UNIT - V

OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY

5.1. INTRODUCTION TO HYDROGEN

Generally, hydrogen is considered as the fuel for the future with reduced pollution
problems due to decrease in availability of fossil fuels. Hydrogen is the most abundant element
in the Universe but it is rarely found in its uncombined form on the earth. When combusted
(oxidized), it creates only water vapour and heat as by-products. The exhaust is free from
carbon dioxide. While no transportation distribution system currently exists for hydrogen
transportation use, the ability to create the fuel from a variety of resources including natural
gas and its clean-burning properties make it a desirable alternative fuel and worthy of
consideration. Though some automakers are testing hydrogen-burning cars, they are not
currently feasible or economical. Research shows that the greatest potential use for hydrogen
as a transportation fuel is in fuel cells.
Hydrogen is a secondary energy carrier similar to electricity. But it involves some issues
in production, storage and transport, usage of hydrogen as energy source, safety, economic and
management.
 [ 5.2
Renewable Energy System

As Jule Verne predicted "Water would be one day as a fuel furnishing, in-exhaustible
source of energy". It is coming true in the formation of hydrogen. Hydrogen is user friendly
and eco-friendly fuel.

5.1.1. Hydrogen as an Energy Source

Hydrogen is the lightest element which may someday replace heavier compounds as a
source ofenergy for many applications. Although low-cost technology to allow this odorless,
colorless, diffuse gas to be collected, hydrogen's potential to be a clean energy source has some
hope about a future "hydrogen economy" which would not rely on fossil fuels.

Finding sources ofhydrogen fuel is harder than the people think. Hydrogen is a versatile
material as a fuel. But it is reactive with chemicals. Therefore, it is not freely available as a
separate compound. It must be extracted from other compounds. It is considered as a secondary
source ofenergy because another form ofenergy is needed to produce the hydrogen fuel. The
primary sources ofenergy to produce hydrogen are natural gas, water, coal oroil. These sources
go through different types ofprocesses that allow hydrogen fuel to be made.

Natural gas and methanol provide much ofthe raw material for hydrogen today. Another
major source is water (HO). The hydrogen and oxygen in water can be dissociated with an
electric current in a process called electrolysis.

1
H+-O>HO +Energy
2

5.1.2. Hydrogen as a Fuel

Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit weight ofany known fuel 120.7 k.J/g. It
bums cleanly. When hydrogen is burnt with oxygen, only byproducts are heat and water. When
burnt with air which is 79% nitrogen (on a volumetric basis), some oxides of nitrogen are
formed.

Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space vehicles foryears. Hydrogen
has high combustion energy per kg relative to other fuels which means hydrogen is more
efficient on a weight basis than fuels currently used in air or ground transportation. This weight
factor makes hydrogen an attractive fuel.

Hydrogen fuel can be used in applications requiring electricity or gas and it can link the
fossil-based energy supply today with the renewable energy tomorrow.
Other Types of Energy 5.3

Advantages ofusing hydrogen asfuel:

1. Hydrogen combustion produces only water as a by-product. Hydrogen generates energy
,

without releasing greenhouse gasses or pollutant particles.

2. The only pollution-free source of hydrogen is water which is also the most abundantly
available. A simple process called electrolysis can liberate hydrogen from water.

3. Hydrogen has higher energy density than petroleum-based fuels. It means, it supplies
more energy per volume than gasoline, diesel or kerosene.

4. Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with greater efficiency over an
internal combustion engine.

Disadvantages ofusing hydrogen asfuel:

1. Heavy and bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service station. Hydrogen can be
stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a·compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it would
have to be kept under pressure at very low temperature. It would require a thermally
super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a heavy pressure vessel
with limited capacity.
2. It is difficult to refuel.
3. Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.
4. NOx emissions are high because of high flame temperature.

5.1.3. Hydrogen Production

About 95% of the hydrogen is produced by steam reforming of natural gas today.
Remaining is high-purity hydrogen from water electrolysis by using electricity mainly
generated by burning fossil fuels. Some of the specific technologies used to produce hydrogen
are as follows:
(a) Electrolysis uses electrical current to split water into hydrogen at the cathode (+) and
oxygen at the anode (-).
(b) Steam reforming converts methane (and other hydrocarbons in natural gas) into
hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction with steam over a nickel catalyst.
(c) Steam electrolysis (a variation on conventional electrolysis) uses heat instead of
electricity to provide some of the energy needed to split water in making the process
more energy efficient.

- .
'
 [ 5.4 Renewable Energy System

(d) Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals and heat in multiple steps to split
water into its component parts.

(e) Photo-electrochemical systems use semiconducting materials such as photovoltaics to

split water using only sunlight.

(f) Photo-biological systems use microorganisms to split water using sunlight.

(g) Biological systems use microbes to break down a variety of biomass feed stocks into
hydrogen.

(h) Thermal water splitting uses a very high temperature approximately 1000%C to split
water.

(i) Gasification uses heat to break down biomass or coal into a gas from which pure
hydrogen can be generated.

5.1.3.1. Hydrogen production by electrolysis process

Electrolysis is the process splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by passing electric
current. The electrolysis cell consists of two electrodes such as flat metal and carbon plates.
These two plates are immersed in an aqueous solution named as electrolyte. Among two plates,
one plate acts an anode and other one acts a cathode. DC power supply is connected between
anode and cathode. Due to the flow of electric current, the electrolyte solution is decomposed
into hydrogen gas released at cathode and oxygen gas released at anode. Potassium hydroxide
is mixed with electrolyte to enhance the electrolysis process by increasing the conductivity. If
the electrolysis process is dorie at normal temperature and pressure, a voltage of 1.23 V is
sufficient to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Voltage
+ -

Anode(+)
___ Electrolyte solution_

Figure 5.1 A simple electrolyte cell

Other Types of Energy [s.s l
Sometimes, the supply is increased as ·per the area of electrode to decompose the water.
Therefore, the rate of hydrogen production is directly proportional to the supply voltage with
higher current density. So, the maximum efficiency of the electrolysis process is up to 60 to
70%. The efficiency of electrolysis can be further increased by using platinum catalyst and
diaphragm to prevent electronic contact.

The advantages of operating electrolyser at high pressures are as follows:

(i) Reduction in specific power consumption

(ii) Delivery of gas to eliminate the cost gas compressors
(iii) Reduction in the size of electrolysis cells.

5.1.3.2. Hydrogen production by fossil fuel methods

Generally, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is formed in the first stage of
hydrogen production using fossil fuel such as natural gas, petroleum product or coal. So, this
I
mixture can be used as a synthesis gas or water gas. The same procedure is used in steam
reforming of methane, light liquid hydrocarbon and partial oxidation of a heavier hydrocarbon
with high temperature steam. The main thing in all cases is the. production of hydrogen from
Il
hydrocarbon.
Depleted air
4
'
. I
Char

,
Air reactor
Reduced gas
«d
Fuel reactor
Oxide ,.
Iron
of iron • .
'

Hydrogen
Steam product
reactor - Air and steam

i
Steam

Figure 5.2 Hydrogen production by Iron process

[ 5.6 Renewable Energy System

The gas mixture is reacted with water and reacts with steam to remove carbon monoxide.
During reaction, the carbon monoxide is converted into carbon dioxide with the formation of
hydrogen.
CO + HO > CO + H + Energy

The acid gas of carbon dioxide can be absorbed by alkaline solution. A small amount of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.will remain in hydrogen. But they can be easily converted
into methane and separated by cooling process at moderately low temperature.

Many processes are used to convert coal into gaseous liquid hydrocarbon fuels. At the
same time, these fuels should be rich in hydrogen gas. The coal or char is first reacted with
steam and sufficient amount of oxygen to produce hydrocarbon. Then it is converted into
hydrogen using an above discussed method.

During production of hydrocarbon, sometimes, air is used instead of pure oxygen to make
the process more economical.

During reaction of coal with steam at 815°C at 7MPa, the pure hydrogen gas and solid
iron oxide (FeO) are produced in a separation chamber. The chemical reaction is given below.

Fe + HO > FeO + H

The solid iron is collected in a separate vessel and it is reused to produce hydrocarbons by
reacting with steam. The iron oxide gas is sent to hydrogen separation chamber. The sufficient
amount of reducing gas in the form hydrocarbon produced from both char-air-steam process
and oxidation of solid iron coming out of separation chamber by a reaction with steam.

5.1.3.3. Hydrogen production by photolytic processes

Photolytic hydrogen production technologies use the energy from sunlight to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen. Emerging direct water-splitting technologies include photo-
biological and photo-electrochemical systems.

Photolytic methods: Photolysis is a chemical change caused by light. Two photolytic

processes are being explored.

(a) Biophotolysis methods where microbes produce hydrogen when exposed to light,
and

(b) Photo-electrolysis where 'special metals are exposed to light and submersed in
water which generates enough electricity to generate hydrogen by splitting the
water.
Other Types of Energy 5.7

5.1.3.4. Hydrogen production by thermolysis of water

When primary energy is available in the form ofheat (solar thermal), it is more logical to
produce hydrogen by splitting water directly from heat energy using thermolysis. It is more
efficient than conversion of heat, first to electricity and then producing hydrogen through
electrolysis. The efficient ofthermal plant is in the range of 32-38% and electrolysis is 80%.
The overall efficiency through thermal-electrical-hydrogen route will be 25-30%.

Direct thermal decomposition ofwater is possible but it needs a minimum temperature of

2500°C. Because oftemperature limitations ofconversion process equipment, direct single step
water. decomposition cannot be achieved. However, sequential chemical reactions at
substantially lower temperature can be devised to split water into H2 and O. In reaction series,
water is taken up at one stage and H2 and O are produced in different stages. The energy is
supplied as heat at one or more stages and partly released at some stage in the cycle. Apart
from decomposition ofwater, all other materials are recovered when the cycle is completed.
Therefore, the method is known as thermo-chemical cycle.

The efficiency of conversion from heat energy to hydrogen is better than its conversion
through electrolysis. route only when the upper temperature of 950%C the efficiency of
conversion is about 700°C. For the upper temperature of950°C, the efficiency ofconversion is
50%. It is a remarked improvement over the possible one through electrolysis route. One ofthe
cycles is given below.

2CrCI, + 2HCI "" 2CrCI, +H,

l »
2CrCI,"87 S0 (.'
2CrCl G, +CI,l

sr ,2ct+'o,
2
At present, no commercial process for thermal splitting of water using thermo-chemical
cycle is in operation.

5.1.4. Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen is an ultra-light gas that occupies a substantial volume under standard

conditions ofpressure, i.e., atmospheric pressure. One liter ofthis gas weighs only 90 mg under
normal atmospheric pressure, which means that it is 11 times lighter than the air. A volume of
around 11 m3 (which is the volume of the trunk of a large utility or commercial vehicle) is
 [ 5.8 Renewable Energy System

needed to store just 1kg ofhydrogen, which is the quantity needed to drive 100 km. In order to
store and transport hydrogen ec iently, this volume must be significantly reduced.

Hydrogen is stored to increase its utilization where required to use. Few gas industries
store hydrogen in small pipe lines to some extent but large storage is not possible with pipe
lines. At the same time, storing hydrogen is not easy. So, it is stored in other forms. The five
modes are applied to store produced hydrogen such as

(i) Compressed gas storage

(ii) Liquid storage
(iii) Line pack storage system
(iv) Underground storage
(v) Storage as metal hydrides
(vi) Carbon adsorption
· (vii) Microspheres

The type of storage of hydrogen is selected on the application fields. Both gaseous and
liquid storages are possible methods. Gaseous hydrogen storage method is applied for large
volume storage but liquid storage is selected to small volume of hydrogen storage.

5.1.4.1. Compressed gas storage

Hydrogen can be stored in cylinders under high pressures. Compressed hydrogen is the
gaseous state ofthe element hydrogen which is kept under pressure. The easiest way to decrease
the volume of a gas, at constant temperatures, is to increase its pressure. At 700 bar, which is
700 times normal atmospheric pressure, hydrogen has a density of 42 kg/m', compared with
3
0.090 kglm under normal pressure and temperature conditions. At this pressure, 5 kg of
hydrogen can be stored in a 125-liter tank.

Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar and 700 bar is used for in hydrogen
vehicles. This method is expensive due to the use of large quantities ofsteel to make the storage
system. Compressed storage usually supplies small amount of hydrogen. Advances in
compression technologies are also required to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of
producing high-pressure hydrogen. Issues with compressed hydrogen gas tanks revolve around
high pressure, weight, volume, conformability and cost.

5.1.4.2. Liquid storage ·

The energy density of hydrogen is improved by storing in a liquid state. Liquid hydrogen
(LH) tanks can store more hydrogen in a given volume than compressed gas tanks. Hydrogen
Other Types of Energy 5.9

turns into a liquid when it is cooled to a temperature below - 250°%C. The volumetric pressure
is 700 bar gas tanks. At -252.8°C and 1.013 bar, liquid hydrogen has a density of close to 71
kg/m°'. At this pressure, 5 kg of hydrogen can be stored in a 75-liter tank. In order to maintain
liquid hydrogen at this temperature, tanks must be perfectly isolated.

The issues with liquid hydrogen (LH) tanks are hydrogen boil-off, the energy required
for hydrogen liquefaction, volume, weight, and tank cost. The energy requirement for hydrogen
liquefaction is high. Typically 30% of the heating value of hydrogen is required for
liquefaction. Storing hydrogen in the liquid form is an option for just a limited number of
applications so far, in high-tech areas such as space travel. For example, the tanks on the Ariane
launcher, designed and manufactured by Air Liquide, contain 28 tons of liquid hydrogen that
will provide fuel to the central engine. Liquid tanks are being demonstrated in hydrogen-
powered vehicles and a hybrid tank concept combining both high-pressure gaseous and
cryogenic storage is studied.

5.1.4.3. Underground storage

Underground hydrogen storage is the way to store in underground caverns, salt domes and
depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in
underground caverns for many years without any difficulties. The storage of large quantities of
hydrogen underground can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen
economy.

5.1.4.4. Storage as metal hydride

The methods used to store hydrogen in the solid form involve techniques that bring into
play the mechanisms of absorption or adsorption of hydrogen by a material. Hydrogen can be
stored at high densities in reversible metal hydries. Whenever it is needed, it can be released
by heating the hydride and original metal or alloy is recovered for further recycling. The
pressure of gas released by heating depends mainly. on temperature. At fixed temperature, the
pressure remains constant until the hydrogen content is alnost exhausted. Metal hydrides offer
the advantage of lower pressure storage, comfortable shape and reasonable volumetric store
efficeicny. At the same time, they have weight penalties aand thermal management issues. It is
also very safe. In case of sudden breakdown of storage, the gas remains in hydride and does
not escape. It is very much suitable as a storage medium. So, the metla hydride should have the
following properties.

(i) The metal should be inexpensive.

[ 5.10 Renewable Energy System

(ii) The hydride should contain a large amount of hydrogen per unit volume and per unit
mass.

(iii) Formation of hydride from metal by reaction with hydrogen should be easy and the
hydride should be stable at room temperature.

(iv) The gas should be released from hydride at significant pressure and moderately high
temperature (below 100°C).

The reactions with three promising hydrides of alloys are given below..

(i) Lanthanum-Nickel:
Charge
o(
» (LaNi)H + Heat
(ii) Iron-Titanium:

Charge
FeTi +H » (FeTi)H + Heat

(iii) Magnesium Nickel:

Charge
Mg»Ni +2H: 2 (Mg2Ni)Hi + Heat

These hydrides contain more hydrogen then an equal volume. (LaNis)H contains 1.35%
of hydrogen by weight, (FeTi)H contains 1.9% and (Mg2Ni)H4 contains 3.6%. Due to heavy
weight, hydride storage is not suitable for mobile storage such as vehicles. Some complex-
based reversible hydrides such as alamates have recently shown improved weight performances
over metal hydrides along with modest temperatures for hydrogen recovery.

Complex metal hydrides such .as Alanate (AlH,) materials have the potential for higher
gravimetric hydrogen capacities in the operational window than simple metal hydrides.
Alanates can store and release hydrogen reversibly when cata,lyzed with titanium dopants. The
chemical reactions are given by

NaAlH, > 1/3 Na,AIH + 2/3A1 + H

Na,AlH, > 3NaH + AI + 3/2H
Issues with complex metal hydrides include low hydrogen capacity, slow uptake and
release kinetics and cost.

Batteries are the most common application for hydrogen storage alloys. These hydride-
forming alloys are M in Ni-MH (nickel-metal hydride) batteries as the negative electrode in
Other Types of Energy [ s.11 l
the battery cell. Once a negative electrode is fabricated, it must be activated or charged with
hydrogen. Then, during the battery's lifetime, it proceeds through many hydriding / dehydriding
cycles.

5.1.4.5. Challenges in hydrogen storage

The following are key challenges for commercialization of fuel cell and hydrogen
infrastructure technologies:

1. Weight and volume:

The weight and volume ofhydrogen storage systems are too high.

2. Effi ciency:
Energy efficiency is a challenge for all hydrogen storage approaches. The energy required
to get hydrogen in and out is an issue for reversible solid-state materials. The energy associated
with compression and liquefaction must be considered for compressed and liquid hydrogen
technologies.

3. Refueling time:
Refueling times are too long. There is a need· to develop
,
hydrogen storage systems with
refueling times ofless than three minutes over the lifetime- ofsystem.

4. Hydrogen production and delivery:

The high cost of hydrogen production, low-availabjlity of the hydrogen production
systems, and the challenge of providing safe production and delivery systems are early
penetration barriers.

5. Public acceptance:
Education of the general public, training personnel in the handling and maintenance of
hydrogen system components, adoption ofcodes and standards, and development ofcertified
procedures and training manuals for fuel cells and safety will foster hydrogen's acceptance as
a fuel.

6. Codes and standards:

Applicable codes and standards for hydrogen storage systems and interface technologies
have not been established which will facilitate implementation/commercialization and assure·
safety and public acceptance. Standardized hardware and operating procedures, and applicable
codes and standards are required.
[ 5.12 Renewable Energy System

5.1.5. Energy Conversion from Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be converted into useful forms of energy in different ways. Some of
hydrogen conversion technologies are unique to hydrogen but all technologies are more
efficient and less polluting than conversion ofconventional fuels. The main hydrogen energy
conversion technologies are as follows.

(i) Combustion in internal combustion engines

,
(ii) Direct steam generation by hydrogen or oxygen combustion
(iii) Catalytic combustion
(iv) Electrochemical conversion in fuel cells and
(v) Metal hydride-technologies.

5.1.5.1. Combustion in internal combustion engines

Hydrogen is a very good fuel for internal combustion engines. Hydrogen powered internal
combustion engines are 20% more efficient than comparable gasoline engines. The ideal
thermal efficiency ofan internal combustion engine can be calculated by

I
'I - [- y-l
r

where r = Compression ratio and y= Ratio ofspecific heats.

From above equation, it can be understood that the thermal efficiency can be improved by
increasing
.
either the compression ratio or the specific heat ratio. In hydrogen. engines, both
ratios are higher than in a comparable gasoline engine due to hydrogen's lower self-ignition
temperature and ability to burn in lean mixtures. Nevertheless, the use ofhydrogen in internal
combustion engines leads to the loss ofpower due to lower energy content in a stoichiometric
mixture in the engine's cylinder. The power output ofa hydrogen engine can be improved by
using more advanced fuel injection techniques or liquid hydrogen.

One of the most important advantages of hydrogen as. a fuel for internal combustion
engines is, hydrogen engines release by far fewer pollutants than comparable gasoline engines.
Basically, the only products ofhydrogen combustion in air are water vapor and small amounts
ofnitrogen oxides. Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in air. Therefore, high excess air
is utilized more effectively. The formation of nitrogen oxides in hydrogen or air combustion
can be minimized with excess air.
Other Types of Energy s.13]
The low ignition energy and fast flame propagation of hydrogen has led to problems of
pre-ignition and backfire. These problems have been overcome by adding hydrogen to the air
mixture at the point where and when the conditions for pre-ignition are less likely to deliver
the fuel and air separately to the combustion chamber and injecting hydrogen under pressure
into the combustion chamber before the piston is at the Top Dead Center (TDC) and after the
intake air valve has been closed. Both water injection and exhaust gas recirculation techniques
are also used in hydrogen engines to help control premature ignition. The most effective method
of reducing the pre ignition and knocking problems is the redesign of the combustion chambe r
and coolant systems to accommodate hydrogen's unique combustion properties.

5.1.5.2. Direct steam generation by hydrogen or oxygen combustion

Hydrogen combusted with pure oxygen results in pure steam which can be written as

Above chemical reaction produces the temperature in the flame zone above 3000°C.
Therefore, additional water has to be supplied. So, the steam temperature can be regulated at a.
desired level. Both saturated and superheated vapor can be produced.

The German Aerospace Research Establishment (DLR) has developed a compact

hydrogen and oxygen steam generator. The steam generator consists of ignition, combustion
and evaporation chambers. In the ignition chamber, a combustible mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen at a low oxidant and fuel ratio is ignited by means of a spark-plug. The rest of oxygen
is added in the combustion chamber to adjust the oxidant and fuel ratio exactly to the
stoichiometric proportion. Water is also injected in the combustion chamber after passing
through the double walls of the combustion chamber. The evaporation chamber serves to
homogenize the steam. The steam's temperature is monitored and controlled. Such a device is
close to 100% efficient since there are no emissions other than steam and little or no thermal
losses.

5.1.5.3. Catalytic combustion of hydrogen

Hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of a suitable catalyst can be combined at

temperatures significantly lower than flame combustion. This principle is used to design
catalytic burners and heaters. Catalytic burners need more surface area than conventional flame
burners. Therefore, the catalyst is dispersed in a porous structure. The reaction rate and
temperature can be easily controlled by controlling the hydrogen flow rate. The reaction takes
place in a reaction zone of the porous catalytic sintered metal cylinders or plates in which
[ 5.14 Renewable Energy System

hydrogen and oxygen are mixed by diffusion from opposite sides. A combustible mixture is
formed only in the reaction zone and assisted with (platinum) catalyst to burn at low
temperatures as shown in Figure 5 .3. The only product of catalytic combustion of hydrogen is
water vapor. Due to low temperatures, there are no nitrogen oxides formed. The reaction cannot
drift into the hydrogen supply since there is no flame and hydrogen concentration is above the
higher flammable limit.

Water vapour Oxygen from air

I
I I I
\
I
Reaction zone 1 I Porous cylinder
\ I
\ or plate
\

Hydrogen

Figure 5.3 Schematic representation of catalytic burner

Possible applications of catalytic burners are in household appliances such as cooking

ranges and space heaters. The same principle is also used in hydrogen sensors.

5.1.5.4. Electrochemical electricity generation (Hydrogen fuel cells)

Hydrogen can be combined with oxygen without combustion in an electrochemical

reaction (reverse of electrolysis) and produce electricity (DC). The device where such a
reaction takes place is called electrochemicalfuel cell.

Depending on the type ofthe electrolyte used, there are several types offuel cells. Detailed
discussion of concept and various types of fuel cells are discussed in Chapters 5.2.3.1-5.2.3.7.

5.1.5.5. Metal hydrides applications

Forming metal hydrides can be used in both hydrogen storage and various energy
conversions. When a hydride is formed by the chemicalcombination ofhydrogen with a metal,
an element or an alloy, heat is generated by exothermic process. In the metal hydride process,
Other Types of Energy 5.15

heat will be supplied. These processes can be represented by the (allowing chemical reactions
below.

Charging or absorption: M+ xH => MH + Heat

Discharging or desorption: MH, + Heat => M+xH

where M represents the hydriding substance such as a metal, an element or an alloy. The
rate of these reactions increases with increase in the surface area. Therefore, the hydriding
substances are used in powdered form to speed up the reactions.

Elements or metals with unfilled shells or subshells are suitable hydriding substances.
Metal and hydrogen atoms form chemical compounds by sharing their electrons in the unfilled·
subshells of the metal atom. For example, for a given temperature, the charging or absorption
process and the discharging or desorption process takes place at the same constant pressure
though there is a hysteresis effect and the pressure is not absolutely constant for a giyen. t
temperature charging pressures are higher than the discharging pressures. The heat generated
during the charging process and the heat required for discharging are the functions of the
hydriding substance, hydrogen pressure and heat supplied or heat extracted temperature. Using
I
different metals and by forming different alloys, different hydriding characteristics· can be
obtained. For examples, waste heat storage, electricity generation, pumping, hydrogen
purification and isotope separation applications, it is possible to find hydriding substances'.

5.1.6. Applications of Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen energy is used in many areas of industrial fields and domestic purposes such as
residential uses, industrial uses; alternate transport fuel, alternate fuel for aircraft and power
generation.

Hydrogen can be used in combustion-based power generation such as gas turbine using
hydrogen alone or mixed with natural gas. Such applications are proposed for stationary power
generation including backup power units, stand-alone power plants, distributed generation for
buildings and cogeneration. Alternatively, hydrogen may be obtained from steam reforming of
natura l gas and used in to generate electricity.

Portable applications for fuel cell-based generation include consumer electronics, business
machinery and recreational devices. These portable power applications range from 25 W for
portable electronics to 10 kW system for critical commercial and medical functions and on site
power generation for individual homes and office buildings.
[ 5.16 Renewable
Energy System

Electricity used in domestic appliances such as lights and refrigerators can be operated by
fuel cells, radiant space heater, domestic cooking and hydrogen stove in which hydrogen
energy is stored. In industrial sectors; it is used as an agent to remove oxygen by oxidizing
process and the use of natural gas can be replaced by hydrogen.

There have only been a small number of prototype hydrogen vehicles made. Most of these
have been experimental vehicles made by car manufacturers. Hydrogen is also used in fuel
cells. Hydrogen-fuel engines are used in air craft applications with increased efficiency. If the
hydrogen is used in air craft fields, it will reduce the use of lubricating oils. Hydrogenated fuel
cells are used in light applications because of the portable size of it.
Further applications of hydrogen energy are listed below:
1. A fuel in H-O fuel cell system
2. Manufacturing synthetic Ammonia, synthetic Methanol and synthetic Urea or
ammonium nitrate.
3. An aviation fuel by hydrogenation process.
4. Welding process.
5. Chemical reduction and various heating process.
6. A coolant in large generators and motors.
7. Processing natural gas, coal and Ammonia.
8. Used in the manufacturing of Tungsten filaments for lamps.
9. An alternate fuel in transport and energy carrier.

5.2. FUELCELL

Fuel cell technology is over 150 years old. The first fuel cell was demonstrated by Sir
William Grove in 1839. Grove used porous platinum electrodes and sulfuric acid as the
electrolyte bath. William White Jaques later substituted phosphoric acid in the electrolyte bath
and was the person who coined the term "fuel cell."

A significant fuel cell research was done in Germany during l 920's which laid the
groundwork for subsequent development of carbonate cycle and solid oxide fuel cells. In
1960s, NASA began using alkaline fuel cells to provide onboard electrical power for
spacecraft.

A fuel cell produces electricity directly from the reaction between hydrogen (derived from
a hydrogen-containing fuel or produced from the electrolysis of water) and oxygen from air. In
Other Types of Energy 5.17 )

a fuel cell, the liquid is oxidized but the resulting energy takes in the form of electricity. When
powered by pure hydrogen, by-products of the reaction are heat and water.
Fuel cells have the potential to revolutionize the way we power our nation, offering
cleaner, more-efficient alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other fossil fuels.
The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends on several factors including fuel
cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates and the pressure at which the gases are
supplied to the celL
A single fuel cell produces enough electricity for only small applications. Therefore, to
provide the -power needed for most applications, individual fuel cells are combined in series
into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of fuel cells.

5.2.1. Working Principle of a Fuel Cell

I
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of a conventional I
fuel is directly converted into low voltage DC electrical energy. One of the main advantages of
such device is that Carnot limitation on efficiency does not apply because the conversion can
be carried out isothermally. A fuel cell is frequently described as a primary battery in which
the fuel and oxidizer are stored in the battery and fed to it as needed.

Figure 5.4 shows a schematic diagram of a fuel celL The fuel gas diffuses through the
anode and it is oxidized. Therefore, it releases electrons to the external circuit. The oxidized
fuel diffuses through the cathode and it is reduced by electrons coming from anode by the way
of external circuit.

Load

Electrons

to
0 Ot

l
Io 6

0 Electrolyte

,"] .2.-
QQQ
0

.. #r
0--.
0
Fuel in c1
c1
0-- oco
0
0 lons
0 0-- '-- ...._.Oxidation products out

Figure 5.4 Schematic ofafuel cell

[s.18 Renewable Energy System

The fuel cell is a device which keeps the fuel molecules from mixing with the oxidizer
molecules in permitting the transfer of electron by a metallic path that may contain a load of
available fuels. Hydrogen has so far given the most promising results, although cells consuming
coal, oil or natural gas would be economically much more useful for large scale applications.
Some of the possible reactions are given by
Hydrogen/oxygen 1.23 V 2H +O> 2HO
Nitrogen 1.56 V NH, +O>2HO +N
Carbon (Coal) 1.02 V · C+O>CO,
Methane 1.05 V CH+ 20>CO +2 HO

5.2.2. Construction of a Fuel Cell

A fuel cell power system has many components but its heart is the fuel cell stack which is
made of many thin flat cells layered together. Although the term fuel cell is often used to
describe the entire stack strictly speaking, it refers only the individual cells. Each cell produces
electricity and the output of all cells is combined to get more power.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus ofresearch for many
of the fuel cell based power generation applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several
layers of different materials as shown in the Figure 5.6 on Page 5.23. The three key layers in a
PEM fuel cell include the following:

► Membrane electrode assembly

► Catalyst and Hardware.

Other layers of materials are designed to draw fuel and air into the cell and to conduct
electrical current through the cell.

1. Membrane electrode assembly:

Electrodes (such as anode and cathode), catalyst and polymer electrolyte membrane
together form the membrane electrode assembly of a PEM fuel cell.

(a) Anode:
Anode is negative side of the fuel cell which has several jobs. It conducts the electrons
which are bred from hydrogen molecules in order to use in an external circuit. Channels etched
into the anode disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of catalyst.
Other Types of Energy [_s.1s

(b) Cathode:
Cathode is positive side of the fuel cell also containing channels which distribute oxygen
to the surface of catalyst. It conducts electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst
where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.

(c) Polymer electrolyte membrane:

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) is a specially treated material which looks similar
to ordina ry kitche n plastic wrap which conducts only positively charged ions and blocks
electrons. PEM is the key to the fuel cell technology. It will permit only the necessary ions to
pass between anode and cathode. Other substances passing through the electrolyte will disrupt
the chemical reaction.

2. Catalyst:
All electrochemical reactions in the fuel cell consist of two separate reactions such as an
oxidation half-reaction at the anode and a reduction in half-reaction at the cathode. Normally,
two half-reactions will occur very slowly at low operating temperature of a PEM fuel cell. So,
each ofthe electrode is coated at one side with a catalyst layer which speeds up the reaction of
oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thin coated onto carbon
paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous to expose the maxiinum surface area of the
platinum to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces PEM.
Platinum-group metals are critical to catalytic reactions in the fuel cell but they are very
expensive.

3. Chemistry ofa fuel cell:

Anode side:
H;>2H' +2e

Cathode side:
O+4H' +4e > 2H.O

Net reaction:

The pressurized hydrogen gas (H) enters the fuel cell at anode side. This gas is forced
through the catalyst by the pressure. When a H molecule come s in contact with the platinum
on the catalyst, it splits into two H' ions and two electrons (e ). The electrons are conducted
through the anode where they make their way through the external circuit and return to the
cathode side offuel cell.
[ 5.20 Renewable Energy System

Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O) is forced through the
catalyst where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge.
This negative charge attracts two H' ions through the membrane where they combine with an
oxygen atom and two of electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule (HO).

This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0. 7 V. To obtain this voltage up to
a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack.

4. Hardware:
The backing layers, flow fields and current collectors are designed to maximize the current
from a membrane/electrode assembly. The backing layers are one next to anode and the other
next to cathode is usually made of a porous carbon paper or carbon cloth about thickness of 4
to 12 sheets of paper. The backing layers have to be made of a material which can conduct
electrons that leave anode and enter cathode. The porous iiature of the backing material ensures
the effective diffusion of each reactant gas to the catalyst on the membrane/electrode assembly.
The gas spreads out as it diffuses so that it will be in contact with the entire surface area of the
catalyzed membrane when it penetrates backing.

The backing layers also help in managing water in the fuel cell. Too little or too much
water can cause the cell to stop operating. Water can build up in flow channels of plates or can
clog the pores in the carbon cloth preventing reactive gases from reaching electrodes.

Each plate also acts as a current collector. Electrons produced by the oxidation of
hydrogen must:

l. be· conducted through the anode and next, through the backing layer along the length
of the stack and through the plate before they can exit the cell.
2. travel through an external circuit, and
3. re-enter the cell at cathode plate. With the addition of flow fields and current collectors,
PEM fuel cell completes only a load-containing external circuit such as an electric
. .
motor which requires electric current.
' ..
5.2.3. Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells can be classified in several ways as follows:

(i) Based on the type ofelectrolyte:

(a) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell
Other Types of Energy s21}
(b) Direct methanol fuel cell
(c) Alkaline fuel cell
(d) Phosphoric acid fuel cell
(e) Molten carbonate fuel cell
(f) Solid oxide fuel cell
(g) Regenerative fuel cell.

(ii) Based on the types oftltefuel and oxidant:

(a) Hydrogen (pure) - oxygen (pure) fuel cell
(b) Hydrogen rich gas - air fuel cell
(c) Hydrazine-Oxygen/hydrogen peroxide fuel cell
(d) Ammonia-air fuel cell
(e) Synthesis gas-air fuel cell
(f) Hydrocarbon (gas) -air fuel cell
(g) Hydrocarbon (liquid) -air fuel cell.

(iii) Based on the operating temperature:

(a) Low temperature fuel cell (below l 50°C)
(b) Medium temperature fuel cell (150 - 250°C)
(c) High temperature fuel cell (250 - 800°C)
(d) Very high temperature fuel cell (800 - 1100°C).

(iv) Based on application:

(a) Fuel cell for space applications
(b) Fuel cell for vehicle propulsion applications
(c) Fuel cell for submarine applications
.
(d) Fuel cell for defense applications
(e) Fuel cell for commercial applications.

(v) Based on the chemical nature of electrolyte:

(a) Acid electrode type fuel cell
(b) Alkaline electrode type fuel cell
(c) Neutral electrode type fuel cell.
[ 5.22 Renewable Energy System

5.2.3.1. Hydrogen-Oxygen Cell

The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is shown in Figure 5.5. It is a typical type offuel cell: It has
three chambers separated by two porous electrodes, anode and cathode. The middle chamber
between electrodes is filled with a strorig solution of potassium hydroxide. The surfaces of
electrodes are chemically treated to repel the electrolyte so that there is minimum leakage of
potassium hydroxide into outer chambers. The gases diffuse through electrodes undergoing
reactions as shown below:

Anode: 2H+4(OH)

Cathode: O+2HO+4e > 4(0H)

4KOH > 4K'+4(OH)
Cell reaction:

Load

Anode - + Cathode
Oxygen
•
Electrolyte

KOH + HO

Figure 5.5 Hydrogen-oxygenfuel cell

The· water formed is drawn off from the side. The electrolyte providesthe OH- ions needed
for the reaction and it remains unchanged at the end since these ions are regenerated. The
electrons libera ted at the anode find their way to move to the cathode through the external
circuit. This transfer is equivalent to the flow of a current from cathode to anode. Such cells
when properly. designed and operated have an open circuit voltage of about 1.1 V. The
electrolyte fuel efficiencies are as high as 60% - 70%.

There are two types of hydrogen fuel cells:

(i) Low temperature cell, and
(ii) High pressure cell.
Other Types of Energy 5.23

Low temperature cell is operated at 90°C and less pressurized up to 4 atmospheric

pressure . In the case ofhigh pressure cell, pressure and tempe rature are 45 atmospheric pressure
and 3 00°C respectively. Gases should be free from carbon dioxide. Otherwise, the gas will react
with potassium hydroxide and- produce potassium carbonate. This type of fuel cell is mainly
suited for low voltage and high current applications.

5.2.3.2. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells also called proton exchange membrane
fuel cells deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume when
compared to other fuel cells.

Electric current
e- e-
Excess fuel « Water and heat out
t
e-
e-

t -
node II -
«II

----
Cathode

«II] Electrolyte
Fuel in_, «-------- ir in

Figure 5.6 Polymer electrolyte membranefuel cell

PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from air and water to operate.
It does not require corrosive fluids similar to some other fuel cells. They are typically fueled
with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperature around
80°C. Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and it results
less wear on system components thereby resulting better durability. However, it requires a
noble-metal catalyst (platinum) which is used to separate hydrogen electrons and protons. It is
added with the system cost.
 [ 5.24 Renewable Energy System

The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning making it necessary to

employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas ifhydrogen is derived from an alcohol
or hydrocarbon fuel. It is also added with the cost. PEM fuel cells are primarily used for the
transport applications and some stationary applications.

5.2.3.3. Alkaline Fuel Cells

Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) were one ofthe first fuel cell technologies developed and they
were the first type widely used in US. A space program is to produce electrical energy and
water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in
water as the electrolyte using a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at anode and
cathode. High-temperature AFCs operate at temperature between 100°C and 250°C. However,
newer AFC designs operate at low temperature ofroughly 23°C to 70°C.

Electric current

e- e-
h,
e-' e-
e- e-

\ node lt
t ◄····

e-
e-
--
«]"]]

H
Electrolyte

e-
e-
-----

i H
Cathode

Water and heat out -

Figure 5. 7 Alkaline Juel cell

The operation and movements of charge carriers is shown in Figure 5.7. At positive
electrode oxygen, water (from electrolyte) and returning electrons from the external load
combine to produce OH- ions.

These OH- ions migrate from positive to negative electrode through electrolyte. On
reaching positive electrode these OH- ions combine with H2 to produce water. AFC's high
Other Types of Energy 5.25

performance is due to the rate at which the chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have
also demonstrated the efficiency of 60% in space applications.
The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO3).
Even small amount of CO in the air can affect this cell's operation. So, it should purify both
hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly. The susceptibility to
poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime further adding to cost.

5.2.3.4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte. The acid
is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix and porous carbon or nickel electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst. Pure hydrogen or hydrogen rich gas is supplied at negative
electrode and oxygen or air is supplied at positive electrode. The pores provide an opportunity
to gas, electrolyte and electrode to come into contact for electrochemical reaction. The reaction
is normally very slow and a catalyst is required in the electrode to accelerate the reaction. The
chemical reactions take place in the cell shown in Figure 5.8.

At the negative electrode, hydrogen gas is converted to hydrogen ions (H') and an equal
number of electrons (e). Thus the chemical is reaction is given by

-
Electric current

Excess fuel --
e-
e-
e-

H
H
e-

q-
:::r:
Water and heat out

t
H,
t -- Cathode

node II -----
-.+--l >---1-- Phosphoric acid
H+ (Electrolyte)
H
Fuel in ---------Air in

Figure 5,8 Phosphoric acidfuel cell

-·--
 [s.26 Renewable Energy System

The electrons originating at negative electrode flow through the external load to positive
+
electrode. Also, the H ions migrate from negative electrode towards positive electrode through
the electrolyte. On reaching the positive electrode they interact with 02 to produce water. Thus
the chemical is reaction is given by

Combining above equations indicates that a fuel cell combines H and O to produce water
and electrical energy. The overall reaction is therefore

Platinum serves as the best catalyst for both electrodes and used· for premium fuel cells.
In general, a less expensive material such as nickel (for negative electrode) and silver (for
positive electrode) is used wherever possible. Thus finely divided platinum or nickel/silver
deposited on the outer surface ofelectrodes is used as catalyst.

The operating temperature ofPAFC is 150-200°C. At atmospheric pressure it produces an

ideal emfof 1.23 Vat 25°C, which reduces to 1.15 Vat 200°C. The actual value is always less
than this and decreases with current.

Usually, PAFC is considered as the "first generation" ofmodern fuel cells. It is one ofthe
most grown-up cell types and currently used over 200 units. This type of fuel cell is typically
used for stationary power generation.

PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels which have been reformed into
hydrogen than PEM cells because they are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide; PAFCs are
also less powerful than other fuel cells for the same weight and volume. As a result; these fuel
cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Similar to PEM fuel cells,
PAFCs require an expensive platinum catalyst which raises the cost offuel cell.

5.2.3.5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and
coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial and military applications. MCFCs are
high-temperature fuel cells which use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt
mixture suspended in a porous chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO;)
matrix. Porous nickel is used as electrode. Since they operate at extremely high temperature of
650°C and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode which
reduces its cost.
Other Types of Energy 5.27

rd,
- le-
Electric current
/"",
'-" e-]

- e- ~--···02
e- o,
co+
2

.- t
.... -
co;
-
•◄
◄
······~

1- CO,
Metal carbonate
(Electrolyte)
Anode Hf) - Cathode

Water and heat ou[ t

- -· +
-
co 2

t
-ca rbon dioxide in

t
- - - -
Figure 5.9 Molten carbonatefuel cell

A special feature of these cells is that during operation they oxidize hydrogen to water and
carbon monoxide (present in fuel) to carbon dioxide. Hence, gaseous mixtures of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide (synthesis gas), which are relatively inexpensive to manufacture can also be
used. This feature allows to use of a variety of fossil fuels including coal (gasified). These fuels
are first converted to get H and CO and desulphurized to prevent poisoning of electrodes.

The discharges mainly consisting of steam, carbon dioxide and nitrogen from spent
oxidant (air) are at a temperature exceeding 540°C. These hot gases could be used to provide
industrial process heat or to generate additional power employing waste heat boiler and steam
. . '

turbine. The overall efficiency of fuel would thus be increased substantially.

The operation ofMCFC is explained with the help of a diagram shown-in Figure 5.9. At
the fuel electrode H and CO react with C03- ions present in the electrolyte and release two
electrons each to the electrode as given below:

H +CO >HO+CO +2e

CO +CO, >2C0 + 2e

These electrons circulate through external resistance, forming load current, and reach the
oxidant electrode. The CO produced at fuel electrode is circulated through an external path to
oxidant electrode, where it combines with O and returning electron through external path to
produce C03 .
[s.28 Renewable Energy System

The CO, ions thus produced, are responsible for transportation of charge from positive
to negative electrode within electrolyte. The overall reaction may be written as:

H +CO +O >H.O +CO,

The theoretical value of emfat no load is approximately 1 Vat 700°C. But actual value is
always less (0. 7 V).

Dissimilar to alkaline, phosphoric acid and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells,
MCFCs do not require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuel to hydrogen.
Due to high temperature, these MCFCs are operated to convert into hydrogen within the fuel
cell itself by a process called internal reforming which also reduces the cost.

Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide·
"poisoning". They can even use carbon dioxides as fuel making them more attractive for fueling
with gases made from coal because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell
types.

The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. High temperatures

are preferred to operate these cells to avoid component breakdown and the corrosive electrolyte
is used to reduce the corrosion because the corrosion affects the cell life. Scientists are currently
exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs which
increase the cell life without decreasing its performance.

5.2.3.6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) use hard and non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte. For example, zirconium oxide containing a small amount ofother oxide to stabilize
the crystal structure has been used as an electrode. The material is able to conduct O ions at
high temperature. The negative electrode is made of porous nickel and positive electrode
employs metal oxide e.g. indium oxide. Since the electrolyte is a solid, cells do not have to be
constructed in the plate similar to the configuration of typical other fuel cell types. The
efficiency of SOFCs is expected around 50-60% in converting fuel to electricity. These cells
can be used where the system wants to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-
genera tion). The overall fuel efficiency is around 80-85%. Figure 5.10 illustrates the
construction details and electron flow ofthe SOFC.
Other Types of Energy 5.29

SOFCs operate at high temperature range of 600- 1 ,000°C. High temperature operation
removes the need for precious metal catalyst thereby reducing its cost. It also allows SOFCs. to
reform fuels internally which enables the use of a variety of fuels and it reduces the cost
associated with adding a reformer to the system. The output voltage at full load is about 0.63 V.

At the fuel electrode Hz and CO readwith O ions present in the electrolyte to produce
HO and CO2. The two electrons released per ion flow through external path to constitute load
current. Similar to metal oxide fuel cell, the heat of discharge can be utilized as process heat.
The reactions at the electrodes are:

Anode: H +O > HO+2e

and CO +O > CO+2e
Cathode: O+4e > 20
The overall reaction:

SOFCs are also the most sulphur-resistant fuel cell type. They can tolerate several orders
of magnitude more sulphur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon
monoxide (CO) which can even be used as fuel. It allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal.

Fuel in
-Electric current

e- e-
---······ Air in
e-
e-
q, . Hf)
t o= +
I

Cathode

o°
__..__..,__---1-- Electrolyte

__ __ __
Excess fuel and water - __.,___, ..__....._ -·······- Unused gases out·

Figure 5.10 Solid oxidefuel cell

High-temperature operation is the main disadvantage of this cell. It results a slow start-up
and it requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel which may be
acceptable for utility applications but it is not for transportation and small portable applications.
[ 5.30 Renewable Energy System

5.2.3.7. Hybrid Fuel Cells

In a hybrid fuel cell system, high-temperature fuel cells are coupled with other power
generation systems such as gas turbine and reciprocating engine or other type of fuel cell. The
hybrid arrangement allows the rejected thermal energy and residual fuel from a high-
temperature fuel cell used to drive a gas turbine. Hybrid systems can maintain extremely low
emissions while achieving the fuel efficiency far beyond the reach of one technology alone.

5.2.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

Advantages offuel cells:

1. Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; the only by-product is
water.

2. Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore eliminate
economic dependence on politically unstable countries.
3. Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy conversion terms, especially where
the waste heat from the cell is utilised in cogeneration situation.
4. Installation of smaller stationary fuel cells leads to a more stabil ized and decentralized
power grid.
5. Fuel cells, due to their nature ofoperation, are extremely quiet in operation. This allows
fuel cells to be used in residential or built-up areas where the noise pollution is
undesirable.
6. The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since there are few moving parts in the system.
7. The absence of combustion and moving parts means that fuel cell technologies are
expected to provide much improved reliability over traditiona l combustion engines.
8. Use a variety of fuels, renewable energy and clean fossil fuels.
9. Fuel cells can be responsive to changing electrical loads.
10. Fuel cells provide high quality DC power.
11. Operating times are much longer than with batteries, since doubling the operating time
needs only doubling the amount of fuel and not the doubling ofthe capacity ofthe unit
itself.

Disadvantages offuel cells:

1. Initial cost is high. Fuel cells are currently very expensive to produce, since most units
are hand-made.
2. Service life is low.
Other Types of Energy 5.31

3. Operation requires repleisable fuel supply.

4. Some fuel cells use expensive materials.
5. Fuelling fuel cells is still a major problem since the production, transportation,
distribution and storage of hydrogen is difficult.
6. Reforming hydrocarbons via reformer to produce hydrogen is technically challenging
and not clearly environmentally friendly.
7. The technology is not yet fully developed and few products are available.
8. The refueling and the starting time of fuel cell vehicles are longer and the driving range
is shorter than in a "normal" car.

5.2.5. Applications of Fuel Cetls

Once fuel cells of reasonably low cost and long life become available, they will be
preferred in large number of applications. Some of the potential applications are listed here:

1. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine in vehicles. They
can be used in transportation applications such as powering automobiles, submarines,
spacecraft and other vehicles.

2. Fuel cells can be effectively used for load leveling. When the generation exceeds the
demand, excess generated energy can be converted and stored as hydrogen by
electrolysis of water. During peak load, when the demand exceeds the generation, the
stored hydrogen would be used in fuel cells to meet additional demand.

3. Fuel cells using gasified coal as fuel can be used in central power stations. The
efficiency of such plant would be higher due to direct energy conversion. Thus coal
can be used more efficiently with reduced emissions.

4. Fuel cells are also suitable for dispersed generation. By locating the fuel cell near load
centre, transmission and distribution cost would be reduced. They can also be used for
stationary applications such as providing electricity to power homes and business.
5. Many portable devices can be powered by fuel cells such as laptop computers, mobile
phones and other low power applications.

6. To meet the demand of isolated sites such as construction sites, military camps and
small village community or hamlet, fuel cells are more suitable than diesel generator.

7. For remote. and inaccessible locations fuel cells can be used unattended for a long
period.
: [s.2 Renewable Energy System

8. Emergency / auxiliary supply to critical loads such as hospitals, laboratory etc. can be
better met using fuel cells as compared to diesel generator.

5.3. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called geothermal energy.
Volcanoes, geysers and hot springs are visible evidences of the large amount of heat lying in
earth's interior. The geothermal energy is enormous and last for several millions of years.
Hence, it is called renewable energy.

5.3.1. Basics of Geothermal Energy

Energy present as heat (i.e. Thermal energy) in the earth's crust. The more readily
accessible heat. is in the upper most (10 km) or the crust constitutes a potentially useful and
almost inexhaustible source of energy. This heat is apparent from the increase in temperature
of the earth with increase in depth below the surface. Althc ugh higher and lower temperatures
occur, the average temperature at a depth of 10 kmn is 200°C.
Surface

Figure 5.1I Typical geothermalfield

The molten rock within the earth is called magma. It is commonly present at a depth of
about 32 km on an average with the temperature of about 3_000°C. In some places, anomalous
geologic conditions cause the magma to be pushed up towards the surface where the heat of
the magma is being conducted upward through an overlying rock layer. Figure 5.11 shows a
typical geothermal field.
Other Types of Energy [s.ss]
The hot magma near the bottom surface solidifies into igneous solid rock (B). The heat of
magma is conducted upward to this igneous rock. Ground water which finds its way down to
this rock through cracks is heated by the heat of rock or by mixing with hot gases and steam
coming from magma. The heat is transported from hot rocks by circulating movement. Then
the heated water convectively rises upward into a porous and permeable reservoir above the
solid rock. The reservoir is capped by a layer of impervious solid rock which traps hot water
in the reservoir. The solid rock has fissures which act as vents of the giant undergroundboiler.
The hot water or steam often escapes through fissures in the rock thereby forming hot springs
and geysers fumaroles. To utilize the geothermal energy, wells are drilled either to intercept a
fissure or more commonly into the formation containing water.

At any place on the planet, there is a normal temperature gradient of30°C per km dug into
the earth. Therefore, if 20,000 feet is dug on the earth, the temperature will be about l 90°C
above the surface temperature. This difference will be enough to produce electricity. However,
no useful and economical technology has been developed to extract this large source of energy.

5.3.2. Geothermal Energy Resources

Basic kinds of geothermal sources are as follows:

1. Hydrothermal
(a) Vapour dominated or dry steam fields
(b) Liquid dominated system
(c) Hot-water fields
2. Geopressured
3. Hot dry rockor Petrothermal
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes.

1. Hydrothermal sources:
Hydrothermal resources contain superheated water, steam or both in fractures or porous
rock but further trapped by a layer of impermeable rock. Hydrothermal resources may give dry
and pure steam with temperature above 240°C. However, the majority of these resources have
moderate temperatures ranging from 100°C to l 80°C while few resources have moderate
temperature ranging from l 50°C to 200°C. To use hydrothermal energy, wells have to be drilled
to reach a fissure or hydrothermal reservoir.

- ~ ~ -- - --- --- - -~ -- - -
 [s.34 ] Renewable Energy System

2. Geopressured reservoirs:

Geothermal resource is hot water or brine trapped underground at the depth ofabout 2.4
kmto 9.1 km with temperature at about 150°C. It is stored under pressure of about 1000 bar
from the weight of overlying rock. This type of resource can be used for both heat and natural
gas. Although it has a great heat potential for power generation but it is uneconomical due to
low temperature and high cost of drilling into earth's surface to such a great depth. In case
brine has recoverable methane, brine water can be used with combination of methane to
generate electricity.

3. Hot dry rock or Petrothermal:

Hot dry rock or petrothermal resources consist of high-temperature rocks ranging from
90%C to 650%C. The rocks can befractured and water may be circulated through the rocks to
extract thermal energy. It is similar to Normal Geothermal Gradient (NGG) but the gradient is
40°C/km dug underground.

4. Molten magma:

Geothermal energy in the form of active volcanic vents occurs in many parts ofthe world.
There is molten rock or magma present in these volcanic vents at temperature ranging from
700°C to l 600°C. Magma chambers have got huge got huge thermal energy compared to other
t «

geothermal resources. However, extracting thermal energy from volcanic vents is difficult. No
technology exists to tap into heat reserves stored in magma.

Magma may be present at shallow depth at certain places. The heat can be easily extracted
at these places. '

5.3.3. Types of Wells

(i) Temperature gradient (TG) wells:

First wells are drilled and used to delineate the heat anomaly and to establish the
geothermal gradient. It is not capable of being produced. TG wells are shallow which are less
than 500 m. Mostly, it is often 150 m or less. Wells are drilled with light truck-mounted rotary
or diamond core rigs.

First, a surface hole is drilled for small diameter. Blow Out Preventer (BOP) is not used
during drilling. Surface casing is cemented or a conductor is driven. Small diameter tubing is
run back to surface. Then, driven surface conductor is pulled. Also, cement is pumped through
tubing back to surface and a wiper plug is pumped to displace cement in tubing. A valve is
Other Types of Energy 5.35

installed to give an access to the tubing for survey tools. Tubing is filled with water with the
top 10 m filled with vegetable oil or antifreeze agents.

(ii) Stratigraphic or Slim wells:

It is larger diameter than TG wells. It is normally drilled into the reservoir. Drilled is carried
out using BOP equipment with light-medium range oilfield rigs. It is dri lled during the
intermediate exploration phase to establish resource viability. A conductor is cemented in
place. Surface hole is drilled. Surface casing is set and cemented back to surface. A temporary
wellhead is installed along with BOP equipment. An intermediate hole is drilled. Geophysical
logs are rurr (SP, Gamma and Resistivity) and casing is set and cemented back to surface. The
permanent wellhead is installed with a master wellhead valve. An open (uncased) hole is
drilled. Geophysical logs are run (often including imagingl ogs) and a perforated liner is set on
bottom. Finally, a flange with a small valve is installed on the wellhead for providing access to
,
the wellbore for future logging.

(iii) Commercial grade wells:

Two primary categories of commercial wells are:

(i) Production well and

(ii) Injection well

It is designed to be very robust and long-lived.

5.3.4. Methods of Harnessing Geothermal Energy

Geothermal electricity can be harnessed mainly in many ways by using indirect methods
which are discussed below:

I
5.3.4.1. Vapour dominated or dry steam geothermal power plant

Figure 5.12 and Figure 5.13 show a schematic of a vapour-dominated geothermal power
system. Dry steam from wells is collected, filtered to remove abrasive particles and passed
through turbines which drive electric generators in the usual manner. The essential difference
between this system and a conventionalsteam turbine-generator system using fossil fuel is that
the geothermal steam is supplied at a much lower temperature and pressure. The dry steam
from the well (1) at perhaps 200°C is used. It is nearly saturated at the bottom of the well and
it may have a shut off pressure about 35 bar.
[s36 Renewable Energy System

Centrifugal
Separator

Generator
3

2 Turbine ---•
Stearn jet
Ejector
7
4
ll] Direct contact
J\ J\ A A A Condenser

I 5
I
I
I
I Condensate pump
7 I
I
I
I
1 Well
' Alternate reinjection
Ground
Reinjection well

Figure 5.12 Vapour-dominated geothermal powerplant

Entropy, s

Figure 5.13 Vapour dominated system on Ts diagram

The pressure drop through the expansion valve (2) slightly superheats the steam. The
steam after expansion in the turbine (3) enters the condenser at 4. The condensation of steam
continuously increases the volume of cooling water. A part of this 'heat is lost by evaporation
Other Types of Energy [_ssr)
in the cooling tower (6) and the remaining heat is injected deep into the ground (7) for disposal.
The turbine exhaust steam at (4) mixes with the cooling water (7) coming from cooling tower.
The mixture ofcooling water coming from the cooling tower and turbine exhaust is saturated
vapour at () and it is pumped to the cooling tower (6).
. ~ '

5.3.4.2. Liquid-dominated systems

In the liquid dominated reservoir, the water temperature is above the normal boiling point
100°%C. However, it does not boil but it remains in liquid state because the water in the reservoir
is under pressure. When the water comes to the surface, the pressure is reduced, then rapid
boiling is occurred and the liquid water "flashes" into a mixture of hot water and steam. The
steam can be separated and used to. generate electric power or to provide space and process
heat or it may be distilled to yield the purified water. For liquid-dominated systems, three
methods which will be covered are as follows:

(a) Flashed-steam system

(b) Binary-cycle system
(c) Total flow system.

(i) Flashed-steamsystem:
4

Flash
2 Separator
Cooling
Tower

9 Direct contact
condenser
Brine
7

1 8 Condensate pump
.i
Ground Condensate Blow down (A)

Figure 5.14 Liquid dominated single-flash steam system

[ 5.38 Renewable Energy System

The flashed-steam system is shown in Figure 5.14. Water from the under-ground reservoir
at point () reaches the wellhead at point (2) at a lower pressure . It is throttled further in a flash
separator resulting still low but it is slightly with higher quality at (3). This mixture is now
separated into dry saturated steam at (4) and saturated brine at (5). Later, it is re injected into
the ground. The dry steam with a small friction of the total well discharge is expanded in a
turbine to (6) and it is mixed with cooling water in a direct-contact condenser with the mixture
at (7). It is then entered into a cooling tower similar to a vapour-dominated system. The
condensate after the cooling water is recirculated to the condenser and reinjected into the
ground. The power generation from such system can be made more economical by associating
a chemical industry with the power plant to make use of the brine and gaseous effluent.

(ii) Liquid dominated binary cycle systems:

Liquid dominated systems are shown in Figure 5.15. In order to isolate the turbine from
corrosive or erosive materials to accommodate higher concentration ofnon-condensable gases,
the binary concept is considered. In the binary system, an organic fluid with a low boiling point
such as isobutene and Freon-12 is usually recommended. Ammonia and propane may also be
used. The working fluid is operated at higher pressure corresponding to the same water and
heat-sink temperature.

Hot brine
(or steam)
Generator
lsobutane

Heat
• boiler

Exchanger
(Primary)

Vapour
Vapour

Brine
(Reinjected)
From cooling lake
lsobutane Liquid
liquid Heat exchanger
(Regenerative)

Figure 5.15 Binaryfluid geothermal power system

In a binary system, the hot water or brine from the underground reservoir either as
unflashed liquid or as steam producing by flashing is circulated through a primary heat
Other Types of Energy 5.39

exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the hot brine transfers its heat to the organic fluid thus
converting it to a superheated vapour. The vapour drives the turbine generator. The exhaust
vapour from turbine is cooled in the regenerative heat exchanger and then it is condensed using
condenser. The condenser is cooled by water from a natural source. The condensed liquid
organic fluid is returned to the primary heat exchanger by a regenerative heat exchanger.

(c) Totalflow systein:

Working principle of a total flow concept is shown in Figure 5.16. The hot brine from
geothermal well at (1) is throttled to (2) where it becomes a two-phase mixture of low quality.
The two phases at this point are not separated but the full flow is expanded to (3) and then it is
condensed to (4). Then, the brine is reinjected into the ground at (5). The other characteristic
of total flow concept system is that it requires the use of a mixed phase expander powered by
a two-phase mixture of low quality whereas the flashed steam system and vapour dominated
systems rely on axial flow multistage steam turbines. The requirement of mixed phase
expanders is to overcome losses associated with the impingement of liquid droplets on blades.
They must also be able to withstand corrosive and erosive effects of significant quantities of
dissolved solids in the brine.

7
Mixed Phase
Expander

6
4
ny
5 Brine condensate
Ground Reinjection

Figure 5.16 Schematic ofa liquid-dominated totalflow concept

5.3.4.3. Geopressured resources

Drilling for oil and gas has revealed the existence of reservoirs containing salt water at
moderately high temperature and high pressure in a belt for 1200 m in length. Because of
 Renewable Energy System

abnormally high pressures of water up to 1350 atm in the deepest layers, the reservoirs are
referred as geopressured. A special feature ofgeopressured water (or brine) is their content of
methane (natural gas). The energy value ofthe brine thus depends on their temperature. The
solubility ofmethane in water at normal pressure is quite low but it is increased at high pressure
ofthe geothermal reservoirs. Usually, the gas content ofgeopressured brine is 1.9 m3 to 3.8m'.

5.3.4.4. Hot dry rock systems

Hot Dry Rock (HDR) system is a heated geological formation formed in the same way as
hydrothermal resources but containing no water as the aquifers or fractures required to conduct
water to the surface are not present. HDR reservoirs are instead man-made reservoirs in tocks
that are artificially fractured and thus, any convenient volume of hot dry rock in the Earth's
crust at accessible depth can become an artificial reservoir.

A pair of wells is drilled into the rock, terminating a hundred meters apart. Water is
circulated down the injection well and through the HDR reservoir which acts as a heat
exchanger. The fluid then returns to the surface through the production well and thus, transfers
the heat to the surface as steam or hot water. The steam is ultimately used to generate electricity.
Artificial reservoirs can be made by hydraulically fracturing these rocks and then circulating
water through cracks. HDR systems are much more common than hydrothermal reservoirs and
more accessible. Therefore, their potential is quite high.

5.3.4.5. Magma resources (Molten Rock-Chamber) systems

In some cases, especially the vicinity of relatively recent volcanic activity molten or
partially molten rock occurs at moderate depth. Very high temperature above 650°C and the
large volume make magma a substantial geothermal resource. However, an extraction ofthe
heat from the molten rock will be difficult and it may not be feasible for some time. A concept
of using heat exchange within the magma is studied by Sandia National Laboratories. Heat
would be transferred to a suitable liquid and brought to the surface. The hot liquid could be
used to produce a working fluid possibly steam to operate aturbine and electric generator. The
liquid is then recirculated through the heat exchanger in the magma.

5.3.4.6. Hybrid (Geothermal Fossil Fuel) systems

The concept of hybrid geothermal fossil fuel systems utilizes relatively low temperature
heat of geothermal sources in the low temperature end of a conventional cycle and high
Other Types of Energy 5.41

temperature heat from fossil-fuel combustion in the high temperature end of the same cycle.
The concept which combines the high efficiency of high temperature cycle with a natural
source of heat for the part of heat addition reduces the consumption of the expensive and non-
renewable fossil fuel.

The arrangements for hybrid plants are as follows:

1. Fossil superheat and 2. Geothermal preheat.

5.3.4.6.1. Fossil-superheat hybrid systems

In this system, the vapour dominated steam or vapour obtained from a flash separator in a
high-temperature liquid-dominated system is superheated in a fossil-fired superheater. The
schematic arrangement of fossil-superheat hybrid system cycle is shown in Figure 5.17. The
cycle consists of a double flash geothermal steam system.
Fossil fired
Regenerator superheater High Low pressure
6 Pressure turbine
turbine
4 5

8
9

Separator 15 9
/ 7
2 13 10
3 14

13
16

Ground

1
Well
Figure 5.17 Fossil-superheat hybrid systems
[ 5.42 Renewable Energy System

From well (1 ), the geotherma l source is collected and passed to separator (3). Steam
produced at (4) in the first-stage flash separator is preheated from (4) to (5) in a regenerator,by
exhaust steam from high-pressure turbine at (7). It is then superheated by a fossil fuel-fired
superheater to (6) and it expands in the high-pressure turbine to (7) at a pressure near the second
stage steam separator.
\
It then enters the regenerator and it leaves at (8) where it is mixed with
the low-pressure steam produced in the second-stage flash separator at (15) and it produces
steam at (9) which expands in the low-pressure turbine to (10). The condensate at (11) is
pumped and reinjected into the ground at (12). The spent brine from the second stage
evaporator is.also reinjected into the ground at (16).

5.3.4.6.2. Geothermal-preheat hybrid system

High. Low
Pressure L]
Pressure
Turbine Turbine
Generator
Superheater

Reheater
Surface
•Evaporator condenser

Condensate
Economiser pump

F eed water
heater
Boiler feed Hot Cold
pump brine brine

Figure 5.18 Schematic ofa geothermalpreheat hybrid system

In this type of system as shown in Figure 5.18, the feed water of a conventional fossil-
fueled steam plant is heated by low temperature geothermal energy. Geothermal heat replaces
some or all feed water heaters depending on its temperature. Geothermal heat heats the feed
water throughout low temperature and prior to an open-type deaerating heater. It is followed
by a boiler feed pump and three closed type feed water heaters with drains cascaded backward.
Other Types of Energy 5.43

The received heat from the steam bleeds from high-pressure stage of the turbine. No steam is
bled from the low pressure because the geothermal brine fulfills this function.

5.3.5. Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Geothermal Energy

Advantages ofgeothermal energy:

1. It is versatile in its use and reliable source of energy.
2. It is cheaper compared to energies obtained from other sources. both zero fuels and
fossil fuels.
3. It delivers a greater amount of net energy from its system than other alternative or
conventional systems.
4. It has the highest annual load factor of 85% to 90% compared to 45% to 50% for fossil
fuel plants.
5. It leads a minimum pollution compared to other conventional energy sources.

6. Using geothermal energy directly for heating applications can be upto 70% more
efficient.
7. Once built, geothermal power station operating costs are small making geothermal
generated electricity much cheaper.
8. Ground based geothermal heat pumps for heating and cooling can be used almost
anywhere.
9. Geothermal plants require little land area.
10. Using geothermal energy directly for heating applications can be upto 70% more
efficient.
11. Its availability is independent of weather.
12. It has an inherent storage feature and hence, no extra storage systems are necessary.

Disadvantages ofgeothermal energy:

1. Overall efficiency for power production is low about 15% when compared to 35-40%
for fossil fuel plants.
2. The steam and hot water gushing out ofthe earth may contain HS, CO, NH3 and radon
gas, etc. These gases are to be removed by chemical action before they are discharged.

3. Drilling operation is noisy.

 Renewable Energy System

4. Large area is required for the exploitation of geo-thermal energy as much diffused.

5. Continuous extraction of heated ground water may lead to subsidence of land.

6. Corrosive and abrasive geothermal fluid reduces the life ofplants.

7. Thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over long distance (longer than 30 km).
8. Initial capital and installation costs are high.

5.3.6. Applications of Geothermal Energy

1. It is used in generating electric power.

2. Itis used in industrial process heat.

3. It is used in space heating for various kinds of buildings.

4. It is used in agricultural and related applications.

5.3.6.1. Direct use of geothermal energy

It is more appropriate for sources below l 50°C. It is used for:

(i) Space heating

(ii) Air conditioning

(iii) Industrial processes

(iv) Drying

(v) Greenhouses

(vi) Aquaculture

(vii) Hot water

(viii) Resorts and pools

(ix) Melting snow.

Workingprinciple ofdirect usage:

(i) Direct sources function by sending water down a well to be heated by the Earth's
warmth.

(ii) Then a heat pump is used to take the heat from the underground water to the
substance that heats the house as shown in Figure 5.19.

(iii) Then the cold water is injected back into the Earth.
Other Types ofEnergy 5.45

1. Ground heat collectors:

This system uses horizontal loops filled with circulating water at a depth of 80 cm to 160
cm underground.

2. Borehole heat exchange:

This type uses one or two underground vertical loops that extend 150 m below the surface.

Underfloor heating

Heat pump
'-......
Vertical earth heat probe

Figure 5.19 Direct use ofgeothermal energy

5.3.6.2. Refrigeration system using geothermal energy

It consists of evaporator, reversing valve, expansion valve, receiver, compressor, check

valve, fan, hot water condenser and space heat condenser. Both evaporator and condenser are
shell and tube heat exchangers. Long pipes buried in the ground carry water to and from a heat
exchanger. The refrigerant absorbs heat from or rejects heat to the water. The cold refrigerant
from ground loop enters the evaporator. Here, the temperature of refrigerant increases but the
pressure remains same. Then it enters the compressor through where both pressure and
temperature increase due to compression. The compressed refrigerant is condensed in the
condenser and further expanded through expansion valve. It again enters the evaporator where
the refrigerating effect is transferred to the space. This cycle is repeated.
 [ 5.46 Renewable Energy System

Expansion valve

Figure 5.20 Refrigeration system using geothermal energy

5.3.7. International Geothermal Energy Potential

Geothermal energy increased by 539 MW in 2018 (grew by 4.0%), to reach 14.6 GW. Most
of the expansion taking place in Turkey (+219 MW) and Indonesia (+137 MW), followed by
the USA, Mexico and New Zealand. The US has the largest geothermal capacity with 3.8 GW
(26% of the world total), followed by the Indonesia (l.946 GW), Philippines (1.928 GW), and
Turky (1.283 GW).

In overall, the geothermal share of global power generation remains very small (0.3%),
but in certain countries it plays a significant role, e.g. Kenya (over 40% of power), Iceland
(over 25%), and New Zealand (18%).

5.3.8. Geothermal Energy Potential in India

Geothermal is energy generated from heat stored in the

earth or the collection of absorbed
heat derived from underground. Immense amounts of thermal energy are generated and stored
in the Earth's core, mantle and crust. Geothermal energy is at present contributing about 14.5
GWover the world and India's small resources can augment the above percentage.
Other Types of Energy 5.47

Geothermal energy is at present contributing about 10,000 MW over the world and India's
small resources can augment the above percentage. The resource is little used at the moment
·,
but the Government has an ambitious plan to more than double the current total installed
generating capacity.

Installation of a demonstration geothermal power plant of300 kW capacity at Tattapani in

Chattisgarh is being taken up through National Hydro Power Corporation, india.

The Himalayan belt, Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan Plateau are only a few of the
locations with geothermal energy potential in India estimated to be over 10,600 MW according
to 2007 research by the Geological Survey of India as per the latest reports of the international
geothermal energy organisation.

According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, geothermal resources in India
have been mapped and a broad estimate suggests that there could be a 10 GW geothermal power
potential (MNRE).

The government of Chhattisgarh decided in 2013 to build the country's first geothermal
power plant at Tattapani in the Balrampur district. An agreement to establish the first
geothermal power project in Ladakh was signed in 2021 .

Further studies carried out by the geological survey of India have observed existence of
about 340 hot springs in the hot country. These are distributed in seven geothermal provinces
- .

which are. most productive in a I 500 km stretch of the Himalayas.

.
These arc also found along
the west coast in Gujarat and Rajasthanand along a west south west-east-northeast line running
from the west coast to the western border of Bangladesh (known as SONATA). The resource
is little used at the moment but the Government has an ambitious plan to more than double the
current total installed generating capacity by 2022.

5.3.9. Environmental Impact of Geothermal Energy

The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called geothermal energy.
Geothermal power plants have relatively little environmental impact. They burn no fuel to
create electricity. These plants do create small amount of CO and sulphur compounds but
geothermal emissions are smaller than fossil fuel power plants.

The most widely developed type of geothermal power plants known as hydrothermal
plants are located near geologic hot spots where hot molten rock is close to the earth's crust
and produces hot water.
[ 5.48 Renewable Energy System

In other regions enhanced geothermal systems or hot dry rock geothermal, it involves
drilling into the earth's surface to reach deeper geothermal resources which can allow broader
access to geothermal energy.

The environmental impacts of exploiting geothermal energy depend on the concrete

situation. Environmental burdens can result from entrained pollutants (various salts, sulphur
compounds, arsenic, and boron) and gases in the geothermal fluids. In modern geothermal
facilities, the spent (cooled-down) fluids and their entrained pollutants are pumped back into
the ground preferably to a point below the pay zone ofthe occurrence while the incidental gases
are released to the atmosphere.

(i) Water quality and use:

Particularly, the extraction of geothermal fluids in dry-climate regions can negatively
influence near-surface groundwater stories and hence, their utilization (potable water,
irrigation) causes the groundwater table to recede.

Geothermal power plants have impacts on both water quality and consumption. Hot water
is pumped from underground reservoirs. The pumped water contains high levels of sulfur, salt
and other minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-loop water systems. So, the
extracted water is pumped directly back into the geothermal reservoir after it has been used for
heat or electricity production. In such systems, the water is contained within steel well casings
cemented to the surrounding rock.

Sustained use of a particular geothermal reservoir can lead to gradual and extensive
subsidence and frequent consequential dama ge to railroads, highways, power transmission
lines and particularly the pipelines through which the geothermal fluids are pumped from the
wells to the power plant or user.

(ii) Air emissions:

In closed-loop systems, 'the gases removed from the well are not exposed to the
atmosphere and they are injected back into the ground after giving up their heat. So, air
emissions are minimal. But in the case of open-loop systems, the geothermal fluid emits
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane and boron. Hydrogen sulfide has a
distinctive rotten egg smell which is the most common emission.

Hydrogen sulfide changes into sulfur dioxide once released in the atmosphere. It forms
the formation of small acidic particulates which is absorbed by bloodstream and cause heart
and lung disease. Sulfur dioxide also causes acid rain which damages crops, forests, soils,
acidifies lakes and streams.
Other Types of Energy 5.49

Also, some geothermal plants also produce small amounts of mercury emissions which
should be reduced using mercury filter technology. Scrubbers can reduce air emissions, but
they produce a watery sludge composed of the captured materials such as sulfur, vanadium,
silica compounds, chlorides, arsenic, mercury, nickel and other heavy metals. This toxic sludge
must be disposed of at hazardous waste sites.

(iii) Land use:

The amount of land required by a geothermal plant depends on the properties of the
resource reservoir, amount of power capacity, type of energy conversion system, type of
cooling system, arrangement ofwells and piping systems and substation, and auxiliary building
needs. Many geothermal sites are located in remote and sensitive ecological areas to reduce the
environmental impacts. Most geothermal facilities focus the risk of re-injection of wastewater
back into geotherma l reservoirs after the water's heat has been extracted.

(iv) Life-cycle global warming emissions:

In open-loop geothermal systems, 10% ofthe air emissions are carbon dioxide and smaller
amount of methane emissions. They form a more potent global warming gas. In closed-loop
systems, these gases are not released into the atmosphere but there are a still some emissions
associated with plant construction and surrounding infrastructure.

5.4. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

Energy is available from the ocean by

(i) Tapping ocean currents

(ii) Using the ocean as a heat engine
(iii) Tidal energy
(iv) Wave energy.

Rivers, oceans, large lakes and bays are in the form of huge reservoirs considered as
renewable energy sources which are useful to generate electrical energy. In the World, the
energy available through ocean is around 130x10° MW. Due to various reasons, only less
amount of energy can be economically recovered. 70% of the earth's surface is occupied by
salt water. There are five principal oceans as follows:

(i) Indian ocean

(ii) Atlantic ocean

(iii) Antarctic ocean

[ 5.50 Renewable Energy System

(iv) Pacific ocean

(v) Arctic ocean.

OTEC is an energy technology that converts solar radiation falling on the ocean surface
into electric power. The use of stored thermal energy by solar radiation from oceans was first
proposed by a French physicist d'Arsonval in I 881. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural
thermal gradient. The temperature difference between warm surface water on the upper layer
of ocean and cold deep water below 600 m is about 20°C. An OTEC systerri can produce a
significant amount of power using this thermal gradient. The oceans are vast renewable
resources with the potential to help in producing billions of watts of electric power. The cold
seawater used in OTEC process is also rich in nutrients and it can be used to culture both marine
organisms and plant life near the shore or on land.

The first OTEC plant was built in I 930 in Cuba by George Claude and the plant generated
22 kW of electricity. Claude plant is the second plant in I 935 was made off the coast of Brazil
and was mounted onto a large transporter tanker.

OTEC cogeneration plants deliver electrical energy and fresh water. The unit size of
turbine generators is in the range of IO MW to 50 MW. The plant ratings are of 50 MW and 100
MW. OTEC technologies require high capital cost and are difficult to produce. The reason is
that the temperature differenc e even in the tropical region is less and hence, the efficiency is
also less. The theoretical efficiency of OTEC is small (~2%).

5.4.1. Principle of OTEC

Ocean thermal energy exists in the form of temperature difference between warm surface
water and cold deep water. The absorption of solar radiation by the sea and ocean causes a
..
moderate temperature difference between upper and lower levels of water. Particularly, the
oceans in the tropical region collect and store a large amount of solar energy. This stored heat
energy can be converted into work with the help of thermodynamic cycle. It
I •
is called ocean
thermal energy conversion.

OTEC is a very clean form of energy. It has virtually no dangerous pollution risk. OTEC
is a method of producing electrical energy from difference in water temperature. The upper
surface of the ocean water gets heated up naturally due to solar radiation similar to a solar
collector and it is considered as infinite heat storage reservoir. The warmest water is found
around the equator with surface water reaching a maximum temperature of24°C to 27°C whilst
the deep-water can reach the temperature close to 0°C. The OTEC system uses this change in
 t
Other Types ofEnergy 5.51

temperature of the sea water to run a heat engine which converts the heat energy into
mechanical work. For OTEC to work, there is a need of a minimum temperature difference
between warm water and cold water of 20°C over a 1000 m depth. Systems at 20°C are very
inefficient but they become more efficient with greater temperature difference.

The OTEC plant should have the following to increase its efficiency.
(i) Large intake of warm water
(ii) Large number of units required to generate large amount of power.

The above-mentioned factors will lead to the requirement of large pipe· line, pumps, heat
exchanger, large plant size, high cost of installation, high cost for power generation etc.

5.4.2. Setting of OTEC Plants

Pump
Warm surface
H 9 [er

Generator

Pump
Condenser
~ - ·1
. '

Organic
fluid '
...................................... J

Hot water to sea

Pump

Cold water from

ocean depth

Figure 5.21 OTEC plant

Warm water is collected on the surface ofthe tropical ocean and pumped by a warm water
pump. The water is pumped through the boiler where some ofwater is used to heat the working
fluid. The working fluid may be propane or some similar fluids. Ifa cooler is used, the working.
fluid having low boiling point such as ammonia is selected. The propane vapour expands
through a turbine which is coupled to a generator to generate electric power. Cold water from
[s.sa ] Renewable Energy System

the bottom is pumped through condensers where the vapour comes to the liquid state. The fluid
is pumped back into the boiler.

Some small fraction of power from the turbine is used to pump water through the system
and to power other internal operations but most of them are available as net power. There are
two different kinds of OTEC power plants such as land-based plant and floating plant.

5.4.3. Land-based Power Plant

The land-based pilot plant has a building. This building will contain heat exchangers,
turbines, generators and controls. It will be connected to the ocean via several pipes.

First, power input is supplied to pumps to start the process. Fluid pump pressurizes and
pushes the working fluid to evaporator. Heat addition form hot water is used to evaporate the
working fluid within the heat exchanger called evaporator. The vapour is expanded in the
turbine thereby rotating the shaft which is directly coupled to the generator. Therefore, the
electrical energy is produced in the generator. The expanded vapour is condensed in the
condenser. The condensation is carried out by supplying cold water. Warm water is collected
through a screened enclosure close to the shore . A long pipe laid on the slope collects the cold
water. Power and fresh water are generated in the building by the equipment. Used water is
first circulated into the marine culture pond (fish farm) and then it is discharged by the third
pipe into the ocean, downstream from the warm water inlet. It is done to avoid the re-entering
of outflow to the plant since the reuse of warm water reduces the available temperature
difference.

A land-based plant costs three times as much per unit power output. One advantage ofthe
land-based power plant is that it makes the process easy use, of some of by-products without
any expensive transports.

5.4.4. Floating Power Plant

The working principle of floating power plant is similar to the land-based plant but it
differs in construction as plant is floating.

5.4.5. Thermodynamic Cycles in OTEC

There are two types of OTEC thermodynamic cycles as follows:

I. Open cycle (Claude cycle, Steam cycle)

Other Types of Energy 5.53

2. Closed cycle (Anderson cycle, Vapour cycle)

Both Open and Closed OTEC systems use the temperature difference between warm
surface water and deep cold water to create a pressure difference that can be used to generate
electricity.

5.4.6. Open Cycle OTEC System

In an open OTEC system, the cold water is used to reduce the pressure in the part of the
system so that the warm surface water actually get boiled into a vapour at 80°F. The warm
ocean water is converted into steam in an evaporator. The steam drives steam-turbine generator
to deliver electrical energy. A specially designed steam turbine drives the electrical generator.

The water vapour travels from high-pressure warm side of the system through a turbine to
drive a generator and into the low-pressure cold side ofthe system. Then, the vapour condenses
into desalinated water. Steam is condensed in a contact condenser and condensate is discharged
into sea by an open cycle OTEC. The big advantage of open system OTEC is that the
desalinated water effluent has multiple uses especially drinking water and it can increase the
economic efficiency by over 30%.

Working:

In an open cycle OTEC, warm water from ocean surface (at about 26°C) is admitted into
the evaporator. The evaporator is maintained at vacuum pressure by means of a vacuum pump.
At low vacuum pressures, the boiling point of water reduces and more steam is generated.
Steam generated in the evaporator enters into a special steam turbine and the remaining water
from evaporator is discharged into the sea. Steam-turbine converts thermal energy into
mechanical energy. Steam leaving the evaporator is comparatively at low pressure and high
specific volumes as compared to conventional power plants: The steam admitted in steam
turbine drives the steam turbine rotor and it is exhausted to the condenser. Exhaust steam from
turbine is condensed and discharged in the ocean at 7°C. Cold water from deep sea is admitted
into the condenser. The temperature of cold water is about I 5°C.

The efficiency can be increased slightly with modified open cycle OTEC system. They
are as follows:

(i) Controlled flash-steam evaporator is used instead of a conventional type of

evaporator
(ii) Contact condenser is replaced by a surface condenser.
[ 5.54 Renewable Energy System

(iii) The open cycle OTEC can be used as a cogeneration cycle to produce both electrical
power and fresh water.

Vaccum pump Electrical

power

Dissolved gases & air evaporator

From Pump .
Oceans~
Warm water 269C

To __.,._ __.
Ocean
condenser

Cold water 13%C

Discharge
To _..._ __, from condenser
Ocean

Figure 5.22 0pen cycle OTECpower plant

Limitations ofopen cycle OTEC system:

1. Turbine is physically large.

2. The cost of plant is high.

3. It can allow a very large flow of ocean water in terms of mass and volume.

4. The plant is subjected to ocean storms, high waves, etc.

5.4. 7. Closed Cycle OTEC System

In a closed cycle OTEC system rather than boiling water to make steam, one of several
refrigerants which have a low boiling point is used. Ammonia or Butane or Freon is used as a
refrigerant. The refrigerant boils and it creates a vapour when exposed to the warmth ofsurface
water. The vapour ofthe working fluid drives a vapour turbine generator to generate electrical
energy. Then, the refrigerant condenses and losses the pressure when exposed to cold
temperature from deep water.

In a closed cycle OTEC plant, the working fluid is circulated in the cycle comprising of
heat exchanger, vapour turbine, surface condenser and liquid vapour pressuriser.
Other Types of Energy 5.55

Working:
The working fluid (ammonia, NH) is circulated through the closed cycle comprising of
the following components.
1. Evaporator
2. Vapour turbine (Turbogenerator)
3. Vapour condenser and
4. Liquid pressurizer.

Warm water inlet 27C Electrical

power out ut
From-Ocean
High pressure NH3 vapour
24 C
Heat exchanger
water/NH4

Liquid NH3g pump

NHa condenser
To-Ocean
Liquid
NHag

To-Ocean Cold water oulet

Cold water inlet
60c
From-Ocean
Figure 5.23 Closed cycle OTEC plant
The working fluid extracts heat from the warm ocean water and it is vapourised. The
vapour having thermal energy is expanded in the vapour turbine. This vapour turbine drives
the electrical generator rotor and thus, the power is produced. The expanded vapour from the
turbine is condensed in the condenser. Liquefied working fluid is passed through pressuriser
into the evaporator. The working fluid is circulated again and again through the closed cycle
to generate power continuously.

5.4.8. Site Selection for OTEC Plants

Deep sea water flows from Polar regions. This polar water which represents upto 60% of
all seawater originates mainly from the Arctic for the Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and
from the Antarctic (Weddell Sea) for all other major oceans. A desirable OTEC thermal
[ 5.56 Renewable Energy System

resource of 20°C requires typical values in the order of 25°C. Globa lly, regions between
latitudes 20°N and 20°S are adequate.

The availability of OTEC thermal resources throughout the World depends on the
fol lowing factors .

. (i) Equatorial water defined as lying between 10°N and l 0°S are adequate except for
the West Coasts of South America and Southern Africa.
(ii) Tropical water defined. as extending from the equatorial region boundary to 20%N
and 20°S are adequate except for the West Coasts of South America and of Southern
Africa.

The accessibility of deep cold sea water represents the most important physical criterion
for OTEC site selection. Once, the existence of an adequate thermal resource has been
establishe d. The distance is important from the perspective of the transit time for the vessels
that would transport the product to shore. The important point to consider is the preservation
of environment in the area of the selected site. As much as preservation of the environment
anywhere is bound to have positive effects elsewhere: OTEC is one of the most benign power
production technologies since the handling of hazardous substances is limited to the working
fluid (e.g. ammonia) and no toxic by-products are generated. OTEC merely requires pumping
and returning the various sea water masses which can be accomplished with virtually no·
adverse impact.

5.4.9. Advantages of OTEC

(i) Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable, pollution free and environmentally
friendly.
(ii) Unlike other forms of solar energy, the output of OTEC shows very little· daily or
seasonal variation. OTEC power plants can produce electricity 24 hours a day or
365 days a year.
(iii) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the
thermocline, could be accomplished withminimum environment impact.
(iv) Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
(v) Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could be made free from pollution caused by
conventional fuels for electricity generation.
(vi) OTEC system might help in enrichment offishing grounds due tothe nutrients from
the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface waters.
Other Types of Energy 5.57

(vii) A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to
provide power for off shore mining and processing of manganese nodules.
(viii) Either open or closed system OTEC could be used in either onshore or offshore
systems.

5.4.10. Disadvantages of OTEC

(i) Capital investment is very high.

(ii) Seasonal variations and natural calamities affect OTEC performance.
(iii) Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep water,
the conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4%.
(iv) Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost
makes them uneconomical for small plants.
(v) Construction of OTEC plants and laying of pipes in coastal water may cause a
localised damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.
(vi) It needs very large sized turbines due to the use oflow pressure of steam having high
specific volume in case of open cycle.

5.4.11. Applications of OTEC

OTEC plants are not used only to generate electricity. They are used in the following.

1. Open cycle OTEC plant is used to produce desalinated water which is mainly used for
irrigation and human consumption.
2. A closed cycle OTEC plant is used as a chemical treatment plant.
3. The deep sea water can be used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems mainly in
offshore Industries. In majority ofthe air conditioning plant, open cycle OTEC is used.
The release of used working fluid will be in the sea itself.
4. The power generated by OTEC plants can be use_d in hydrogen production through
water electrolysis process.

5.5. TIDAL ENERGY

5.5.1. Tidal Power
Tidal energy is a form of hydro energy recurring with every tide. The periodic rise and
fall of sea water level which are carried by the action of sun and moon on water ofthe earth is
 [ 5.58 Renewable Energy System

called "Tide". The rise and fall oftidal water is maximum near seashore and river mouths. Tidal
power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into
useful forms of power, mainly electricity. It is the only form of energy whose source is the
moon.

The basic principle of operation of the tidal cycle is the difference in water surface
elevations at high tide and low tide. This differential head is utilized for opera ting a hydraulic
turbine which is coupled to a generator so that the tidal energy can be converted into electrical
energy. The difference in potential energy during high-tide and low-tide is converted into tidal
energy.

Tidal energy, in particular, is one of the best available renewable energy sources. In
contrast to other clean sources such as wind, solar, geothermal etc., tidal energy can be
predicted for centuries ahead from the point of view of time and magnitude. Tidal energy can
furnish a significant portion of all such energies which are renewable in nature. There is much
interest in the use of tidal energy especially in the development of large-scale tidal power
schemes. However, the energy source such as wind and solar energy is distributed over larger
area which presents a difficult problem for collecting it.

The power is obtained through the flow ofwater when filling and emptying partially closed
sea basins. As the tide runs into the 'low' basin, it drives turbines and as the tide retreats, again
turbines are turned to produce large amount of electricity. Unfortunately, the production of
tidal energy involves huge initial cost and there may be a possibility of damage to the local
ecology. Such a project could also cause a severe damage to wildlife in the area including birds,
shore-life and fish and plants that thrive in the delicate ecosystem.

5.5.2. Tidal Energy Potential

The potential in ocean tides resource is estimated as 550 billion kWh/year (120 GW
power). It is in the developing stage. The major limitation for the development of tidal power
station is huge capital investment per kW of power generation. There are at present only few
operational tidal power plants. The first and biggest 240 MW tidal power plant was built in
1996 in France at the mouth ofLa Rance river on Brittany coast. A 20 MW tidal plant is located
at Nova Scotia, Canada and a 400 kW capacity plant is located at Kis!aya Guba, Russia on the
Barents Sea. Many sites have been identified in USA, Argentina, Europe, India and China for
development oftidal power.
Other Types of Energy 5.59

Tidal plants:
India has a long coastline with the estuaries and gulfs where tides· are strong enough to
move turbines for electrical power generation. The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in
Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum tidal range of 11m and 8m with. average tidal
range of 6.77m and 5.23m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sundarbans is approximately
5m with an average tidal range of2.97m. A detailed project report for a 3 MW tidal power plant
in Sunderbans area ofWest Bengal has been prepared through West Bengal Renewable Energy
Development Agency.
India is estimated to have a potential of about 54 gigawatts (GW) of ocean energy
including about 12.4 GW of tidal power. However, even after four decades of starting efforts
to harness tidal power. [ndia is estimated to have a potential of around 54 gigawatts (GW) of
ocean energy such as tidal power (12.45 GW) and wave power (41.3 GW) but it is yet to be of
practical use as the Indian government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)
says the estimated potential of tidal and wave power is "purely theoretical and does not
necessarily constitute a practically exploitable potential".

5.5.3. Principle of Tide Generation

Mainly, tides are produced by gravitational attraction ofthe moon and sun on the water of
solid earth. Nearly, 70% ofthe tide produces force due to moon and remaining 30% by the sun.
So, the moon is the main factor to form tides in the sea. During the tide formation, the surface
water is pulled away from earth towards moon and sun due to the gravitational force but at the
same time, the solid earth is pulled away from the water at the opposite side due to centrifugal
force ofrotation ofearth. Therefore, high tides form in these two areas and low tides are formed
at intermediate points. Due to the rotation ofearth, the position ofthe solid area changes relative
to moon thereby forming tides. Thus, a periodic succession of high and low tides is formed.
Two high tides and two low tides occur in a lunar day of 24 hours and 25 minutes.

The lunar day is the apparent day of moon revolution about the earth. The time delay
between successive tides is 6 hours. High tide occurs at a point directly under the moon.
Therefore, high tides are produced during full moon and no moon day of the month. These
tides are called semi-diurnal tides. So, the rise and fall of sea water is in sinusoidal wave forms
shown in Figure 5.24.

Range oftide:
Range is the difference between high and low water levels denoted by R.
[ 5.60 Renewable Energy System

R = Water elevation at high tide - Water elevation at low tide

The range of tides varies from 4.5 m to 12.4 m. The tide range R is higher for high tides
and it is low for lower tides. At the same time, the tide range R is less for high tides and high
for low tides called neap tides. These tides are formed during first quarter and third quarter
Moon days.

A
+6 C
+4
+2
T
R Tidal range
0
-2
-4
-6
. B
12h 25 min

Figure 5.24 Formation ofa tide

Spring tides:
If the tide's range is maximum, it is called spring tide. These spring tides are called high
tides. Around no moon and full moon days, the sun, moon and earth form a line. The tidal force
due to the sun reinforces the moon. Hence, high tides are produced.

Full moon Earth New moon Sun

0
Figure 5.25 Formation ofspring tides

Neap tides:
When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the sun and moon are separated by 90°
when viewed from the earth and the solar gravitational force partially cancels the moon. At
these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is minimum called neap tide.
Other Types of Energy 5.61

Tidal variation i
n a lunar month:

The tidal variations resulting in spring and neap tides in a lunar month is shown in Figure
5.27.

First quarter

Sun

Third quarter

Figure 5.26 Formation ofneap titles

New moon First quarter Full moon Third quarter New moon

Spring tides Neap tides Spring tides Neap tides Spring tides

Figure 5.27 Tidal variations in a lunar month

5.5.4. Transformation of Tidal Energy into Electrical Energy

The generation ofelectricity using tidal power is basically the transformation oftidal power
found in tidal motion ofwater in seas and oceans into electrical energy. It is done using a very
( 5.62 Renewable Energy System

basic idea involving the use ofa barrage or small dam built at the entrance ofa bay where tides
are known to reach very high levels ofvariation. This barrage will trap tidal water behind it
creating a difference in water level which will in turn create the potential energy. This potential
energy will then be used in creating kinetic energy as doors in the barrage are opened and the
water is rushed from the high level to the lower level. This kinetic energy will be converted
into rotational kinetic energy that will rotate turbines giving electrical energy. Figure 5.28
shows the process oftransformation oftidal energy to electric energy in very simple terms.

Tidal motion -- Barrage - Potential energy

-
,.
Opening of barrage
doors
-- Kinetic energy -- Energy generation in
turbines by seawater
movement

'
t

Electrical energy

Figure 5.28 Transformation of tidal energy to electric energy

5.5.5. Types of Tidal Energy Technologies

(i) Tidal barrages:

Tidal barrages involve the creation of huge concrete dams' with sluices. Tidal barrages
make use ofthe potential energy in the difference in height between high and low tides. Most
ofthe existing tidal power plants use this type ofdesign.

(ii) Tidal stream generators:

Tidal stream generators make use ofthe kinetic energy ofmoving water to power turbines.
Energy generation is very similar to the principles in wind power generation. Here, water flows
. '
across blades which tum a turbine much similar to how wind turns blades for wind power.
turbines.
Other Types of Energy 5.63

(iii) Dynamic tidal power:

This technology is not currently commercial viable but UK, Korea and China have
invested heavily in its research. It involves a partial dam which raises the tidal height and
several hydropower generators. The difference in height between the head of the dam and low
tide coast force water through the generator which is much similar to a traditional hydropower
dam.

Tidal energy
technologies

i '

Tidal stream
i
Dynamic tidal
Tidal barrages
generators power

Figure 5.29 Layout oftidal energy technologies

5.5.6. Components of Tidal Barrage Power Plants

The main component of any tidal barrage power plant is the dam or barrage that is built
across the mouth of a tidal estuary or inlet. This barrage is fitted with special sluice gates that
are opened and closed during the different stages of the tide. It is also fitted with hydraulic
turbines that are coupled with electric generators. Figure 5.30 shows the arrangement ofvarious
components of in typical tidal barrage power plants.

The tidal energy is produced by trapping water at high tide into the barrage and it is used
to drive turbine when it comes back from barrage during low tide. There fore, the available
energy in tides is proportional to the square of amplitude.

The main components of these types of tidal power plant are given below:

(i) Barrage or Dyke or Dam

(ii) Sluice ways 0

(iii) Embankments
(iv) Power house.

(i) Barrage or dyke or dam:

It makes use of the potential energy possessed by difference in height (or head) between
high tide and low tide. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width ofa tidal estuary and
[ 5.64 Renewable Energy System

they suffer from high civil infrastructure costs, a- worldwide shortage of viable sites and
environmental issues. The basic elements of a barrage are caissons, embankments, sluices,
turbines and ship locks. Sluices, turbines and ship locks are housed with large concrete blocks.
Embankments seal a basin where it is not sealed by caissons. The sluice gates applicable to
tidal power are flap gate, vertical rising gate, radial gate and rising sector.

Sluice gates

High tide level

Road

-Tide height Tidal barrage

Low tide level

; Tidal basin

-- Inc oming tide - _

-_-_-_=f!!F_-_-_...,._-_-_-,-_-_

Estuary floor

Turbine level

Figure 5.30 Cross section ofatypical tidal barrage

(ii) Sluice ways:
Gate controlled devices are called sluice ways. They allow water to enter into the basin
during high tide
•
and from the basin during low
+»
tide. Vertical lift gates and flap gates are mainly
used in existing plants.

(iii) Embankments:
They are caissons made out of concrete to prevent water from flowing at certain parts of
the barrage and to help in maintenance work and electrical wiring 'to be connected or used to
move equipment or cars over it.

(iv) Power house:

It consists of turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment. Usually, large
sizes ofturbines are used due to low head availability. Especially, bulb type, rim type and shaft
turbines are used; The water with high potential energy is made to run through the turbines to
run generators for power production.
Other Types of Energy [ 5.65

5.5.7. Modes of Operation of Tidal Barrage Power Plants

The various modes ofoperation oftidal barrage power plants are as follows:

(i) Ebb generation:

It is the simplest and most common form of barrage power generation. In this type, the
tidal basin is filled through sluices during high tide. Then, the sluice gates are closed. The
turbine gates are kept closed until the sea level filled to create a sufficient head across the
barrage. The stored water is then made to flow through turbines to 'sea when its gate is open to
generate power until the head is low. When the generation stops, the gates protecting the
turbines are closed again and the sluices are opened, turbines are disconnected and the basin is
again filled. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation also known as outflow generation takes
its name because the energy generation occurs as the tide changes the tidal direction.

Low tide

Turbine generator set (Reversible turbines)

Figure 5.31 Ebb generation

(ii) Flood generation:

High tide

Turbine generator set (Reversible turbines)

Figure 5.32 Floodgeneration

 [ 5.66 Renewable Energy System

In this type, the tidal basin is filled when the sea water is made to flow through the turbine
during high tide. This process is just reverse of ebb generation. It is genera lly much less
efficient than ebb. generation because the volume contained in the upper half of the basin is
greater than the volume of lower half of the basin. Therefore, the available level difference is
important for the turbine to produce power between basin side and sea side ofthe barrage. The
available level difference is reduced more quickly than ebb generation. Rivers flowing into the
basin may further reduce the energy potential instead of enhancing it as in ebb generation.

(iii) Two-way generation:

In this type, the water is made to flow through turbines for power generation both during
high tides from sea to basin and during low tides from basin to sea. Sluice gates and turbines
are closed until near the end of the flood tide when water is allowed to flow through turbines
into the basin creating electricity. At the point where the hydrostatic head is insufficient for
power generation, the sluice gates are opened and kept open until high tide when they are
closed. When the tide outside the barrage has dropped sufficiently, water is allowed to flow out
ofthe basin through the turbines again creating electricity.

Barrag
High tide level h tide level

-5Sea-- Low tide level

asi-

(a) Duringfilling (b) During emptying

Figure 5.33 Two-way generation
(iv) Pumping and turbining:
The reservoir is filled using:
► rise of sea water during high tides
► pumps to pump sea water into the reservoir.
The turbines in the barrage can be used to pump extra water into the basin at a period of
low demand, generally at night when demand is low, extra water is pumped in and then power
is generated at times of high deman d.

5.5.8. Modes of Generation of Tidal Barrage Power

As mentioned earlier, the power generation from tides involves flow between an
artificially developed basin and the sea. In order to have a more or less continuous generation,
Other Types of Energy 5.67

this basic scheme can be elaborated by having two or more basins. Accordingly, the tidal power
generation schemes are classified based on the number of basins as follows:

I. Single basin arrangement and

2. Double basin arrangement

5.5.8.1. Single Basin Arrangement

The single basin schemes have only one basin interacting with sea. The sea and basin are
separated by a dam or dyke and the flow betw een them is through sluice gates located
conveniently along the dyke as shown in Figure 5.34. The rise and fall of tidal water levels
provide the potential head. Power generation is intermittent and it is mostly during off-peak
load period on daily load curves. The generation of power can be achieved in a single basin
arrangement by either ofthe following system.

a) Single ebb-cycle system

b) Single tide-cycle system and

c) Double tide-cycle system

Sluice gate

Figure 5.34 Single basin arrangement

Single ebb-cycle system is the one same as 'ebb generation' as discussed in the earlier
topic. Similarly, the single tide-cycle system is similar to the 'flood generation' as discussed ,
in the earlier topic. Double tide-cycle system is the two-way generation system. Figure 5.34
[s.ss ] Renewable Energy System

shows a cross section of the general arrangement of single basin tidal power plant (two-way
generation). Such plants generally use reversible water turbines to generate on low tide as well
as high tide. The turbine-generator units are mounted within the ducts inside the dam or dyke.
. .

When there is incoming tide and sea level and tidal-basin are equal, the turbine conduit is
closed. When the sea level reaches sufficient to run turbine, the turbine valves are opened and
the sea water is flowing into the basin through the turbine runner and thus, it generates power.
The turbine continues to generate power until the tide passes through its high point and it begins
to drop. Then, the water head diminishes quickly till it is not enough to supply no-load losses.
To gain maximum water level into the basin, a by-pass valve quickly opens and the water
comes into the basin. When sea and basin water level are again equal, the valves are closed as
well as the turbine conduit. The basin level stays constant while the tide continues to go out.
The turbine valves are again opened after getting sufficient water head. The water now flows
from basin to the sea thereby gene rating power.

The actual power generated by tides will be less than the theoretical power due to friction
losses, conversion efficiencies of turbine and conversion efficiency of electrical generators.
Generally, 25 to 30% power will be lost by losses.

5.5.8.2. Double Basin Arrangement

A single basin plant cannot generate power continuously though it might do so by using a
pumped storage plant if the load supply fluctuates considerably. There are two basins but it
operates similar to an ebb generation single-basin system. The only difference is a proportion
ofthe electricity is used to pump water into the second basin allowing storage. A double basin
scheme can provide power continuously or on demand which is a great advantage. In the
simplest double-basin scheme, there must be a dam between each basin and sea and also a dam
between basins containing the power house. With two basins, one is filled at high tide and the
other one is emptied at low tide. Turbines are placed between basins.

Working:

Figure 5.35 shows a general arrangement of double basin tidal power plant. In this type,
two basins are located apart and their water is never exchanged. The turbine is set up between
'two basins. One basin is intermittently filled by the flood tide and other basin is intermittently
drained by the ebb tide. Water flowing from high basin to low basin is through turbines. This
flow is controlled. Continuous power is obtained from the plant without waiting for tidal
sequence.
Other Types of Energy 5.69

gate

Upper basin
e
Power house

Sea

Figure 5.35 Double basin type tidal power plant

'

5.5.9. Tidal Stream Generators (Non-Barrage Tidal Power Systems)

They make use of kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines in a similar way to
windmills which use the moving air. This method is much popular because of low cost and less
ecological impact compared to barrages. Tidal stream generators operate during flood and ebb
tides. The schematic of a tidal generator is shown in Figure 5.36.
It consists of duct, turbine, hub or rotor, hydraulic pump, hydraulic motor, gear box and
generator. Three parts· such as a rotor, gearbox and a generator are mounted onto a support
structure.

The power taken by turbine is given by

P=(C,AV')/2
[ 5.70 Renewable Energy System

Gear box

Figure 5.36 Schematic of a tidal generator

t
There are three main types of support structures used for tidal stream genetators:

(a) Gravity structures:

They are massive steel or concrete structures attached to the base of the units to achieve
the stability by their own inertia.

(b) Piled structures:

They are pinned to the seabed by one or more steel or concrete piles. The piles are fixed
to the seabed by hammering if the ground conditions are sufficiently soft or by pre-drilling,
positioning and grouting ifthe rock is harder.

(c) Floating structures:

They provide a potentially more convincing sotution for deep water locations. Tidal
stream generators draw more energy from current similar to wind turbines. The density ofwater
is higher which is 800 times than air. It means, a single generator can provide significant power
at low tidal flow velocities. The power varies with the density of medium and the cube of
velocity. Jt looks simple in appearance. The speed ofwater is nearly one-tenth of speed ofwind
which generates the same power for the same size of turbine system. Since, tidal stream
Other Types of Energy [sn]
generators are an immature technology but a large variety of designs is being experimented.
Figure 5.3 7 illustrates all three types ofsupport structures.

Gravity
structure

Gravity structure Floating structure

Piled structure

Figure 5.37 Types oftidal stream generator support structures

5.5.10. Solved Anna University Problem on Tidal Energy

AU Problem 5.1

Calculate the averagepower availablefor one tidal period if the surface area is 1,50,000
mi and the range oftide is 10.25m. [Anna Univ. (Mech.) May'09]

@ Solution:

. wQH pgAH
Power available, P ==
1000 1000

= lOOOx 9.8lx l 50000x 10.25 = lS.OSJMW Ans.

1000

5.5.11. Types of Tidal Stream Generators

Since tidal stream generators are an immature technology, no standard technology has yet
emerged as the clear winner. However, a large variety ofdesigns are being experimented with
some very close to large scale deployment.
[ 5.72 Renewable Energy System

They are major three types of tidal stream generators as follows:

(a) Axial turbines
(b) Vertical and horizontal axis cross flow turbines
(c) Helical turbine.
Axial turbines are close in concept to tr aditional windmills operating under the sea.
Vertical and horizontal axis cross flow turbines can be deployed either vertically or
horizontally. Generally, horizontal flow turbines are selected. Vertical axis cross-flow turbines
are used with high ebb generation.

5.5.11.1. Horizontal-Axis Tidal Turbine (HATT)

Horizontal-Axis Tidal Turbines (HATTs) are the most mature and promising technology
in several companies. Horizontal-axis turbine is also known as axial-flow turbine. A HATT
basically works on the same principle as a horizontal-axis wind turbine. This type has rotor
axis parallel to the tidal currents and employ propeller type· rotor.

Rotor
Transmission

/
r {Speed increaser, drive shaft,
clutch. coupling etc.,)

Tide
··- ---.

Tidal turbine Electrical

generator

Supporting
structure

Concrete block

Figure 5.38 Horizontal axis tidal turbine

Other Types of Energy 5.73

It harnesses lift force to rotate the rotor. Mainly, Pelton turbine is used as HATTs. HA TT
rotor blades convert the tidal current kinetic energy into the shaft mechanical energy and a
generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity. Irrespe ctive of configuration used,
the rotor blade is the important component to extract energy from tides. It mainly elaborates
the performance, loads and dynamics ofthe whole turbine system. Therefore, an efficient blade
design is critical to the success of the HA TT.

5.5.11.2. Vertical-Axis Tidal Turbine (VATT)

Vertical-Axis Tidal Turbine (VA TT) has rotor axis normal to the tidal currents. Darrieus
turbines are most known in vertical type which is shown in Figure 5.39. It has streamlined
blades turning around an axis perpendicular to the flow. The turbine consists of number of
curved airfoil blades mounted on a vertical rotating shaft or framework. Its blade shape is
helical structure. The curvature of the blade allows the blade to be stressed only in tension at
high rotating speeds. This type uses lift force to rotate the rotor. It has many advantages over
HA TT. In particular, this turbine is suitable for stand-alone power systems on isolated islands
and in mountainous regions where the power supply using utility grids is very difficult.

Tide
Tide

\ / Aerofoil blades

Tide
Vertical -
shaft

Figure 5.39 Vertical axis tidal turbine

5.5.11.3. Helical Turbine

Tidai energy can be captured efficiently and inexpensively using the helical turbine.
Figure 5.40 dv,cribes the construction of helicalturbine which is self-explanatory.
[ 5.74 Renewable Energy System

Generator
Blade
support link

Figure 5.40 Helical turbine

The features of the helical turbine are as follows:

() It is designed for hydroelectric applications in free-flowing water.
(ii) lt operates in ocean, tidal and river currents.
(iii) It does not require expensive dams that can harm the environment.
(iv) It is self-starting with flow as low as 0.6 mls.
(v) It runs smoothly.

(vi) It rotates in the same direction regardless ofthe direction of flow thereby making
it ideal for tidal applications.

5.5.12. Dynamic Tidal Power Generation

Dynamic Tidal Power (DTP) is a new and untested method of tidal power generation. It
would involve in creating a large dam-like structure extending from the coast straight to the
ocean with a perpendicular barrier at the far end forming a large 'T shape called tidal lagoons.

They are similar to barrages· but they are constructed as self-contained structures not fully
across an estuary. They are claimed to incur much low cost and impact overall. Furthermore,
they can be configured to generate continuously which is not the case with barrages.
Other Types of Energy [s.rs}

h
<l.)
3:
0
a.

Figure 5.41 Dynamic tidal power generation

A DTP dam is a long dam of 30 km to 60 km which is built perpendicular to the coast

running straight out into the ocean without enclosing an area. By this, tidal phase
differences are introduced across the dam. There is an interaction between potential and kinetic
energies in tidal flows. A single dam can accommodate over 8 GW (8000 MW) of installed
capacity.

5.5.13. Impact of Tidal Energy on the Environment

(i) Changing the tidal flows by damming a bay or estuary could result the negative impact
on aquatic and shoreline ecosystems as well as navigation and recreation.
' .
(ii) Construction of a barrage across a tidal river affects the conditions on both sides of
the structure.
(iii) Water movement patterns are affected due to sediment movement which alters the
landward and seaward sides ofthe barrage.
(iv) The movement ofmarine animals is also affected which leads to a drastic effect on
both marine and avian life. For example, fish migration will be significant. It might
go inside the turbine and cause the sea water obstruction in and from turbine during
power generation.

5.5.14. Site Selection for Tidal Power Plants

The area considered for tidal power plants should have a large tidal range and geographic
features to permit an enclosure oflarge areas with reasonable short dams. Sluice gates should
allow the waterto flow in or from the enclosed basin.
[ 5.76 Renewable Energy System

The site requirements are as follows:

(i) Short length of dam is to create a basin of reasonable storage. It is possible at a
narrow inlet to an estuary of bay.
(ii) It should be near the local location or near the ocean.
(iii) It should be protected from high waves.
(iv) It should not hamper shipping traffic.
(v) The tidal range of ocean is large.
(vi) The geographical features of the· plant must enclose the large areas with short
dams.
(vii) The sluice gate of dam should allow water to or from basins.

5.5.15. Advantages of Tidal Power Plants

I. Tidal power is a renewable and sustainable energy resource.
2. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
3. Large area of valuable land is not required.
4. It does not produce any unhealthy waste such as gases and ash.
5. It has unique capacity to meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in
combination with thermal or hydroelectric system.
6. It is much superior to hydropower plants as it is totally independent of rain· which
always fluctuates year to year.
7. It is free from problems of uprooting the people and disturbing the ecology balance.
8. Tidal currents are both predictable and reliable feature which gives them an
advantage over both wind and solar systems. Power output can be accurately
calculated in advance by allowing for easy integration with existing electricity grids.
9. Tidally driven coastal currents provide an energy density four times greater than air,
meaning that a 15 m diameter turbine will generate as much energy as a 60 m diameter
windmill.
10. It reduces country's dependence upon fossil fuels.

5.5.16. Disadvantages or Limitations of Tidal Power Plants

1. Due to variation in tidal range, the output is not uniform.
2. There is a fear of tidal plant components and machinery being corroded due to
corrosive sea water.
Other Types of Energy 5.77

3. It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.

4. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal power plant is costly.
5. The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are located away
from load centers.
6. The efficiency is affected due to variation in tidal energy.
7. Sedimentation and siltation of basins are serious problems.

5.6. WAVE ENERGY

a ve energy is energy of interchanging potential and kinetic energy in the wave. Among
other types ofrenewable energy, oceans contain energy in the form ofwaves and tidal currents.
Ocean wave energy is an important renewable energy. At the same time, it is regular, periodic
and consistent. Ocean wave energy can be either converted into mechanical energy or electrical
energy through wave energy conversion plants. Ocean wave energy is needed to be developed
in coastal areas. Usually, power extracted from ocean energy is in the range of IO kWIm to
70 kW/m with respect to amplitude and wave length.

Ocean waves are created by the interaction of winds with the surface of sea water. Sea
water contains both kinetic energy and potential energy. The energy available in the Ocean
depends on the wind speed, duration of the wind and distance from which interacts with sea
surface water.
t
Differential warming of the earth causes pressure difference in the atmosphere which
generates winds. As winds move across the surface of open bodies ofwater, they transfer some·
of their energy to water and create waves.

The amount of energy transferred and the size of wave depe nd on wind speed, length of
time for which the wind blows and distance over which the wind blows or fetch. So, the coastal
region which has exposure to the prevailing wind direction and face long expanses of Open
Ocean has the greatest wave energy levels.

To extract the stored energy in waves, wave energy conversion devices are used in which
two or more bodies move relative to each other while at least one body interacts with waves.

5.6.1. Wave Energy Potential

There are no major development programme carried out till now due to limited availability
and uncertainty of power generation capability. The world's first commercial wave energy
plant having 0.5 MW is located in Isle of Islay and Scotland. Some small prototype devices
{ 5.78 Renewable Energy System

have been tested. The resource is more concentrated in deep sea where it is difficult to harness
and 'deliver. The estimated potential is 2000 GW. It has been estimated that the total available
US wave energy resource is 23 GW which is more than twice as much as Japan and nearly five
times as much as Great Britain. It has been estimated that improving technology and economies
of scale will allow wave generators to produce electricity at a cost comparable to wind-driven
turbines which produce energy at about Rs. 3.5 per kWh.

5.6.2. Estimation of Wave Energy

The total energy obtained from waves is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy.

1. Potential energy:
The potential energy available in waves is due to the head of sea water above the mean sea
level.

Potential energy, P.E = 'cg

4

where p = Density ofthe sea water (kg/m')

a= Amplitude of wave (m)

2.= Wave length (m)

W= Width ofthe wave (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (mls)

2. Kinetic energy:

The energy associated with the movement sea water is called kinetic energy. For hannonic
motion of waves, average kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy. Therefore,

Kinetic energy, K.E = -'cog

4

Total energy, E=P.E + K.E

_Energy
Power,
Time
Other Types of Energy 5.79

Wave energy is proportional to wave length times wave height squared (LxH2)per wave
length per unit of crest length. A four-foot (1.2m), ten-secono wave striking a coast expends
more than 35,000HP per mile of coast.

5.6.3. Concepts of Wave Energy Conversion

The change of water level by tide or wave can move or raise a float in producing linear
motion from sinusoidal motion. Water current runs a turbine to produce rotational mechanical
energy to drive a pump or generator. Slow rotation speed of approximately one revolution per
second to one revolution per minute is less to harm marine life. A turbine reduces energy
downstream and could protect shoreline.

5.6.4. Wave Power Devices or Wave Energy Conversion Devices

The technologies developed to generate energy from waves and currents called
hydrokinetic energy conversion devices are generally categorized as either Wave Energy
Converters (WECs). WECs utilize the motion oftwo or more bodies relative to each other. One of
these bodies called the displacer is acted on by waves. The second body and the reactor moves in
response to the displacer. The available energy in waves can be converted into either mechanical
or electrical energy by the various devices. There are three fundamental but very different wave
energy devices used in converting wave power into electric power and they are given below, .

(a) Wave profile devices:

These are wave energy devices which turn the oscillating height ofthe ocean's surface into
mechanical energy.

(b) Oscillating water columns:

These are wave energy devices which convert the energy of the waves into air pressure.

(e) ave capture devices:

These are wave energy devices which convert the energy of the waves into potential
energy.

(d) Rotating wave devices:

Rotating wave devices capture the kinetic energy of a flow of water such as a tidal stream,
ocean current or rivet as it passes across a rotor.

5.6.4.1. Wave Profile Devices

Actually, waves move horizontally but water moves vertically. Mechanical power is
obtained by floats making use of the motion of water up and down. Wave profile devices are a
[ 5.80 Renewable Energy System

device which floats on or near to the sea surface and it moves in response to the shape ofthe
incident wave.

Most types ofwave profile devices float on the surface absorbing the wave energy in all
directions by following the movements ofwaves at or near the sea surface which is similar to
a float. Ifthe physical size ofthe wave profile device is very small compared to the periodic
length ofthe wave, this type ofwave energy device is called a "point absorber". If the size of
the device is larger or longer than the typical periodic wavelength, it is called a "linear
absorber" but more commonly they are collectively known as "wave attenuators".

The main difference between the two wave energy devices is how the oscillating system
converts the wave energy between the absorber and a reaction point. This energy absorption
can be achieved either by a floating body. It oscillates a solid member or oscillating water
within a buoys structure itself.

(i) Point absorber:

Waves
(surge)
~
-

Submerge
. heavy balla
- plate and
mooring lin
-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_ ..!; -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_:-_-_-

~ .....__ - _-__-_-.-__-__-------
- - - -- - -- -- -~-----------
- --_-_-_-_-_-_
-__ -_ - _-_ ~

Figure 5.42 Point absorber

The pitching and heaving ofthe waves causes a relative motion between an absorber and
reaction point. The point absorbers use a heavy ballast plate suspended below the floating
buoy. The buoy is prevented from floating away by a mooring line attached to a sea-floor
anchor. This mooring line allows the point absorber to operate offshore iri deeper waters. As
the buoy bobs up-and-down in the waves, a oscillatory mutual force reaction is generated
between freely moving absorber and heavy plate causing a hydraulic pump in between to rotate
a generator producing electricity. The middle wave energy device operates in a similar manner
Other Types of Energy 5.81

to the previous floating buoy device. The difference this time is that the freely heaving buoy
reacts against a fixed reaction point such as a fixed dead-weight on the ocean floor. As this
type of point absorber is bottom mounted, it is operated in shallower near shore locations.

(ii) Linear absorber (Wave attenuator):

The linear absorber (wave attenuator) floats on the surface of the water. It is also known
as heave-surge devices. It is tied to the ocean floor so that it can swing perpendicularly towards
the incoming waves. As the waves pass along the length of this snake such as wave energy
device, they cause the long cylindrical body to sag downwards into the troughs of the waves
and arch upwards when the waves crest is passing. Connecting joints along the body of the
device flex in the waves exerting a great deal of force which is used to power a hydraulic ram
at each joint. The hydraulic ramdrives oil through a hydra ulic motor which drives a generator
to produce electricity.

Hydraulic ram joints

______ J--~-----------------
- - ·- - -- -

-------~--~-----------------
- L. -- _ ,_ ·- - ·- - - --- --·- - -- - - -- ·-- -

- - - - - - -, - - -r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

--.
- - - ..- -· -- - -~:.. . -- -!- -- -- --- _- ~ - -· -- - - -- ---- - - __- .... ·-
- ----------~~ ----J,-
--- ---.-----,--- ------------------------
-------~--------------------

- - - - - - -
------
- -
t
- -
e
- -
2±
-------~-~--------------
-
e
- -
-~-¾-----
-
•
- _ , .. -L.
---s»
•• - ••--••••• ••- •••---- ,_,:, ..-_,: . ~~A,,-,_--__,,-__-_-,,,-- ...-.,.-,.,,-_,,:-~_,-_,.-:-_.,-_,_-,_,,- -

- - ~ ~~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - -
l
- -
e
- -
e
- - - -
• •
-
•
- -

Ocean floor

Figure 5.43 Linear absorber

(iii) Dolphin-type wave-power machine:

The wave generator has four components such as dolphin, float, connecting rod and two
electrical generators. The float is connected with dolphin by a connecting rod shown in Figure
5.44. The float has two motions. One motion is for rolling motion and revolving movements
which means float can roll about its fulcrum with the connecting rod. The other motion is for
vertical oscillatory motion about the connecting rod fulcrum. These movements offloat during
wave movements are magnified and converted into rotary motion by gears. The two electrical
generators are driven by rotary motion of gears.
[ 5.82 Renewable Energy System

Ocean wave energy

absorbing generator

Connecting
rod

Figure 5.44 Dolphin-type ave-power machine

(iv) Nodding duck:

It is also called Salter's duck. It is a large cam-shaped "ducks" mounted on a long-floating

frame. Ducks oscillate and nod moves relative to the frame which drives hydraulic pumps.
Salter "ducks" rock up and down as the wave passes beneath it. This oscillating mechanical
energy is converted to electrical energy.

Figure 5.45 Nodding duck

5.6.4.2. Oscillating Water Column

An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) has a partially.submerged structure which opens to

the ocean below the water surface. This structure is called wave collector.
Other Types of Energy 5.83

Chamber wall Turbine generator

Waves
.
;sea
- --- ------ ---- ----
------------------ .
------------------
::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: - -
'

. . . . · . · . · . · . · . · . Coastline · . ·. · . · . ·
. . . . . . . . a t a a a

Ocean floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 5.46 Oscillating water column

This design creates a water column in the central chamber of the collector with a volume
of air trapped above it. As a wave enters the collector, the surface of the water column rises
and compresses the volume of air above it. The compressed air is forced into an aperture at the
top of the chamber thereby moving past a turbine. As the wave retreats, the air is drawn back
through the turbine due to the reduced pressure in the chamber.

The type of wind turbine generator used in an oscillating water column design is the key
element to its conversion efficiency. The air inside the chamber is constantly reversing
direction with every up-and-down movement ofthe sea water producing a sucking and blowing
effect through the turbine. Therefore, a special type of turbine called Wells turbine is used.

The Wells turbine has the remarkable property of rotating in the same direction regardless
of the direction of air flow in the column. The kinetic energy is extracted from the reversing
air flow by the Wells turbine and is used to drive an electrical induction generator. The spe ed
ofthe air flow through the wells turbine can be enhanced by making the cross-sectional area of
the wave turbines duct much less than that ofthe sea column.

5.6.4.3. Wave Power Capture Device

A Wave Capture Device also known as a Overtopping ave Power Device is a shoreline
to near shore wave energy device that captures the movements of the tides and waves and
converts it into potential energy. Wave energy is converted into potential energy by lifting the
water up onto a higher level. The overtopping wave energy converter works in much the same
way as hydroelectric dam works. Sea water is captured and stored at a height above sea level
 [ 5.84 Renewable Energy System

creating a low head situation which is then drained out through a reaction turbine, usually a
Kaplan Turbine.

Some of the wave capture devices are explained here.

(i) a ve overtopping device:

The wave overtopping device uses a ramp design on the device to elevate part of the
incoming waves above their natural height. As the waves hit the structure, they flow up a ramp
and over the top (hence the name "overtopping") into a raised water impoundment reservoir on
the device in order to fill it. The reservoir creates a head of water i.e. a water level higher than
that of the surrounding ocean surface which generates the pressure necessary to turn a hydro
turbine (low-head Kaplan turbine) as the water flows out the bottom ofthe wave capture device,
back into the sea.

Water Water
impoundment impoundment
Reservoir

Sea surface

- Turbogenerator -
_:_-_ _ _. _ _-_Sea water_-_-_-_-_-_-

Figure 5.47 a ve overtopping device

(ii) High-level reservoir wave machine:

The special feature of this method is the use of magnification piston or composite piston
to produce energy by using waves. This wave machine works based on the principle of
reciprocating pumps. Two inlet valves are provided one at the top· of the cylinder and the other
one at the bottom of the cylinder in order to obtain double action. So, sea water can enter on
both sides· ofthe cylinder but not at the same time. The valve provided at the top will open and
allow water inside the cylinder during trough period (lowest peak) of waves and the bottom
valve will open during crest period of waves thereby compressing the water at the front side.
When water is entered the cylinder though top inlet check valve, the water in the rear side will
be compressed. The outlet ofthe cylinder is connected with natural or artificial reservoir which
Other Types of Energy 5.85

is above wave generator. The wave generator is located near shore line. Then the water in the
reservoir is allowed to flow through a turbine which is coupled to a generator. The water leaving
the turbine comes back to sea level.

Ocean wave

Reservoir

Composite piston

Figure 5.48 High-level reservoir wave machine

.... ----- .....

\
Figure 5.49 Savonius rotor

5.6.4.4. Rotating Wave Devices

Savonius rotor is the mostly used rotating wave device. Savonius rotor (generally used
as a windmill) is used here to extract energy from waves of ocean. The rotor is permanently
[ 5.86 Renewable Energy System

fixed with its horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Water is
allowed to pass through the rotor both forward and back at various time and depth.

5.6.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy

Advantages:
a

l. The wave energy naturally concentrated by accumulation at all times, space and
transported than wind and solar energies.
2. Wave conditions are predictable and hence the energy too.
3. Wave from transportation across a plane perpendicular to the wave propagation
direction at a good site is from 10 to 100 times large. ·
4. Wave power devices are not required to use large land masses such as wind or solar.
5. Wave energy conversion devices are pollution free due to releasing of sea water back
to sea itself after extracting energy from waves.

Disadvantages:

1. The main disadvantages are difficult maintenance, construction cost, life time and
reliability due to wave energy available on the ocean. Also, it needs a greater distance
to shore for transporting energy.
2. Wave energy conversion devices must withstand severe peak stresses during storms.
3. Irregularity of wave pattern in amplitude, phase and direction makes it difficult to
extract power efficiently.
4. Harnessing the power of it is difficult.
5. Due to the need of large waves for energy production, they are scarcity of accessible
sites.
6. Wave energy conversion devices are complicated when it is in use.
7. Economic factors such as capital investment, maintenance cost, repair and replacement
costs are unknown and seem to be large.

5.7. HYDROPOWER

Hydropower or water power is one of the most established renewable sources for
electricity generation fromstored water at a given height. Kinetic energy in falling water from
a height is converted into mechanical energy by a turbine and then electrical energy by a
Other Types of Energy 5.87

generator to meet the energy needs for a variety of tasks. Thus, the power is known as
hydroelectric power.

The purposes of developing hydro projects are mentioned below:

(i). To meet the power need during peak and off-peak requirements.
(ii) To run ofthe river.
(iii) To obtain a clean process of power generation.
(iv) To avoid suffering from the limitation of inflation on account of fuel consumption
in the long run.

The idea of utilising hydraulic energy to develop mechanical energy has prevailed for
more than 2000 years. In water turbine, blades are attached to the shaft and when flowing water
passes against the blades of a turbine, the shaft rotates. The coupling of a generator with a
turbine shaft finally produces electrical energy.

The amount of electrical energy generated from a water source depends on two aspects,
namely (i) the water to fall from a height and (ii) the quantity of water flowing. Height or head
of water fall may be natural due to the topographical situation or may be created artificially by
means of dams. Once developed, it remains fairly constant. Water flow on the other hand is a
direct result of the intensity, distribution and duration of rainfall. Hence, one of the essential
components of the hydraulic power generation is the availability of a continuous source of
water with a large amount of hydraulic energy.

The present installed capacity as on September 30, 2013 was around 39,788.40 MWwhich
means 17.39% oftotal electricity generation in India. The public sector has a predominant share
of 97% in this sector. National Hydroelectric Power Corpora tion (NHPC), Northeast Electric
Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVNL), THDC and NTPC-Hydro are
few public sector companies developing hydro projects in India.

In north India, Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) has an installed capacity of2.9
Gand it generates 12,000-1 4,000 million units per year. BBMB is a major source of peaking
power and black start to the northern grid in India.

End of March 2015 India is planning to install capacity of267.637 GW. India became the
world's third largest producer of electricity in the year 2013 by surpassing Japan and Russia.
India generates 27.25% of total installed capacity power from renewable power plants and
» #

72. 75% from non-renewable power plants. 84,000 A-flV hydroelectric power at 60% load factor
and 6,780MW in terms of installed capacity from small, mini and Micro Hyde! schemes have
been evaluated. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with the total installed capacity of
{ 5.88 Renewable Energy System

94,000MW have been identified. Hydroelectric energy is mainly used in the form ofrenewable
energy. India stands in 5" place for hydro-electric potential in the world on global scenario.

5.7.1. Advantages of Hydropower

(i) The electricity can be produced at constant rate from hydro power.
(ii) Ifthe electricity does not require, the sluice gates can be shut and stopped electricity
generation.
(iii) Dams are designed to last many decades and so they can contribute to the generation
ofelectricity for many years.
(iv) The lake forms behind the dam using water sports and leisure/pleasure activities.
(v) The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
(vi) The energy from stored water in the lake can be stored and it can be released to
produce electricity.
(vii) Electricity produced by dam systems does not produce greenhouse gases. They do
not pollute the atmosphere.

5.7.2. Disadvantages of Hydropower

(i) Constructing the standard dams is highly expensive.
(ii) It has the restriction to operate the dam for many decades to become profitable due
to high cost involved in building dams.
(iii) The flooding area needs to be large· to meet the destruction caused by natural
calamity.
(iv) People living in villages and towns near dams should be moved during flood period.
So, the power generation will be affected.
(v) The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage.
(vi) Although modern planning and design of dams is good, it may lead to deaths and
flooding.
(vii) Dams built blocking the progress of a river may lead to water scarcity in river for
the normal use.
(viii)Building a large dam alters the natural water table level.

5.7.3. Minihydel Power Plants

Depending on the capacity ofthe unit, the hydropower plant may be divided into two types
such as higher capacity and lower capacity. In early days, higher capacity plants were
Other Types of Energy 5.89

developed for producing more power for less cost. But after 1973, small sized hydel plants
were given more importance because of increase in oil cost. These plants are also offers many
advantages such as environmental friendly operation, operationally flexible, suitable as peak
plant as well as standalone planti
n isolated remote areas.

Hydropower projects of ratings less than 10 MW are regarded as small hydropower

systems. These systems can be designed and built by local staff and smaller organisations using
smaller components / equipments made locally. It has standard designs for plant components
and often not connected to grid and usually meant for local use.

The installed capacity of small hydro in the globe is around 50,000 MW against the
estimated potential of 1,80,000MW. India has several rivulets, streams and rivers. It has the
world's largest irrigation canal networks with thousands of. dams. In India, the estimated
potential of small hydro is around 15,000 MW.

The small hydro power stations can help for building the availability of decentralized
power. Low head installations can be built everywhere in the mountain region, plains or even
at the sea level. With the help of hydro power, pumped irrigation and rural water supply can be
accomplished. Rural electrification at house hold level can be done. Saw mills and grinding
mills can be run with small hydro-electricity. Reciprocating compressors or screw type
compressors can be operated for cold storage or heat pump system.

Advantages of Small Hydro:

Small hydro power is a reliable, mature and proven technology. It is non-polluting and
does not involve setting up of large· dams or problems of deforestation, submergence and
rehabilitation. India has an estimated potential of 10,000 MW.

5.7.4. Classification of Minihydel Power Plants

According to the Central Electricity Authority and Bureau of Indian Standards, the hydro
power systems are classified depending on the capacity and available head. The classifications·
are as follows:

1. Depending on the capacity:

Depending upon the capacity of power generation these plants are classified as follows:

(i) Micro hydel plant > Producing less than I 00 kW power

(ii) Mini hydel plant > Producing 100 kWto 1 MW power

(iii) Small hydel plant > Producing l MW to IO MW power.

[s.so Renewable Energy System

Mini hydro plants are used in isolated remote areas where the grid does not ex.ist.
Typically, it provides power to just one rural industry or one rural community. Mini and small
hydro plants sometimes make small contribution to national grid supplies.

2. Depending on the head:

On the basis of heads. available, the small hydro power systems are classified into the
following types.

(i) Ultra low head plant > Below 3 m

(ii) Low head plant > Less than 30 m

(iii) Medium head > Between 30 to 75 m
(iv) High head > Above 75m.

3. Depending on the usage:

On the basis of usage of power, the small hydro power systems are classified into
(i) Independent scheme
(ii) Subordinate scheme.

In an independent scheme, a stream flow is captured, regulated and developed for power
generation only, The low head schemes are not observed to be economical for independent
generation. High head or medium head schemes are considered.

In subordinate scheme s, the primary objective is irrigation or drinking water and

seconJary objective is power generation. These schemes are appropriate for those regions
where there is extensive network of irrigation canals and water can be stored in the form of
reservoir.

4. Depending on the construction:

The small / mini / micro plants are furtherclassified as follows:
(i) Storage plants and
(ii) Run-of-the-river plants.

A storage plant makes use of a dam to stop river flow for building up a reservoir of water
behind the dam. The· water is then released through turbines when power is needed. The
advantage ofthis type is that rainfall can accumulate during the wet season of the year and then
release power during some or all of the drier periods of the year. A run-of-the-river plant does
not stop the river flow but instead diverts a part of the flow into a channel and pipe and then
through a turbine.
 Other Types of Energy 5.91

5.7.4.1. Essential Components of Minihydel power plants

A typical arrangement of a mini-hydel power station is shown in Figure 5.50. The basic
components are as follows:
1. Diversion and intake
2. Desilting chamber or tank
3. Water conductor system
4. Forebay/balancing reservoir
5. Surge tank
6. Penstock
7. Power house comprising of turbine, generator, protection and control system,
dewatering system, drainage system, auxiliary power system, grounding, emergency
and standby power system, lighting and ventilation.
8. Tail race channel.

I. Diversion system:
In a hydro-electric power generation system, dam, barrages, solid boulder structure and
trench type weir are used to divert the required flow from the river bed or streams to the intake
structure. But for small hydro-electric power generating system, solid boulder structure and
trench type weir are considered. Boulder type is preferred when boulders are available in the
river and the rock is encountered in the river bed with in one meter depth whereas trench type
is used where the rock is not available in the river bed.

The diversion weir should divert all lean season flows and the structure should be safe
during monsoon flood. Diversion structures in hill streams often face chocking of intake.
Boulder weir is comparatively cheaper than other diversion system.

2. Desilting chamber or tank:

It is required to exclude the coarse particles to achieve power without abrasion effects on
the turbine and other parts. It is needed where the water contains large quantities of course silt
which causes erosion damage to the turbine runner, etc. As the head increases, the abrasion
effect will also increase. The recommended horizontal flow velocity is kept within 0.4 to
0.6 m's to minimize the erosion damages to the turbine runner.
3. Water conductor system:

Water conductor system should be designed to have minimum loss of head and loss of
water due to seepage. The canal may be lined with tiles. The type of water conductor system
[ 5.92 Renewable Energy System

depends on the site conditions and materials availability. Commonly trapezoidal section is used
for the channel section ofthe water conductor system.

4. Forebay I Balancing reservoir:

When forebay is used as a balancing reservoir about 4 to 6 hours, the storage facility is to
be provided but when the forebay is used as a transit point and storage ofabout 2 minutes may
be adequate. It is generally constructed with reinforced concrete of stone masonry. Forebay
helps to provide a minimum head over the penstock.

Diversion weir
Canal in tank Aqueduct

Figure 5.50 Typical arrangement ofminihydel power plant

5. Surge tank:
Surge tank will be necessary for the water conductor conduit length ofmore than 5 times
the head on the machine.

6. Penstock:
Penstock is used to feed the water to the machine through it. In its hydraulic design
consideration, diameter ofthe penstock is determined by considering its economic aspect also.
During structural design ofpenstock, its thickness is assessed. The materials for penstock pipes
may be mild steel and PVC depending on the design pressure. A bell mouth entry is preferred
to ensure in the reduction of head losses and a smooth entry of water from forebay tank into
the penstock.
Other Types of Energy 5.93

7. Spillway:
The presence of a spillway is important as it does not allow the water level to rise and
flood the area during the load rejection of the plant. Its crest is kept at the permissible water
level. The channel or pipe can be used for the spillway.

8. Power house:
In power house, turbine, generator, control panels, auxiliary equipments, etc., are kept.
Therefore, its building should accommodate them and it is usually constructed by RCC or stone
masonry. The height ofthe power house is generally kept about 3 to 5 m.

9. Tail race:
Tail race is a water channel or cut and cover conduit. The water passes from the turbine
outlet i.e., draft tube to the river through tail race. In the tail race, generally, the allowed
maximum water velocity is considered to be 1 mis. The shape of the channel is usually
trapezoidal or rectangular. It is constructed by stone masonry or brick masonry depending on
the availability of the material locally with minimum cost.

5.7.4.2. Turbines for Minihydel Power Plants

In small and mini hydro power systems, the following types ofturbines are usually used.

(a) Bulb turbine:

Conical
draft tube

Generator Turbine

Figure 5.51 Bulb turbine

[ 5.94 Renewable Energy System

In this type, the electric generator coupled to the Kaplan turbine is enclosed and works
a
inside a straight passage having the shape of bulb. The water tight bulb is submerged directly
into a stream of water and bends at inlet to casting, draft tube, etc. which are responsible for
the loss of head dispensed. The unit then needs less installation space with a consequent
reduction in excavation and other civil engineering works. These turbines are referred to as
tubular or bulb turbines. The tubular turbine is a modified axial flow turbine. The economical
harnessing of fairly low heads on major rivers is possible with high-output bulb turbines.

(b) Tube turbine:

Tube turbine with inclined axis is shown in Figure 5.52. The turbine is housed in a slightly
curved tube-shaped flow-path. The turbine shaft is inclined and extends up to the generator
room through guide-bearing. The generator is mounted away from the water passage tube either
in up-stream location
.
or in downstream location. The downstream generator location is
. .
preferred for very large, low speed and low head units. This type ofturbine is a variant of bulb
turbine. In this, only the turbine is housed inside the conduit and the generator is mounted
outside in a pit by bringing the turbine shaft out of the turbine casing. It is also known as "pit
type" turbine. It has the advantage of easy accessibility of the generator. It is the modification
of the Kaplan type which has been developed for water-heads below 15 m.

Guide vane

Water
flo

Wicket Runner
gate blade

Figure 5.52 Tube turbine

/ .
(c) Straflo turbine:
Straflo is the abbreviation of straight flow which is a similar system design as Kaplan
turbines and it operates with external rim generators i.e., the rotor sits on a ring attached to the
runner blades ofthe turbine. In this type of turbine, the steel bulb behind the runner is the only
bearing of the turbine. Because of their design, a flat efficiency curve at an overall high level
can be realized for straflo-turbines. Another advantage in this type is a large range of output
and head that can be utilized. The disadvantage ofthis design is that it is costly sealing between
runner and generator. Such a design requires smaller size ofthe power house.
Other Types of Energy 5.95

Trash Rack

Draft Tube

Figure 5.53 Straflo Turbine

5.7.5. Power Obtained from a Minihydel Power Plant

The energy associated with water manifests in three ways: potential energy, pressure
energy and kinetic energy. The energy in hydroelectric system starts with potential energy by
virtue of its height above some reference level. In this case, the height above the power house
produces potential energy. Water under pressure in the penstock is able to do work when
released. So, there is energy associated with pressure also. Finally, as water flows, there is the
kinetic energy that associated with any mass which is moving.

It is convenient to express each of these three forms of energy on per unit of weight basis
in which case energy is referred as head in metres. Total energy is the sum of the potential,
pressure and kinetic energy and is given by

Energy head= Z
p
+-+-
v
7 2g

where Z = Elevation above the reference height in m

p = Pressure in Nlm2
y= Specific weight in N/m3
v = Average velocity in mis

To determine the power potential of the water flowing in a river or stream, it is necessary
to determine both the flow rate ofthe water and the head through which the water can be made
to fall. The.flow rate is the quantity ofwater flowing past a point in a given time. Typical flow
 [ 5.96 Renewable Energy System

rate units are litres per second or cubic metres per second. The head is the vertical height in
metres from the turbine up to the point where the water enters the intake pipe or penstock. The
potential power can be calculated as follows:

Theoretical power (P) = Flow rate (Q) x Head (H) x Gravity (g)

where Q is in cubic metres per second,

H in metres, and
g=9.81 mls then,
P = 9.81 x Q x H (kW)

5.7.6. Suitable Conditions for Minihydel Power Plant

The best geographical areas for exploiting small-scale hydro power are those where there
are steep rivers flowing all year around. For example, the hill areas ofcountries with high year-
round rainfall, or the great mountain ranges and their foothills are Andes and the Himalayas.
Islands with moist marine climates such as Caribbean Islands, Philippines and Indonesia are
also suitable. Low-head turbines have been developed for small-scale exploitation of rivers
where there is a small head but sufficient flow to provide adequate power.

To assess the suitability of a potential site, the hydrology of the site needs to be known
and a site survey carried out to determine actual flow and head data. Hydrological information
can be obtained from the meteorology or irrigation department usually run by the national
government. This data gives a good overall picture of annual rain patterns and likely
fluctuations in precipitation and therefore, flow patterns. The site survey gives more detailed
informations ofthe site conditions to allow power calculation to be done and design work to
begin. Flow data should be gathered over a period ofat least one full year where possible, so
as to ascertain the fluctuation in river flow over the various seasons.

5.7.7. Economics of Minihydel Power Plant

Multiple micro scale hydro generating units can be planned 'over a catchment area
consisting of several potential installation sites to extract the maximum possible energy per
unit investment cost.

The most effective method ofcomputing the economic quality ofinvestment in mini hydro
plant is to consider the payback period in years against the net revenue from the plant taking
place to recover the capital invested. This period is sensitive to inflation rates, interest rates on
Other Types of Energy 5.97

borrowed capital and tariffs applied. Over the trading period of time, the revenue. and
expenditure may be increased to take account of inflation but the actual sums of money may
become difficult to relate with the present value based on the investment capital in later years.
Therefore, Net present value or discount cash flow methods are often employed.

The capital costs are minimized and revenue from energy produced is maximized. The
intake, penstock and discharge pipe work at water treatment works may already occur which
will reduce the capital cost of the scheme. To maximize the revenue from energy cells, the
plants should be operated at maximwn capacity for the longest possible periods oftime for the
highest tariff for energy produced and sold. So, the following types of costs applied to mini
hydro projects are analysed.

(i) Initial cost:

It includes hydrological and environmental assessment, preliminary designs, permits and
approvals (for water, land use and construction), land rights, interconnection studies, Power
Purchase Agreements (PPA), project management and financing fees. Several sites could be
potentially developed. So, the cost analysis and economical risks are assessed to simplified
manner and comparisons done.

(ii) Construction cost:

This type of costs is incurred after the project is taken. Such costs include engineering,
insurance premiums; civil works and equipment.

(iii) Operation and maintenance cost:

These are regular costs occurring on a yearly basis and include transmission line
maintenance, general administration, repairs and contingencies. Operation and maintenance
costs mainly include the maintenance of the civil works and the equipment of the
microhydropower plant.

(iv) Revenue:
Revenues come from specific purchase contracts signed with the electric utilities. Based
on the legislation, electric utilities are usually obliged to buy the electricity generated from
renewable energy resources on a priority basis. The different support schemes can affect the
development of mini-hydel plants. Sometimes, market-based schemes can reveal themselves
too uncertain. Therefore, the selection of this type of plants is unattractive to developers. To
estimate the revenues, the promoter ofan MHPP has to estimate the production and sales during
various periods defined in the tariff legislation. Usually, the tariffs have an hourly and seasonal
[ 5.98 Renewable Energy System

structure to take into account the shape of the load demand curve and the marginal costs of
electricity production during every period.

The costs of geothermal power plant and hydroelectric power plant are for 500 MW.

Geothermal power plant Hydroelectric power plant

Year Capital cost Operating cost Capital cost Operating cost
(Dollar/kW) (Dollar/k-year) (Dollar/k) (Dollar/k-year)

2008 10,400 31 3,600 .

2010 9,900 31 3,500 ' 6

2015 9,720 31 3,500 6
2020 9,625 31 3,500 6
2025 9,438 31 3,500 6
2030 9,250 31 3,500 6
2035 8,970 31 3,500 6
2040 8,786 31 3,500 6
2045 8,600 31 3,500 6
2050 8,420 31 3,500 6

5.7.8. Advantages and Limitations of Minihydel Power Plant

Advantages:

1. It requires the shortest time for developing a unit.

2. Once, it is built the running expenditure almost negligible.
3. It is free from hazards of pollution.

4. It has no environmental problems, no submergence of land and no loss of agricultural

land.

5. The construction of small hydro is simple.

Limitations:
1. Non-availability of indigenous equipment for generating plant and import procedures
are time-consuming.
Other Types of Energy 5.99

2. General lack of awareness of benefits from small development.

3. Remoteness of sites especially in hilly areas and adverse geological conditions in
Himalayan region.

5.8. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

I1. Write short note on 'Hydrogen as afuel'.

Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space vehicles for years.
Hydrogen has high combustion energy per kg relative to other fuels which means hydrogen
is more efficient on a weight basis than fuels currently used in air or ground transportation.
This weight factor makes hydrogen an attractive fuel.

2. Write down the advantages ofusing hydrogen asfuel.

1. Hydrogen combustion produces only water as a by-product. Hydrogen generates energy
without releasing greenhouse gasses or pollutant particles.

2. The only pollution-free source of hydrogen is water which is also the most abundantly
available. A simple process called electrolysis can liberate hydrogen from water.

3. Hydrogen has higher energy density than petroleum-based fuels. It means, it supplies
more energy per volume than gasoline, diesel or kerosene.

4. Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with greater efficiency over an
internal combustion engine.

3. Mention the various disadvantages ofusing hydrogen asfuel.

1. Heavy and bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service station. Hydrogen can be
stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it would
have to be kept under pressure at very low temperature. It would require a thermally
super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a heavy pre ssure vessel
with limited capacity.
2. It is difficult to refuel.
3. Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.

4. NOx emissions are high because of high flame temperature.

4. hat are the methods ofproducing hydrogen?

(i) Steam reforming
(ii) Electrolysis
[s.10o ] Renewable Energy System

(iii) Steam electrolysis

(iv) Thermochemical water splitting
(v) Photo-electrochemical system
(vi) Photo-biological system and (vii) Biological system.

5. Define electrolysis process.

The hydrogen and oxygen in water can be dissociated with an electric current in a
process called electrolysis.

6. State the advantages ofusing high pressure electrolyser.

l. Reduction in specifi c power consumption
2. Delivery of gas to eliminate the cost gas compressors
3. Reduction in the size of electrolysis cells.

7. ple involved in thermochemical method ofproducing hydrogen?

What is the princi
Thermochemical hydrogen production technologies use heat and chemical reactions
to convert hydrocarbon feed stocks to hydrogen. Thermochemical processes are mainly
oxidation process in which hydrogen is removed by a chemical reaction.

8. State the various modes ofhydrogen storage.

(i) Compre ssed gas storage
(ii) Liquid storage
(iii) Line pack storage system
(iv) Underground storage
(v) Stora ge as metal hydrides
(vi) Carbon adsorption
(vii) Microspheres.

9. Mention any two challenges in hydrogen storage.

1. Weight and volume:
The weight and volume of hydrogen storage systems are too high by resulting in
inadequate vehicle range compared to conventional petroleum-fueled vehicles.

2. Efficiency:
Energy efficiency is a challenge for all hydrogen storage approaches. The energy
required to get hydrogen in and out is an issue for reversible solid-state materials. The
Other Types of Energy [_s.1ot]
energy associated with compression and liquefaction must be considered for compressed
and liquid hydrogen technologies.

10. List down the various energy conversion technologies.

(i) Combustion in internal combustion engines

(ii) Direct steam generation by hydrogen or oxygen combustion
(iii) Catalytic combustion
(iv) Electrochemical conversion in fuel cells and
(v) Metal hydride technologies.

11. Mention the applications of hydrogen energy.

I. A fuel in H-O fuel cell system
2. Manufacturing synthetic Ammonia, synthetic Methanol and synthetic Urea or
ammonium nitrate.
3. An aviation fuel by hydrogenation process.
4. Chemical reduction and various heating process.
5. A coolant in large generators and motors.
6. Used in the manufacturing of tungsten filaments for lamps.

12. What isfuel cell?

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of a

conventional fuel is directly converted into low voltage DC electrical energy.

13. List down the possible reaction involved infuel cells.

Hydrogen/oxygen 1.23 V 2H3+O2 ⇒ 2H3O
Hydrazine 1.56 V N3H4+O> 2HO+N
Carbon (Coal) 1.02 V C+O3> co;
Methane 1.05 V Cf14 + 202 ⇒ CO3 + 2H3O

14. Mention the various parts offuel cell.

(i) Membrane electrode assembly
(ii) Catalyst
(iii) Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
(iv) Hardware.
 [s.102] Renewable Energy System

15. List down the major sections ofafuel cell.

i
I.
(i) Fuel processing section
(ii) Fuel cell power pack
(iii) Power conditioning section
(iv) Switchgear and supply section
(v) Control subsystem section
(vi) Heating section.

16. Compare the fuel cell and battery. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

S.No. Fuel cell Battery

1. Fuel cell generates energy by converting the A battery stores energy and
available fuel. uses when it is required.

2. As long the fuel is available, it generates It can be used anytime and

electricity. anywhere.

3. Fuel can have a battery to store energy and use Fuel cell can not be used as
later. a storage device for battery.

4. Fuel cell is more expensive. Battery cost is less.

'

17. Classify fuel cells based on electrolyte.

,
(a) Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

(b) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

(c) Direct methanol fuel cell

(d) Alkaline fuel cell

(e) Phosphoric acid fuel cell

(@) Molten carbonate fuel cell

(g) Solid oxide fuel cell

(h) Regenerative fuel cell.

18. hat are the advantages offuel cells?

I) Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine in vehicles
and provide power for stationary and portable power applications.
Other Types of Energy [ s.1oz]
2) They can be used in transportation applications such as powering automobiles,
buses, cycles, and other vehicles.
3) Many portable devices can be powered by fuel cells such as laptop computers
and cell phones.
4) They can also be used for stationary applications such as providing electricity to
power homes and businesses.

19. What are the disadvantages offuel cells?

1) Initial cost is high. Fuel cells are currently very expensive to produce, since most
units are hand-made.
2) Service life is low.
3) Operation requires replevisable fuel supply.
t

4) Some fuel cells use expensive materials.

20. List the various applications offuel cells.

1. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine in vehicles. They
can be used in transportation applications such as powering automobiles, submarines,
spacecraft and other vehicles.

2. Fuel cells using gasified coal as fuel can be used in central power stations. The
efficiency of such plant would be higher due to direct energy conversion. Thus coal
can be used more efficiently with reduced emissions.

3. Many portable devices can be powered by fuel cells such as laptop computers, mobile
phones and other low power applications.

4. To meet the demand of isolated sites such as construction sites; military camps and
small village community or hamlet, fuel cells are more suitable than diesel generator.

21. hat i
s geothermal energy? [Anna Univ. Apr'23]
Geothermal energy is the heat from high pressure steam coming from within the earth.
It is a renewable source of energy derived from the rain water in the earth heated to over
180°C by subterranean hot rocks.

22. List various geothermal resources.

Basic kinds of geothermal sources are as follows:
1. Hydrothermal
[ s.104 l Renewable Energy System

(a) Vapour dominated or dry steam fields

(b) Liquid dominated system
(c) Hot-water fields
2. Geopressured
3. Hot dry rock or Petrothermal
4. Magma resources and 5.Volcanoes.

23. What are the forms ofgeothermal energy stored deeply inside the earth?
(a) Hot water springs
(b) Fumaroles
(c) Volcanic eruptions.

24. hat are the important criteria while selecting the geothermal energy?

(a) Temperature ofgeothermal fluid, °C.

(b) Discharge rate, m'lday
(c) Useful life ofproduction well, years
(d) Mineral contents gram/m'.

25. Define the geothermal gradient. [Anna Univ. Nov'22]

Geothermal gradient is the rate oftemperature change with respect to increasing depth
in Earth's interior.

In normal continental crust, a typical geothermal gradient within the first 3 to 5 km (2

or 3 miles) ofEarth's surface is about 25°C/km.

26. What are the different direct uses ofgeothermal energy?

Direct use ofgeothermal energy is appropriate for sources below 150°C. It is used for:
(i) Space heating
(ii) Air conditioning
(iii) Industrial processes
(iv) Drying
(v) Greenhouses ,
(vi) Aquaculture
(vii) Hot water
Other Types of Energy [ s.1os]
(viii)Resorts and pools
(ix) Melting snow.

27. Briefly explain the workingprinciple of direct use ofgeothermal energy.

(i) Direct sources function by sending water down a well to be heated by the
Earth's warmth.
(ii) Then a heat pump is used to take the heat from the underground water to the
substance that heats the house as shown in Figure 5.54.
(iii) Then the cold water is injected back into the Earth.

•.
Vertical earth heat probe

Figure 5.54 Direct use of geothermal energy

28. Classify geothermal electrical powerplants.

1. According to geothermal energy resource
(a) Geothermal steam
(b) Geothermal brine
(c) Geothermal hot water
(d) Hot rock.
[s.1os ] Renewable Energy System

2. According to thermodynamic cycle

(a) Steam turbine cycle
(b) Binary cycle
(c) Total flow concept.

29. List down the advantages ofgeothermal energy over other energy forms.
1. It is versatile in its use and reliable source of energy.

2. It is cheaper as compared to energies obtained from other sources both zero fuels
and fossil fuels.

3. It delivers a greater amount of net energy from its system than other alternative
or conventional systems.

4. It has the highest annual load factor of 90% as compared to conventional plants.

30. What are the disadvantages ofgeothermal energy over other energy forms?
1. Overall efficiency for power production is low about 15% when compared to 35-
40% for fossil fuel plants.

2. The steam and hot water gushing out ofthe earth may contain HS, CO, NH and
radon gas, etc. These gases are to be removed by chemical action before they are
discharged.

3. Drilling operation is noisy.

4. Large area is required for the exploitation ofgeo-thermal energy as much diffused.

31. What are the applications ofgeothermal energy?

1. It is used in generating electric power.
2. It is used in industrial process heat.
3. It is used in space heating for various kinds of buildings.

4. It is used in agricultural and related applications.

32. What is the principle of OTEC?

a

Ocean thermal energy exists in the form of temperature difference between warm
surface water and cold deep water. The absorption of solar radiation by the sea and ocean
causes a moderate temperature difference between upper and lower· levels of water.
Particularly, the oceans in the tropical region collect and store a large amount of solar
energy: This stored heat energy can be converted into work with the help ofthermodynamic
cycle. It is called ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
Other Types of Energy [_s1or]
33. What is OTEC technology? Which Thermodynamic Cycle is used in OTEC?
[Anna Univ. Nov'l9]
OTEC is an energy technology that converts solar radiation falling on the ocean
surface into electric power. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural thermal gradient. This
. .

system can produce a significant amount of power using this thermal gradient. The most
commonly used Thermodynamic cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine cycle.

34. List the peculiarities of ocean thermal energy conversion system. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
(i) Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable, pollution free and environmentally
friendly.
(ii) Unlike other forms of solar energy, the output of OTEC shows very little daily or
seasonal variation. OTEC power plants can produce electricity 24 hours a day or
365 days a year.

(iii) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the
thermocline, could be accomplished with minimum environment impact.
(iv) Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
(v) Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could be made free from pollution caused by
conventional fuels for electricity generation.
(vi) OTEC system might help in enrichment of fishing grounds due to the nutrients from
the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface waters.
(vii) A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to
provide power for off shore mining and processing of manganese nodules.
(viii) Either open or closed system OTEC could be used in either onshore or offshore
systems.

35. What are the different types ofOTEC cycles?

(a) Open cycle (Claude cycle, Steam cycle)
(b) Closed cycle (Anderson cycle, Vapour cycle).

36. How can be the efficiency increased slightly with modified open cycle OTEC system?
(a) Controlled flash-steam evaporator is used instead of a conventional type of
evaporator

(b) Contact condenser is replaced by a surface condenser.

(c) The open cycle OTEC can be used as a co-generation cycle to produce both
electrical power and fresh water.
[s.10s] Renewable Energy System

37. What are the limitations ofopen cycle OTEC system?

1. Turbine is physically large.
2. The cost of plant is high.
3. It can allow a very large flow of ocean water in terms of mass and volume.
4. The plant is subjected to ocean storms, high waves, etc.

38. List down the components ofclosed cycle OTEC system.

1. Evaporator
2. Vapour turbine (Turbogenerator)
3. Vapour condenser
4. Liquid pressuriser.

39. What are the workingfluids in closed cycle OTEC?

(a) Ammonia (NH)
(b) Freon
(c) Butane.
~
40. rite down the advantages of closed system OTEC over open system OTEC.
{Anna Univ. Nov'21]
In the closed cycle OTEC, the same working fluid is circulated again and again within the
turbine but in the open cycle, the working fluid replaced by discharging into sea after expansion
in the turbine.
41. List down the factors consideredfor locating OTECpower plants.
(i) During continuous power generation, the large flow of hot and cold water might
change the local and global environment.
(ii) Carbon dioxide present in the deep sea water might be released suddenly while
pumping and heated in the evaporator. The releases of carbon dioxide will
deaerate the sea water before entering into the evaporator.

(iii) There may be a possibility that biota including eggs, larvae and fish could be
entertained and destroyed due to intake and expulsion of large volumes of
water. Also, OTEC plant might affect the life of sea animals.

(iv) Release of large quantities of cold water into warmer surface environment will
also have biological effects.
 Other Types of Energy [_s.1os]
42. Mention the advantages ofOTEC.
(i) Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable, pollution free and environmentally
friendly.
(ii) Unlike other forms of solar energy, output of OTEC shows very little daily or
seasonal variation. OTEC power plants can produce electricity 24 hours a day
or 365 days a year.
(iii) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the
thermocline, could be accomplished with minimum environment impact.
(iv) Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.

43. State the disadvantages ofOTEC.

(i) Capital investment is very high.
(ii) Seasonal variations and natural calamities affect OTEC performance.
(iii) Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep
water, the conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4%.
(iv) Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance
cost makes them uneconomical for small plants.

44. What are the applications ofOTEC?

(i) Open cycle OTEC plant is used to produce desalinated water which is mainly
used for irrigation and human consumption.
(ii) A closed cycle OTEC plant is used as a chemical treatment plant.
(iii) The deep sea water can be used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems
mainly in offshore Industries. In majority of the air conditioning plant, open
cycle OTEC is used. The release of used working fluid will be in the sea itself.

45. How are ocean tides created? [Anna Univ. Apr'22]

Tides are produced mainly by the gravitational attraction of moon and sun on the water
of soI id earth and oceans. Tidalpower or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts
the energy of tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity.

46. Define the tide range with respect to tidal powerplant. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]
Range is the difference between high and low water levels denoted by R.

R= water elevation at high tide - water elevation at low tide.

[s.1o ] Renewable Energy System

47. What are spring tides? How these tides areformed?

If the tide's range is maximum, it is called spring tide. These spring tides are called
high tides. Around no moon and full moon days, the sun, moon and earth fonn a line. The
tidal force due to the sun reinforces the moon. Hence, high tides are produced.

48. hat is meant by neap tide?

When the moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the sun and moon are separated by
90° when viewed from the Earth and the solar gravitational force partially cancels the
moon. At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is minimum called neap tide.

49. Briefly explain ho the tidal energy is converted into electrical energy.
The generation of electricity using tidal power is done· using a barrage or small dam
built at the entrance of a bay where tides are known to reach very high levels of variation.
This barrage will trap tidal water behind it creating a difference in water level which will
in turn create the potential energy. This potential energy will then be used in creating
kinetic energy as doors in the barrage are opened and the water is rushed from the high
level to the lower level. This kinetic energy will be converted into rotational kinetic energy
that will rotate turbines giving electrical energy.

50. List down the types of tidal energy technologies.

(a) Tidal barrages

(b) Tidal stream generators

(c) Dynam ic tidal power.

51. Wltat are the components of tidal power plants?

1. Barrage or dam or dyke

2. Sluice ways

3. Embankments

4. Power house.

52. What are-the modes of operation of tidal barrage powerplants?

(a) Ebb generation

(b) Flood gene ration

(c) Two-way generation

(d) Pumping and turbining.

Other Types of Energy [ s.111 l
53. How are the barrage type tidal power plants classified?
1. Single basin arrangement
a) Single ebb-cycle system
b) Single tide-cycle system
c) Double cycle system
2. Double basin arrangement.

54. Classify tidal stream generator support structures.

(a) Gravity structures
(b) Piled structures
(c) Floating structures.

55. Mention the major types of tidal stream generators.

(a) Axial turbines
(b) Vertical and horizontal axis cross flow turbines
(c) Helical turbine.

56. List down the main features of the helical turbine.

► It is designed for hydroelectric applications in free-flowing water.
► It operates in ocean, tidal, and river currents.
► It does not require expensive dams that can harm the environment.
► It is self-starting with flow as low as 0.6 mis.
► It runs smoothly.

57. Wliat are the main !turd/es in the development of tidal energy? {Anna Univ. Apr'23]
► The largest barrier to tidal energy is the high cost associated with building
tidal power stations.
> Also, a major concern is the potentially negative environmental effects on
marine life.
► Spinning blades can injure living organisms due to water foulingresulting
from various system components.
► It is limited installation sites
► Turbines can impact the surrounding ecosystem and
► Power produced does not always match up with peak energy demand.
1 s.112 l Renewable Energy System

58. State any four site requirementsfor tidal power plant erection.
(i) Short length of dam is to create a basin of reasonable storage. It is possible at a
narrow inlet to an estuary of bay.
(ii) It should be nearer to local location or nearer to the ocean.
(iii) It should be protected from high waves.
(iv) It should not hamper shipping traffic.

59. hat are the advantages and disadvantages oftidalpower? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]
Advantages:

(i) Tidal power is a renewable and sustainable energy resource.

(ii) It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
(iii) Large area of valuable land is not required.
(iv) It does not produce any unhealthy waste such as gases and ash.
(v) It has unique capacity to meet the peak power demand effectively when it
works in combination with thermal or hydroelectric system.
Disadvantages:

(i) Due to variation in tidal range, the output is not uniform.

(ii) There is a fear of tidal plant components and machinery being corroded due
to corrosive sea water.
(iii) It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.
(iv) As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal power plant is costly.
60. Define wave energy.
Wave energy is energy of interchanging potential and kinetic energy in the wave.

61. Write a note on wave energy. [Anna Univ. Nov'22]

Wave energy is energy of interchanging potential and kinetic energy in the wave.
Among other types of renewable energy, oceans contain energy in the form of waves and
tidal currents. Ocean wave energy is an important renewable energy. At the same time, it
is regular, periodic and consistent. Ocean wave energy can be either converted into
mechanical energy or electrical energy through wave energy conversion plants. Ocean
wave energy is needed to be developed in coastal areas. Usually, power extracted from
ocean energy is in the range of 10 kW/m to 70 kW/m with respect to amplitude and wave
length.
Other Types of Energy [_s.1s]
Ocean waves are created by the interaction ofwinds with the surface ofsea water. Sea
water contains both kinetic energy and potential energy. The energy available in the Ocean
depends on the wind speed, duration of the wind and distance from which interacts with
sea surface water. Differential warming of the earth causes pressure difference in the
atmosphere which generates winds. As winds move across the surface of open bodies of
water, they transfer some of their energy to water and create waves.

The amount of energy transferred and the size of wave depend on wind speed, length
oftime for which the wind blows and distance over which the wind blows or fetch. So, the
coastal region which has exposure to the prevailing wind direction and face long expanses
of Open Ocean has the greatest wave energy levels.

To extract the stored energy in waves, wave energy conversion devices are used in
which two or more bodies move relative to each other while at least one body interacts
with waves.

62. What is wave energy? How power available in waves is calculated?[Anna Univ. Nov'21J
Wave energy is the energy of interchanging potential and kinetic energy in the wave.
Among other types of renewable energy, oceans contain energy in the form of waves and
tidal currents. Ocean wave energy is an important renewable energy. At the same time, it
is regular, periodic and consistent.

The total energy obtained from waves is the sum of potential energy and kinetic
energy.

1. Potential energy:
The potential energy available in waves is due to the head ofsea water above the mean
sea level.

Potential energy, P.E !ag

4

where p = Density ofthe sea water (kg/m')

a= Amplitude of wave (m)

2.= Wave length (m)

W= Width of the wave (m)

g = Acceleration due to gra vity (mnls)

[ s.114] Renewable Energy System

2. Kinetic energy:
The energy associated with the movement sea water is called kinetic energy. For
harmonic motion of waves, average kinetic energy is equal to the potential energy.
Therefore,

K.mnetic
.· KE l i
energy, . =-pa ?gW
• 4
Total energy, E=P.E+K.E

1 ±, 1 ±. 1
=-pa kgW +-pa?g =pa ?gW
4 4 2

Power,
p = Energy
Time

63. What are wave energy converters?

The technologies developed to generate energy from waves and currents called
hydrokinetic energy conversion devices are generally categorized as either Wave Energy
Converters (WECs).

64. Mention the various wave energy conversion devices.

(a) Wave profile devices
(@) Point absorber
(ii) Linear absorber (Wave attenuator)
(iii) Dolphin-type wave-power machine
(iv) Nodding duck.
(b) Oscillating water columns
(c) Wave capture devices
(i) Wave overtopping device:
(ii) High-level reservoir wave machine:
(d) Rotating wave devices.

65. Write the princi

ple of attenuatorfor wave energy conversion. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]
The linear absorber (wave attenuator) floats on the surface of the water. It is tied to
the ocean floor so that it can swing perpendicularly towards the incoming waves. As the
waves pass along the length ofthis snake such as wave energy device, they cause the long
cylindrical body to sag downwards into the troughs of the waves and arch upwards when
the waves crest is passing. Connecting joints along the body ofthe device flex in the waves
exerting a great deal of force which is used· to power a hydraulic ram at 'each joint. The
Other Types of Energy [_s.11s]

hydraulic ram drives oil through a hydraulic motor which drives a generator to produce
electricity.

66. Write brief note on point absorber.

The point absorbers use a heavy ballast plate suspended below the floating buoy. The
buoy is prevented from floating away by a mooring line attached to a sea-floor anchor. As
the buoy bobs up-and-down in the waves, a oscillatory mutual force reaction is generated
between freely moving absorber and heavy plate causing a hydraulic pump in between to
rotate a generator producing electricity.

67. What is the difference between point absorber and linear absorber?
Jfthe physical size of the wave profile device is very small as compared to the periodic
length of the wave, this type of wave energy device is called "point absorber".

If the size of the device is larger or longer than the typical periodic wavelength, it is
called "linear absorber".

68. What is called wave collector?

An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) has a partially submerged structure which
opens to the ocean below the water surface. This structure is called wave collector.
69. List out the advantages of wave energy generation. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
(a) The wave energy naturally concentrated by accumulation at all times, space and
transported than wind and solar energies.
(b) Wave conditions are predictable and hence the energy too.
(c) Wave from transportation across a plane perpendicular to the wave propagation
direction at a good site is from 10 to100 times large.

.
(d) Wave power devices are not required to use large land masses such as wind or
solar.
(e) Wave energy conversion devices are pollution free due to releasing of sea water
back to sea itself after extracting energy from waves.
70. What are the disadvantages of wave energy?
(a) The main disadvantages are difficult maintenance, construction cost, life time and
reliability due to wave energy available on the ocean. Also, it needs a greater
distance to shore for transporting energy.
(b) Wave energy conversion devices must withstand the severe peak stresses during
storms.
 [s.116] Renewable Energy System

(c) Irregularity of wave pattern in amplitude, phase and direction makes it difficult to
extract power efficiently.
71. What is hydroelectric power?
The turbine converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy. So, the conversion of energy from hydraulic
form to electric form is called hydroelectric power.

72. What are the variousfactors considered in designing a micro hydel scheme?
/Anna Univ. Nov'21]
1. Flow duration curve (FDC) to obtain the choice of turbine type, size and speed
based on the net head and maximum water flow rate,
2. Flow rate measurement to measure cross sectional area (A,) and velocity (V,):
3. Weir and open channel
4. Trash rack design
5. Penstock design
6. Head measurement
7. Turbine power
8. Turbine speed.

73. For which purposes hydro projects are developed? /Anna Univ. Dec'l3]
(a) To meet the power needs during peak and off-peak requirements
(b6) To run of the river
(c) To obtain a clean process of power generation
(d) To avoid suffering from the limitation of inflation on account of fuel
consumption in the long run.
74. What are the uses ofmini hydro powerplants?
Mini hydro plants are used in isolated remote areas where the grid does not exist.
Typically, it provides power to just one rural industry or one rural community. Mini and
small hydro plants sometimes make small contribution to national grid supplies.
75. How are hydro powerplants classified?
I \

1. Depending on the capacity:

(i) Micro hydel plant > Producing less than 100 kW power
(ii) Mini hydel plant > Producing 100 kWto 1 MW power
(iii) Small hydel plant > Producing 1 MW to 10 MW power.
Other Types of Energy [s.1i]
2. Depending on the head:
(i) Ultra low head plant > Below 3 m

(ii) Low head plant ⇒ Less than 30 m

(iii) Medium head ⇒ Between 30 to 75 m
(iv) High head ⇒ Above 75m.
3. Depending on the usage:
(i) Independent scheme
(ii) Subordinate scheme.
4. Depending on the construction:
(i) Storage plants and
(ii) Run-of-the-river plants.

76. List down the components ofsmall hydroelectric power system.

(a) Diversion and intake
(b) Desilting chamber or tank
(c) Water conductor system
(d) Forebay/balancing reservoir
(e) Surge tank
(t) Penstock
(g) Power house comprising of turbine, generator, protection and control system,
dewatering system, drainage system, auxiliary power system, grounding,
emergency and standby power system, lighting and ventilation.
(h) Tail race channel.

77. What are the advantages and limitations ofmini hydro power systems?
Advantages:
1. rt requires the shortest time for developing a unit.
2. Once, it is built the running expenditure almost negligible.
3. It is free from hazards of pollution.
4. It has no environmental problems, no submergence of land and no loss of
agricultural land.
5. The construction of small hydro is simple.
[s.11s ] Renewable Energy System

Limitations:
1. Non-availability of indigenous equipment for generating plant and import
procedures are time-consuming.
2. General lack of awareness of benefits from small development.
3. Remoteness of sites especially in hilly areas and adverse geological conditions
in Himalayan region.

5.9. SOLVEDQUESTIONS

1. What is the basic principle involved in electrolysis process of hydrogen production?

Explain the method in detail with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.1.3.1 on Page 5.4.

2. Write short notes on hydrogen storage.

Refer chapter 5.1.4 on Page 5.7.

3. Discuss various methods of hydrogen storage systems.

Refer chapter 5.1.4.1-5.1.4.4 on Page 5.8-5.11.

4. What are the challenges in storing hydrogen?

Refer chapter 5.1.4.5 on Page 5.11.

5. Discuss various applications of hydrogen as fuel.

Refer chapter 5.1.6 on Page 5.15.

6. Discuss the principle of operation of a fuel cell with a neat sketch. [Anna Univ. Nov '05]

Refer chapter 5.2.1 on Page 5.17.

7. Explain the construction ofvarious types of fuel cells. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 5.2.2 on Page 5.18.

8. Explain the working of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.2.1 on Page 5.22.

9. Describe the working of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.2 on Page 5.23.

Other Types of Energy [_s.1s]
10. How do alkaline fuel cells work? Explain with its sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.3 on Page 5.24.

11. Explain the working of phosphoric acid fuel cells with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.4 on Page 5.25.

12. Describe the working of molten carbonate fuel cell with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.5 on Page 5.26.

13. Discuss the principle of operation of a solid oxide fuel cell with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.6 on Page 5.28.

14. Illustrate the working of hybrid fuel cells with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.2.3.7 on Page 5.30.

15. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells.

Refer chapter 5.2.4 on Page 5.30.

16. Explain briefly the applications offuel cells.

Refer chapter 5.2.5 on Page 5.31.

17. Explain the basics of geotherm:l energy.

Refer chapter 5.3.1 on Page 5.32.

18. Briefly explain geothermal energy sources.

Refer chapter 5.3.2 on Page 5.33.

19. Classify geothermal wells and explain. 4 a«

Refer chapter 5.3.3 on Page 5.34.

20. Explain the principle and working of geothermal energy conversion process.
[Anna Univ. Apr'22]
Refer chapter 5.3.4.1 on Page 5.35.

21. Explain the working of liquid dominated geothermal power plant with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 5.3.4.2 on Page 5.37.

22. Explain the principle of Hot Dry Rock (HDR) geothermal system.
Refer chapter 5.3.4.4 on Page 5.40.
[ s.120 ] Renewable Energy System

23. What are geo pressured resources and magma resources?

Refer chapters 5.3.4.3 and 5.3.4.5 on Pages 5.39 and 5.40 respectively.

24. Briefly explain the construction and working of any one type of hybrid geothermal system.
Refer chapter 5.3.4.6 on Page 5.40.

25. Explain the applications, and advantage and disadvantages of geothermal energy.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]
Refer chapters 5.3.5 & 5.3.6 on Pages 5.43 & 5.44 respectively.

26. List the direct uses of geothermal energy and explain its working principle.

Refer chapter 5.3.6.1 on Page 5.44.

27. Draw the layout of geothermal power plant and explain its operation. Enumerate the
advantages and disadvantages of geothermal plant. [Anna Univ. Nov'20 & Nov'21]

Refer chapter 5.3.6.1 on Page 5.44 for geothermal power plant operation
and chapter 5.3.5 on Page 5.43 for advantages and disadvantages of
geothermal plant.

28. What is the Geothermal Energy? What are the various methods of harnessing this energy?
What is the potential of Geothermal Energy in India? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

Refer chapter 5.3 on Page 5.32 for definition of Geothermal Energy, refer
chapter 5.3.4 on Page 5.35 for various methods of harnessing this energy,
and refer chapter 5.3.8 on Page 5.46 for potential of Geothermal Energy in
India.

29. Explain the technologies available for OTEC plant. [Anna Univ. Apr '23]

Refer chapter 5.4.1 on Page 5.50.

30. With a neat sketch describe the working principle of OTEC power plant.

Refer chapter 5.4.2 on Page 5.51.

31. Describe the working principle of land-based OTEC power plant.

Refer chapter 5.4.3 on Page 5.52.

32. Explain the principle of operation of open cycle OTEC system. [Anna Univ. Nov '20]

Refer chapter 5.4.6 on Page 5.53.

Other Types of Energy [s.1at]
33. Explain the closed-cycle OTEC system with a neat diagram. [Anna Univ. Nov '22]
Refer chapter 5.4. 7 on Page 5.54.

34. Discuss the theory and working principle ofocean thermal energy conversion systems.
[Anna Univ. Nov'21 & Apr'22]

Refer chapter 5.4.1-5.4.7 on Page 5.50-5.54.

35. Draw and explain the following types ofocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems
i) Open OTEC and ii) Closed OTEC. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Or

Explain the methods ofenergy extraction technique on ocean tidal energy source.
[Anna Univ. Apr '23]

Refer chapters 5.4.6 and 5.4.7 on Pages 5.53 and 5.54 respectively.

36. What is OTEC system? Explain with the help ofneat sketches working principle ofClosed
cycle and open cycle OTEC system, Describe the advantages of closed system over open
system. How is the site for OTEC plant selected? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Refer chapter 5.4.1 on Page 5.50 for principle of OTEC, chapter 5.4.6 on
Page 5.53 for Open cycle OTEC system, chapter 5.4.7 on Page 5.54 for
closed cycle OTEC system, chapter 5.4.8 on Page 5.55 for Site selection
for OTEC plants and Q48 on Page 5.109 for the advantages of closed
system over open system.

37. List out the limitations oftidal energy conversion system. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 5.5.16 on Page 5.76.

38. What is the basic principle ofTidal Energy? Explain the Principle of working of Simple
Tidal Energy Conversion Plant with the help ofa neat sketch. What is the status of Tidal
Power Plants in the world and in India? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

Refer chapter 5.5.1 on Page 5.57 for basic principle ofTidal Energy, refer
chapter 5.5.8.1 on Page 5.67 for working of Simple Tidal Energy
Conversion Plant, and refer chapter 5.5.2 on Page 5.58 for status ofTidal
Power Plants in the world and in India.

39. How do you estimate the power potential ofocean tidal energy source?
[Anna Univ. Apr'23]
Refer chapter 5.5.2 on Page 5.58.
§ 2___,J'-- R_e_n_e_w_a_bl_e_E_n_e_rg_y_S_y_s_te_m-

40. What are the different types of tidal power plants? Explain.

Refer chapter 5.5.5 on Page 5.62.

41. Explain the working oftidal power plant with neat layout and specify the site requirements.
[Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Or
Briefly discuss the components of tidal power systems with a neat block diagram.
[Anna Univ. Nov '22]
Refer chapter 5.5.6 on Page 5.63.

42. What is tidal energy? Explain the working of a tidal power plant with a neat sketch.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]

Refer chapter 5.5.1 on Page 5.57, chapter 5.5.6 on Page 3.63 and chapter
5.5.7 on Page 5.65.

43. Explain various modes of operation oftidal barrage power plant in detail.

Refer chapter 5.5.7 on Page 5.654.

44. Discuss the working principle of double basin tidal power plant arrangement.

Refer chapter 5.5.8.2 on Page 5.68.

45. With neat sketches explain various support structure of tidal steam generator.

Refer chapter 5.5.9 on Page 5.69.

46. Describe the working principle of Horizontal-Axis Tidal Turbine (HATT).

Refer chapter 5.5.11.1 on Page 5.72.

47. Briefly explain Vertical-Axis Tidal Turbine (VATT).

Refer chapter 5.5.11.2 on Page 5.73.

48. Write short notes on the following topics.

(i) Helical turbine

Refer chapter 5.5.11.3 on Page 5.73.

(ii) Dynamic tidal power generation

Refer chapter 5.5.8 on Page 5.63.

Other Types of Energy [ s.1z2]
49. Describe the wave energy fundamentals.

Refer chapter 5.6 on Page 5. 77.

50. Explain how wave energy is estimated.

Refer chapter 5.6.2 on Page 5. 78.

51. Explain the working of oscillating water column.

Refer chapter 5.6.4.2 on Page 5.82.

52. Write short notes on wave capture device.

Refer chapter 5.6.4.3 on Page 5.83.

53. Explain the working of any two wave-energy conversion devices with sketches.

Refer chapters 5.6.4.1 & 5.6.4.4 on Pages 5.79 & 5.85 respectively.

54. State the advantages and disadvantages of wave energy.

Refer chapter 5.6.5 on Page 5.86.

55. Define hydropower and explain its importance.

Refer chapter 5.7 on Page 5.86.

56. Enumerate various advantages and disadvantages ofhydropower.

Referchapters 5.7.1 & 5.7.2 on Page 5.88.

57. Write short notes on minihydel power plants.

Refer chapter 5.7.3 on Page 5.88.

58. Classify minihydel power plants.

Refer chapter 5.7.4 on Page 5.89.

59. Explain the construction and working of minihydel power plants with a neat sketch.
Refer chapters 5.7.4.1 on Pages 5.91.

60. Describe the various turbines used in minihydel power plants.

Refer chapters 5.7.4.2 on Pages 5.93.

61. Explain the power obtained from a minihydel power plant.

Refer chapter 5.14 on Page 5.60.

[s.1z4] Renewable Energy System

62. Discuss suitable conditions for minihydel powerplant.

Refer chapter 5.7.6 on Page 5.96.

63. Enumerate economics of minihydel power plant.

Refer chapter 5.7.7 on Page 5.96.

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END of Unit 5 ******************************