines to cyclic' stresses that could lead to the
fatigue failure of the entire structure.

The majority of the wind turbines with horizontal axis include a yaw control system in
order to maintain the nacelle oriented according with the wind direction for a better efficiency
ofthe wind energy. On the other hand; the use of the yaw control to limit the energy production
is obviously an intere sting possibility. However, there are two factors existing that limit the
rapid reply ofthe systein to control the generator power output.

The first one is the high moment of inertia of the nacelle and of the rotor around the yaw
axis arid the second is the relationship between normal component of the wind speed of the
rotor disc and yaw angle. The second factor that limits the reply of the· yaw system is that at·
small yaw angle. There is a minimal reduction in the generator power output and for the pitch
system, if there is a change of the same magnitude, the generator power output could fall by
half.

3.15.5. Orientation Yaw Control

The yaw position control mechanism is used to orient the wind turbine rotor in such a way
that it perpendicularly faces the wind stream. The wind turbine undergoes a yaw error if the
rotor is not perpendicular to the wind. The existence of a yaw error suggests that a lower
fraction of the energy in the wind will be flowing through the rotor area and available for
extraction. The lost power fraction is proportional to the cosine of the yaw error angle.

3.16. CHARACTERISTICS OF WINDMILL

As stated earlier, power available is proportional to the cube ofwind speed. However, the
power output has a lower order dependence on wind speed because the overall efficiency of
the windmill changes with wind speed. The following are the four important characteristics of
the wind speeds.

(a) Cut-i
n wind speed:
lt is. the wind speed when the machine begins to produce power.
.
It is typically between 3
mis and 4 mis (10 km/hr and 14 km/hr, 7 mph and 9 mph).
[3.so Renewable Energy System

(b) Design wind speed:

It is the wind speed when the windmill reaches its maximum efficiency.

(c) Rated wind speed:

It is also called nameplate capacity. It is the wind speed when the machine reaches its
maximum output power. The rated wind speed is typically about 15 mis (54 km/hr, 34 mph)
which is about double the expected average speed of the wind.

(d) Cut-out wind speed:

It is the maximum safe working wind speed and the speed at which the wind turbine is
designed to be shut down by applying brakes to prevent damage to the system. In addition to
electrical or mechanical brakes, the turbine may be slowed down by stalling or furling.

(i) Stalling:
It is a self-correcting or passive strategy which can be used with fixed speed wind turbines.
As the wind speed increases, the wind angle of attack is increased until it reaches its stalling
angle at which point the "lift" force turning the blade is destroyed. However, increasing the
angle of attack also increases the effective cross section of the blade face-on to the wind and
thus, it directs the wind force and the associated stress on the blades. A fully stalled turbine
blade has the flat side of the blade facing directly into the wind when stopped.

(ii) Furling orfeathering:

It is a technique derived from sailing in which the pitch control of the blades is used to
decrease the angle of attack which in tum reduces the "lift" on blades as well as the effective
cross section of the aerofoil facing into the wind. A fully furled turbine blade has the edge of
the blade facing into the wind reducing the wind force and stresses on the blade when stopped.

(iii) Survival wind speed:

. This is the maximum wind speed that a given wind turbine is designed to withstand above
which it cannot survive. The survival speed of commercial wind turbine s is in the range of 50
mis (180 km/hr, 112 mph) to 72 mis (25,9 km/hr, 161 mph). The most common survival speed
is 60 mis (216 kn/hr, 134 mph). The safe survival speed depends on local wind conditions
which are usually regulated by national safety standards.

The performance data for windmills can be misleading because they may refer the peak
efficiency or peak output power. The data could also refer the average output over a time period
because the power output varies with wind speed, the average output over a time period is
dependent in the local variation in wind speed from hour to hour. Hence, to predict the output
Wind Energy 3.51

for a given windmill, one needs to have output characteristics of the windmill and the wind
speed distribution curve ofthe site. The total energy output of a windmill at particular site can
be obtained by multiplying the values of both graphs for each wind speed interval and adding
all products.

3.17. TYPES OF WIND POWER PLANTS (WPPs)

(i) Renwte or Of
f-grid windpower pants:
Areas which are remote but are blessed with good wind speed and frequency need a wind
turbine which is maintenance free or low-maintenance for long period of time. These types of
turbines are known as remote windpower turbines and they are specifically designed with these
objectives in view. These power plants are used in situations. in which remote or non-grid-
connected power is needed but power must always be available, for example, to keep vaccines
cold, or a rural clinic's lights on or communications equipment running continuously.

(ii) Small scale or Stand-alone wind turbines plants:

Itis more suitable for small scale wind power such as domestic systems. Figure 3.15 shows
the components and its arrangement for small scale domestic wind power system. One choice
is to have little control so that the output is ofvariable voltage for use as heat or rectified power.
Such a type of power supply is very useful.

Fixed speed
variable pitch Surplus energy
Asynchronous
baldes generatof storage

Wind
Rectifier
turbine Inverter AC power
DC control unit

Voltage Battery
regulator

DC power

Figure 3.15 Small scale windpower (domestic systems)

The relatively small amount ofpower that usually has to be controlled at say 240 V /50 Hz
or 110 V/60 Hz can be obtained from batteries by inverters. However, it is preferred to have
[ 3.52 l Renewable Energy System

electricity at constant frequency. Mechanical control and pitch power control ofwind turbines
are generally used for constant frequency generation.

(iii) Medium scale wind turbines plants;

Medium scale wind power plants are used in variety of places such as community center,
health clinic or school. The basic aim of the wind turbine is to be a diesel saver. The diesel
generator supplies power in windless periods. A reasonable amount of diesel fuel could be
saved with a control strategy and system architecture which allows in shutting down the diesel
generator when the wind is sufficient to carry the load. In this case, there are two extreme
modes of operation.

(a) Single-mode electricity supply distribution:

It is usually a three-phase supply that takes single phase to domestic dwellings with a
single set of distribution cables and the system operates in a single mode at fixed voltage: A
24-hr maintained supply without load-management control depends usually on diesel
generation due to non-availability ofwind. The diesel is either left on continuously or switched
off when excessive wind blows. Generally, a large amount (over 70%) of the wind generated
power is to be dumped into an outside resistor bank owing to the mismatch of supply and
demand in windy conditions shown in Figure 3.16.

-
Controller

Wind
-
- [1
nge price
Meter
S
~ ~ lectricity

Constant voltage 240V/110V

Figure 3.16 Single-mode supply of wind/diesel supply

(b) Multiple-mode distribution:

In this case, every effort is made to use all wind-generated power. Economic electricity
for many applications in windy conditions is offered. The economic service loads are
automatically switched off to decrease the demand due to wind drop. Only the loads on the
expensive supply are enabled to supply power by a diesel generator without availability of
wind. The economic· advantage of multiple mode operation is used at all times. Figure 3.17
shows schematic arrangement of multiple-mode supply of wind/diesel supply.
 Wind Energy 3.53

Induction generator
Energy storage

Wind--

Low price electricity, Ex. Heat

Meter 2

U
Diesel generator High price electricity, Ex. Light

Figure 3.17Multiple-mode supply ofwind/diesel supply

Large and more costly turbines generally have geared with power trains for alternating
current output. Also, they are actively focused into the wind. Direct drive generators and aero
I

elastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.

(iv) Hybrid windpower plants:

Wind is not fully reliable. So, we cannot depend on wind alone for generating power. A
wind power plant is combined with some other renewable source of energy such as the sun or
solar energy to get more efficiency. Such an arrangement is known as hybrid arrangement and
it is useful in regions where there is lot of heat and wind.

During electricity generation from wind energy, more than one type of generator is used
to avoid the fluctuation in power supply. Usually, a photovoltaic (solar) array, elements of
passive solar heating and a back-up diesel generator are combined with wind turbines. During
wind resource available period, the system might work as a renewable or single system to
produce electricity. During peak period power demand, the hybrid system is mainly used in
order to meet the demand. In addition, sometimes, the power system might add biomass, hydro
or other generating sources in the hybrid system based on the local resource availability.

(v) Grid connected windpower plants:

This concept is similar to a hybrid system and the wind power plant is used in conjunction
with a main grid which supplies the most of the power. The main purpose of the wind turbines
is to supplement the energy supply for the grid whereas the main function in the hybrid system
 3.54 Renewable Energy System

is to complement the energy supply. Figure 3.18 shows schematic arrangement ofgrid-li,nked
wind power plant.

Induction generator

-
-,-:._...
Wiind

-
a a a a
h bdbcb
D D a a
pc hdbcb
D 0 a a
bdb
a a "D "D

t , , , , ,
/•
8 A
+
Household farm
. 11111111 •
11111111
Grid supply
Export/Import meter
Figure 3.18 Grid-connected aerogenerator
(vi) Windfarms:

Wind farm is a collection ofwind turbines for generating power in a given area or utility
and hence, the harness ofwind force in a collective manner amplifies the effect ofa single unit.
These configurations are used at various locations depending on the conditions ofregion and
the presence of other sources for electrical supply. An optimum mix would consist of an
ingenious combination ofvarious sources in-the best feasible manner.

3.18. APPLICATIONS OF WIND ENERGY

In India and other countries, small windmills are directly combined with a pump and
storage tank. Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce electricity. The
kinetic energy of wind· is converted to electrical energy. They are extensively used in many
applications.

In many places, wind power is the least-cost option for providing power to home and
business which are remote from an established grid. Energy extracted from wind is in various
forms such as rotary, translational or oscillatory motion. The mechanical energy is used for
pumping fluids, heating applications, operating small household appliances to refrigeration and
freezing, cooling and lighting.
Wind Energy [s.ss]

Some of the potential applications of wind energy are listed below.

(i) Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the
grid and are used to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the
household and by selling the excess power back to the electric company.

(ii) Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery
charging.

(iii) Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for
driving an electrical submersible pump directly.

(iv) Wind turbines suitable for residential or village scale wind power range from 500W
to 50 kW.

3.18.1. Wind Energy used in Water Pumping

Wind pumps are used to pump the water from reservoir to the required system. It can be
done either by a direct mechanical pumping through windmill or by generating electricity by
wind systems. Pumping water through wind systems are mainly used for irrigation purposes.
Water supply wind-pumps are best suited for pumping water from wells or bore holes rather
than pumping open water from the reservoir such as lakes.

During pumping operation, additional pumping head will be required due to well
drawdown and frictional losses within the pipe. This additional head can be estimated at 10%
to 15% ofthe static head.

3.18.2. Systems for Community Centers, Schools and Health Clinics

A large system can provide power to a centralized community center, health clinic or
school. A power system for a health center enables the storage of vaccines and radio
communication for emergency calls. A power system for a school can provide electricity· for
computers and educational television, video and radio. Community centers find that in addition
to the benefits of the power, such as lighting and cooling, the "waste energy" can be used to
charge batteries or make ice for sale to households.

A reasonable amount of diesel fuel could be saved with a control strategy and system
architecture which allows in shutting down the diesel generator when the wind is sufficient to
carry the load.
 3.56 Renewable Energy System

3.18.3. Wind Energy used in Heating and Cooling processes

Wind energy produced is used to operate heat pumps for maintaining the inside
temperature more than atmospheric temperature during winter season especially in Europe
countries. Apart from this, the wind energy is used in producing inorganic chemicals, plastic
materials, organic materials such as solvents, synthetic perfumes, food processing, meat
preparation and fruit packing and textile processes, hot air or steam for drying, curing and
finishing yarns.

3.18.4. Wind Energy used in Electricity Generation

Wind energy is also used to generate electricity. The available energy in wind is extracted
by wind turbines and converted into electrical energy though a wind energy conversion system
called electrical generator. Sometimes, the electrical energy is stored in storage devices for
further use.

3.18.5. Industrial Applications

The number of dedicated industrial applications for wind power continues to grow. Small
wind power systems are ideal for applications where storing and shipping the fuel is not
economical or impossible. Wind power is currently being used for the following applications.

l. Telecommunications
2. Radar systems
3. Pipeline control

4. Navigational aids, such as ship with sails

5. Cathodic protection
6. Weather stations/seismic monitoring
7. Air-traffic control.

Wind machines encounter more extreme weather conditions than home power systems.
So, they must be designed to be robust with very minimal maintenance.

3.19. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

I. What is wi
nd energy?

Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy. Wind power is the conversion of
wind energy into a useful form of energy such as using wind turbines to make electricity,
Wind Energy 3.57

windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for water pumping or drainage or sails to
propel ships.

2. Ho wind is created on earth surface? [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Wind is produced by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by energy from the
Sun. The poles ofthe Earth receive less energy from the Sun than the equator. Among these
two, the dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than sea. The differential heating
drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from earth's surface to the
stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling.

3. How winds areformed? State various applications ofindEnergy. /Anna Univ. Nov'19]
Wind is formed by the uneven heating ofthe Earth's surface by energy from the Sun.

. (i) Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the
grid and are used to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the
household and by selling the excess power back to the electric company.

(ii) Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery.
charging.

(iii) Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for
driving an electrical submersible pump directly.

(iv) Wind turbines suitable for residential or village scale-wind power range from 500W
to 50 kW.

4. Write down the applications ofwindpower.

(a) Wind turbines are used to generate electricity·
(b) Windmills are used for producing mechanical power
(c) Wind pumps are used for water pumping or draina ge
(d) Wind power is used in sails to propel ships.
5. Mention the characteristics ofwind energy.
(i) Wind-power systems do not pollute the atmosphere.
(ii) Fuel provision and transport are not required in wind-power systems.
(iii) Wind energy is a renewable source of energy.
(iv) Wind energy when produced on small scale is cheaper but competitive with
conventional power generating system when produced on a large scale.
 3.58 Renewable Energy System

6. Draw wind dataflow chart.

Hourly Daily wind

wind data data

Monthly wind data Monthly wind data

(Number of hours at (Number of hours at
each wind speed) each wind speed)

Average wind speed = Wnd Average wind speed = Wind

speedx speedx
No. of hours/Total No. of hours No. of hours/Total No. of hours

Monthly average wind speed

Annual wind= Total monthly

wind of each month /12

Figure 3.19 ind dataflow chart

7. Define wind shear.
The wind speed varies with the height above the ground. It is called wind shear.

8. What is windpower density?

A yardstick frequently used to determine good locations is referred as Wind Power
Density (WPD).
9. What is the condition for maximum output powerfrom a. wind turbine?
/Anna Univ. Nov'21J

Power output is maximum at a particular value of rotational speed called optimum

rotational speed. This optimum rotational speed corresponds to optimum tip speed ratio.
Wind Energy 3.59 J
10. What is meant by wind turbine?

A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy.

11. Define capacityfactor.

The ratio between actual productivity in a year and theoretical maximum is called
capacityfactor. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%.

:. - - _Actual productivity in a year

Capacity factor Tieeoreticai {[ maximum productivity
5 G., d i, in ;
a year

12. How will you define wind energy penetration?

Wind energy penetration is defined as the fraction of energy produced by wind from
the total available generation capacity. The penetration depends on the existing generating
plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management and other factors.

13. List the advantages ofwind energy. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

(a) Wind power emits absolutely no greenhouse gases. Therefore, there is no pollution.
(b) Wind is obtained at free of cost.
(c) Wind power is helpful in supplying electricity to remote areas.
'
(d) Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The wind will never run out.
(e) The potential of wind power is enormous i.e. 20 times more than what the entire·
human population needs.

14. What are the disadvantages ofwind power?

(a) Wind is a fluctuating (intermittent) source of energy and it is not suited to meet the
base load energy demand.

(b) Wind energy requires some form of energy storage e.g. batteries, pumped hydro.

(c) The manufacturing and installation of wind turbines require heavy investments.

(d) Wind turbines can be a threat to wildlife (e.g. birds, bats).

(e) Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be unpleasant.

15. Mention the factors which determine the power in wi

nd. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Wind power, P = 11v pA;/

The following factors which determine the power from wind,

 3.60 Renewable Energy System

(i) Cross sectional area of the wind stream, A - o»

4

(ii) Diameter of turbine rotor, D (m)

(iii) Density of air, p

(iv) Vi= Incoming velocity of wind (mis)

(v) n= Fraction of power extracted by a wind turbine or the overall conversion
efficiency of the machine.

Overall conversion efficiency can also be given m another term called power
coeffi cient (C,). It is defined as the ratio of the output power produced to the power
available in the wind. The power coefficient is a function ofboth tip speed ratio and blade
pitch angle.

The overall conversion efficiency ofthe machine is a function ofthe following factors.

Wind velocity

Angular of velocity of rotor in the wind turbine

► Pitch angle

► Design of aerofoil section and number of blades.

16. Define Betz limit of a wind turbine.

Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency of a wind turbine.

17. What is the maximum possible wind effi ciency which can be extracted by wind turbines?

_ Maximum power,W,
% a''
_27g
Maximum wind efficiency,
"las power available in wind, P p4V,'
2g

16
'lmax ==
n 0.593 = 59.3%
27

18. Give the main components of the wind power plant. [Anna Univ. Nov'22J
► Wind turbine which consists of Nacelle, Rotor i.e. the assembly of blades, and
Hub and shaft.
► Transmission system
► Electric generator
Wind Energy [_. 61

► Yaw control system

► Storage
Energy converters
Tower to support the rotor system.
19. Name any two important windpowerplants in India. [Anna Univ. Nov'22]

(i) Muppandal wind farm with the capacity of 1500 MW in Tamil Nadu,
Kanyakumari
(ii) Jaisalmer Wind Park with the capacity of 1064 MW in Rajasthan, Jaisalmer
(iii) Brahmanvel wind farm with the capacity of 528 MW in Maharashtra, Dhule
(iv) Dhalgaon wind fann with the capacity of 278 MW in Maharashtra, SangIi.

20. List any four advantages of wind turbine. [Anna Univ. Dec'10]
(i) Wind industry developers and manufacturers make a lot of money by investing
them due to government subsidies and cash incentives.
(ii) They make the environmentalists happy may be because man is finally punished
against the earth.
21. State the dife
f rent types of windmills. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
(i) Horizontal axis windmills
(ii) Vertical axis windmills.
'
22. Mention anyfour advantages of HAT.
(i) Variable blade pitch gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
(ii) The tall tower base allows the access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
(iii) It produces high efficiency since the blades always move perpendicularly to the
wind which receives power through the whole rotation.
(iv) The face of a horizontal axis blade is struck by the wind at a consistent angle
regardless of the position in its rotation.
23. State any four disadvantages of HA WT.
(i) Massive tower construction is required to support heavy blades, gearbox and
generator.
(ii) Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes ofradar installations creating
signal clutter although filtering can suppress it.
 3.62 Renewable Energy System

(iii) Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes, creating local opposition.
- .

(iv) Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by
turbulence when a blade passes through tower's wind shadow.
24. Classify vertical axis wind turbine based 011 blade profile.
(i) Multiple blade type
(ii) Savonius type
(iii) Darrieus type.

25. rite down any two advantages and disadvantages of VAT.

Advantages:
(i) VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
(ii) VAWTs situated close to the ground can take the advantage of locations where
hilltops, ridgelines and it passes funnel the wind. It increases the wind velocity.
Disadvantages.:

(i) The stress in each blade due to wind loading changes sign twice during each
revolution as the apparent wind direction moves through 360°%.

(ii) While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the
weight of the structure above it which can make changing out parts nearly
impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed properly.

26. Compare horizontal axis wind turbine with vertical axis wind turbi
ne with respect to
capacity, capital cost, maintenance cost andya control.[Anna Univ. Apr'22 & Apr'23]

S.No. Reference HAWT VAWT

I. Need of yaw mechanism The yaw mechanism is The vertical axis wind
. required to orient the turbine does not require
turbine in the direction yaw mechanism because
of wind. it receives wind from all
directions.

2. Power coefficient It has high-power It has low-power

-
coefficient. coefficient.
.
Wind Energy
3.63 ] '

3. Tip speed ratio (TSR) It has high tip speed It has considerably low
ratio. tip speed ratio.

4. Efficiency The ideal efficiency is The ideal efficiency is

50% to 60 %. more than 70% .

5. Cost It is less expensive

It is more expensive
because their design and
due to their complex
installation is quite
design and installation.
simple.

27. List down the parameters considered in designing wind turbine rotors.
1) Solidity
2) Tip-speed ratio
3) Performance coefficient
4) Torque
5) Rotor power control.

28. What do you mean by the term of solidity ratio of the windturbine?[Anna Univ. Apr'23]
Solidity is defined as the percentage of circumference of the rotor which contains the
material instead of air.If the machine has high-solidity machines, it will contain more material
and have coarse blade angles. So, high-solidity machines need more starting torque than low-
solidity machines. At the same time, high-solidity machines are less efficient than low-solidity
machines. The cost of components will increase due to the use of extra materials. To avoid it,
low-solidity machines should be manufactured with high precision by reducing the cost.
Solidity is calculated by

Percentage of solidity= 31.8 x Number of blades x Blade width x Rotor diameter

29. Define ti
p speed ratio. {Anna Univ. Nov'21]
Tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio of speed of the blade tip of a windmill rotor to
the speed of free wind. It is a measure to know the 'gearing ratio' ofthe rotor.

. . _ Blade tip speed

Tip-speed rati o Wind speed
 3.64 Renewable Energy System

Usually, a drag device has tip-speed ratio less than one. So, it rotates slowly. At the
same time, a lift device has high tip-speed ratio and hence, it rotates relatively faster than
the wind. The tipspeed ofthe rotor is given by

Tip-speed ratio = 0.052 x Rotor diameter x Rotation speed x Wind Speed

30. Define performance coefficient related to wind machine.

The performance coefficient (C,) is a function of tip speed ratio which is normally
used to classify the rotor.

C = Power delivered by the rotor

P Maximu power available in the wind

C, does not exceed 0.593 for horizontal axis wind machine.

31. rite down the characteristic ofwind speed.

(i) Cut-in wind speed: The speed at which the machine begins to produce power.

(ii) Design wind speed: The speed at which the windmill reaches its maximum
efficiency.

(iii) Rated wind speed: The speed at which the machine reaches its maximum output
power.

(iv) Furling wind speed: The speed at which the machine furls to prevent damage at
high wind speeds.

32. What is meant by stalling?

Ifthe air pressure increases on the low pressure side, enormous turbulence is produced
which reduces the lift force and it leads to increase the drag significantly called stalling.

33. State the characteristics oflift and drag.

(a) Drag is in the direction ofairflow.

(b) Lift is perpendicular to the direction ofairflow.
(c) Generation of lift always causes a certain amount ofdrag to be developed with a
good aerofoil.
(d) The lift produced can be thirty times greater than drag.
(e) Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices.
 3.65
Wind Energy

34. Mention the purposes ofpitch control in wind turbines. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]

The turbines with pitch control allow the power active control under all wind
conditions and under partial powers. In addition, the continuous rated power even under
low air density is reached and a softrotor start by pitch changing is allowed.

35. Classify wind power plants.

(i) Remote wind power plant
(ii) Hybrid wind power plant
(iii) Small wind turbine
(iv) Grid connected wind power plant
(v) Wind farm.
36. hat are the mostfavourable sitesfor installing the wind turbines?
/Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Mainly, four sites are selected to install windmills for the extract of wind energy. They
are as follows:
(i) Plane site
(ii) Hill top site
(iii) Sea-shore site
(iv) Off-shore shallow water site.

37. List the various grid integration issues of WPPs.

The grid integration issues of WPPs are broadly classified as follows:

(a) Interface issues:

(i) Short circuit power control
(ii) Active and reactive power control
(iii) Voltage control

(b) Operational issues:

(i) Power system stability
(ii) Frequency control
(iii) Short term balancing
(iv) Long term balancing
 3.66 ] Renewable Energy System

(v) Impact on transmission and distribution systems

(vi) Economic dispatch and unit commitment

38. Define short circuit power ratio and mention ho this ratio affects the grid strength.
For any given WPP installation, the short circuit power ratio at the PCC is the ratio
of the short circuit power of the grid to the installed WPP capacity. Ifthis ratio is above 20
to 25 times, the grid is said to be strong with respect to the installation and the weak for the
ratio below 8 to 1 0 times.

39. What is meant by voltage control with respect to grid i

ntegration?
Voltage control refers the task of keeping the node voltages in the grid within the
required limits and preventing any deviation from the nominal value within the specified
limits.

40. List the functions of voltage control in WPPs.

Since every large WPP is also a power station, the functions of the voltage control are
as follows:
Maintain constant voltage at PCC
Maintain stable distribution ofreactive power over other WPPs
Prevent high voltage in case of loss of load
> In short circuit situations, increase the grid stability by increasing the excitation of
Type-C and Type-D WPPs and thereby the synchronism of the grid.

41. What is meant byfrequency control in grid integration?

Maintaining a constant system frequency is vital for grid security. Therefore, any
event that causes frequency changes must be quickly corrected. The frequency must be
kept within strict limits to avoid system degradation, usually ± 1 % for normal operation.
As soon as the grid frequency starts to drift, the power plants slightly change the generated
power to stop the frequency drift. This strategy is called the frequency control.

42. Li
st the type offrequency control.
Frequency control is generally based on the following three control actions.
> Primary frequency control
Secondary frequency control
Tertiary frequency control
Wind Energy 3.67

43, Write short note on unit commitment.

Unit commitment of power plant is the scheduling of specific power plants to meet
expected electrical energy demand on a day-to-day basis. Some generators require several
hours to get started and synchronized to the grid while in many cases, the shutdown process
of the conventional power generators is also lengthy and units may require several hours
of cooling prior to restarting. This timescale is called unit commitment. It can range from
several hours to several days, depending on the specific generator characteristics and
operational practice.
44. Sate the various applications of wind energy.
(i) Wind energy is used in water pumping.
(ii) Systems for community centers, schools and health clinics.
(iii) Wind energy used in heating and cooling processes.
(iv) Wind energy used in electricity generation.
45. List down the main industrial applications wind energy.
(i) Telecommunications
(ii) Radar
(iii) Pipeline control
(iv) Navigational aids such as ship with sails
(v) Cathodic protection
(vi) Weather stations/seismic monitoring

46. Mention the various envi

ronmental impacts ofwind energy systems.
(i) Impact on land use
(ii) Impact on wildlife
(iii) impact on weather and climate change
(iv) Impacts on people
(v) Life-cycle global warming emissions
(vi) Landscape and visual impact and (vii) Public acceptance.

3.20. SOLVED QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the various considerations taken into account for site selection of a wind energy
system. [Anna Univ. Nov'20, Apr '22 & Nov '22]

Refer chapter 3.2 on Page 3.5.

[s.ss ] Renewable Energy System

2. Illustrate wind resource assessment in detail.

Refer chapter 3.3 on Page 3.7.

3. Describe the different stages of wind resource assessment.

Refer chapters 3.3.1-3.3.4 on Pages 3.7-3.9.

4. Write short notes on the following:

(i) Source of wind
Refer chapter 3.1.1 on Page 3.2.

(ii) Wind energy potential.

Refer chapter 3.5 on Page 3.11.

5. Discuss the basics of wind energy electricity gene ration and explain the parameters
involved in it.

Refer chapters 3.6 & 3.6.1-3.6.3 on Pages 3.13 & 3.14.

6. List various advantages and disadvantages of wind power.

Refer chapter 3.7 on Page 3.15.

7. Discuss wind data and its measurement.

Refer chapters 3.8 & 3.8.1 on Page 3.16.

8. Derive an expression for energy available in wind. Using Betz model of a wind turbine,
derive the expression for power extracted from wind. What is the maximum power that can
be extracted and under what condition? Derive the expression for maximum axial thrust
experienced by a wind turbine and also find the condition for such operation.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]
· Refer chapter 3.9.1 on Page 3.18.

9. Derive the equation for power developed in a wind turbine. Also derive the Betz limit for
wind turbines from the basic principles. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Refer chapters 3.9, 3.9.1 & 3.9.2 on Pages 3.18 & 3.20.

10. Using the Betz model of the wind turbine, derive the expression for power extracted from
the wind. [Anna Univ. Nov '22]
Refer chapter 3.9.3 on Page 3.23.

11. Clearly explain the principle of WECS with neat block diagram. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Refer chapter 3.11.1 on Page 3.28.

Wind Energy [ 3.69 l
12. How energy from wind can be extracted? Explain the process by using suitable diagram.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]
Refer chapter 3.11.1 on Page 3.28.

13. Write short notes on aerodynamics of wind turbine.

Refer chapter 3.11.2 on Page 3.28.

14. Describe the working of a wind power system and its components with a neat schematic
diagram. [Anna Univ. Nov'21]
Refer chapter 3.12 on Page 3.30.

15. Classify WECS devices.

Refer chapter 3.13 on Page 3.34.

16. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a wind energy conversion system (WECS) with
its main components. [Anna Univ. May'10. Dec'10 & Nov'20]

Or

Explain the construction and working of horizontal axis wind turbine and plot the power
characteristic. [Anna Univ. Apr '23]
Refer chapter 3.13.1 on Page 3.34.

17. Explain the working principle of a vertical axis windmill. [Anna Univ. Dec'II]

Refer chapter 3.13.2 on Page 3.36.

18. Compare the vertical axis wind turbine and horizontal axis wind turbine.
[Anna Univ. Nov'22]
Refer Page 3.40.

19. Explain in detail about the various types of wind energy systems. [Anna Univ. May'I]
Refer chapters 3.13.1-3.13.4 on Pages 3.34-3.42.

20. Enumerate any two types of control systems adopted in wind turbine.
Refer chapter 3.15.1 on Page 3.45 for stall control of wind turbines and
chapter 3.15.2 on Page 3.46 for pitch control of wind turbines.

21. Explain the flap power control of wind turbines.

Refer chapter 3.15.3 on Page 3.48.

22. Discuss the performance characteristics of windmill.

Refer chapter 3.16 on Page 3.49.
 3.70 ] Renewable Energy System

23. Explain about the components in a wind power plant and their operation.
[Anna Univ. Apr'22]
Refer chapter 3.17 on Page 3.51.

24. Discuss about the grid integration issues of wind power plants.
[Anna Univ. Nov '20 && Apr'22]
Refer Page 3.53.

25. Describe the working of wind energy used in water pumping with its neat sketch.
Refer chapter 3.18.1 on Page 3.55.

26. Enumerate the working of wind energy systems for community centers, schools and health
clinic.

Refer chapter 3.18.2 on Page 3.55.

27. With their neat sketches, explain the working of wind energy heating and cooling
processes.

Refer chapter 3.18.3 on Page 3.56.

28. Write short notes on wind energy used in electricity generation.

Refer chapter 3.18.4 on Page 3.56.

29. Discuss the industrial applications of wind power systems.

Refer chapter 3.18.5 on Page 3.56.

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