Calculus 1 with Dr.

Janet Harris Semester 1, 2016/17

Chapter 1 Functions, Limits

and Continuity
1.1 What is Calculus?
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of Lines
1.3 Functions and Graphs
1.4 New Functions from Old Functions. Inverse Functions
1.5 Parametric Curves
1.6 Definition of a Limit. One-sided Limits
1.7 Laws of Limits. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze
Theorem
1.8 Limits Involving Infinity
1.9 Continuity
1.10 The Intermediate Value Theorem
1
 1.1 What is Calculus?
• Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc. are useful for
describing static quantities.
• But we live in a world full of change!
• Calculus gives us tools to describe change.
• Many important quantities are 'rates of change' of other
quantities.
• E.g. for a moving object we may be interested in
 position as a function of time
 speed (rate of change of position)
• Calculus allows us to move between these quantities.
2
Calculus is the best way to describe most of the 'laws
of nature' as well as many relationships in finance,
engineering and other fields.

"Today calculus is used in

calculating the orbits of satellites and spacecraft,
in predicting population sizes,
in estimating how fast coffee prices will rise,
in forecasting weather,
in measuring the cardiac output of the heart,
in calculating life insurance premiums,
and in a great variety of other areas."
Stewart (page 9)
3
The two basic operations of calculus are
differentiation and integration.
Both rely on the concept of limits.

In Calculus 1 we study
- basic concepts of functions and limits (Ch 1)
- techniques of differentiation (Ch 2) and integration (Ch 4)
- applications to a wide range of practical situations (Ch 1-5)

4
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of
1.2.1 Coordinates and Graphs Lines
O is the origin
Ox is the x-axis
Oy is the y-axis
(x, y) are the coordinates
of a point

The graph of an equation is the

y= x2
set of all points (x, y) whose
coordinates satisfy the equation.
5
1.2.2 Straight Lines: SLOPE
Consider any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on a straight
line segment. On the interval [x1, x2],
x  x2  x1 is the change in x
y  y2  y1 is the change in y.
The slope (or gradient) of the
line is

• m is a constant, characteristic
of the line segment.
• m tell us the rate of change of y with respect to x.
E.g. if m = 5 then y = 5 x,
so for every unit increase in x, y increases by 5 units. 6
Example 1
For the graph shown,
state the slope
(a) on the interval (0, 1)

(b) at x = 4

(c) for 5 < x < 9

(d) at x = 2
7
1.2.2 Straight Lines: Equation
• Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c.
We call c the y-intercept.
y2  y1
• For any two points on the line, m  .
x2  x1
• Setting (x1, y1) = (0, c) and letting (x2, y2) be a
general point (x2, y2) = (x, y),
y c
we get m
x0
and so y  mx  c
This is the most common
way of writing the equation
of a straight line. It is called
the slope-intercept form.
8
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-
sketching.
y  mx  c
slope intercept

y y = 3x y=x+1
y
3
y=x
2 y=x
y=x–1
1
1

x
1 x -1
-1 y=-x
9
Example 2
Sketch the following graphs:
(a) y = x + 2 (c) y = 1 – x
(b) y = 2x – 1 (d) 2y = x + 2

10
OTHER FORMS
The equation of a straight line can also be rearranged
or written in other ways, for example:

Point-Slope Form
For a line with gradient m passing through point (x1, y1):
y  y1  m( x  x1)
Two Point Form
For a line passing through points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):
y  y1 y2  y1
 ( m)
x  x1 x2  x1

y2  y1
(These results follow directly from m . )
x2  x1
11
Example 3
Find the equation of the straight line passing through
points (2, 0) and (0, 3).

12
1.2.3 Practical Applications
Example 4 On a certain day, the temperature of air at
ground level was 20 ºC and the temperature at a height of 1 km
was 10 ºC. Assume temperature varies linearly with height.
(a) Sketch a graph of the temperature T (in ºC) as a function of
height h in kilometers
(b) Find the equation of the line.
(c) What is the slope? What are its units? What does it mean?

13
 Example 5
At a certain place, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
was measured to be 339 ppm in the year 1980 and 373 ppm in
2002. Assume a linear model.
(a) Find an equation for the CO2 concentration C (in ppm) as a
function of time t (in years).
(b) Use your equation to predict the CO2 concentration in 2017.

[Solutions: C = 1.545t – 2721, C(2017) = 396 ppm] 14

1.3 Functions and Graphs
1.3.1 Functions
A function arises when one quantity depends on
another. E.g.
 the height H of a child varies with age t.
 the cost C of mailing a parcel depends on its mass m.
 the area A of a circle depends on the radius r.
Given the value of x, there is a rule which determines
the value of f. We say f is a function of x.

It is like a machine:

x is called an independent variable.

f(x) is a dependent variable. (It depends on x.) 15
Functions are often expressed by formulae.

Example 6

16
Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in
some set D(f) exactly one element f(x) in a set R(f).
The element f(x) is called the value of f at x.
It can also be visualized as an arrow diagram:

The domain D is the set of values x can take,

the range R is the set of values f(x) can take.
If not explicitly given, D(f) is the set of numbers for which
f(x) makes sense.
17
Example 7
State the domain and range of the given functions.

(a) f(x) = x2 + 1

(b) g(x) = sin x

1
(c) h( x) 
x 1

18
Many functions can be represented by their graph.
The graph of a function f is the graph y = f(x).

But note that not every graph or equation represents a

function!
To be a function, each x must correspond to a single
value of y = f(x).
19
Vertical Line Test. A curve in the xy-plane is the
graph of a function of x if and only if any vertical line
intersects the curve not more than once.

Yes! No!

Example 8
Sketch the graphs (a) y = x2, (b) y2 = x. State whether or not
each curve represents a function of x.

20
Representing Functions
A function can generally be represented in one or
more of the following four ways:
(1) a verbal description
(2) a table of values
(3) a graph
(4) a formula

You need to practice moving between these forms.

E.g. - given a verbal description, sketch a graph
- given a verbal description, find a formula
- given a table of values, plot the graph

21
Example 9
(a) Sketch an approximate graph of your height H as a function
of your age t.

(b) Find a formula for the area A of a circle as a function of

the circumference l.

22
Example 10
A box with an open top is made from a rectangular piece of
card, 15 cm  20 cm, by cutting out squares of side length x at
each corner, then folding up the sides, as shown in the figures.
Find a formula for the volume of the box as a function of x.

23
 Functions and Mathematical Modelling
In many practical situations, data does not fit a formula
exactly, but we can use an approximate formula to ‘model’
the data.
For example, the table
shows the CO2 level
measured at a certain
place 1980 – 2002.

When we plot this

CO2 level (ppm)

data, we find it lies

approximately on a
straight line

year 24
So in Example 5, we assumed a linear model for this data.
- We found the equation of
the straight line through the
two end points.
- Then we used our equation to
predict the 2017 CO2 level.
C = 1.545t - 2721
This is an example of
mathematical modelling.
real formulate maths solve maths interpret real
problem model solution prediction
test

Here, data was modelled with a linear function.

Sometimes other functional forms will be appropriate.
Models are never absolutely accurate but a good model
yields predictions close to reality. 25
1.3.2 Some Common Functions
We will revise some common classes of functions.
You should be able to sketch these types of functions
quickly and know their basic properties.
POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is a function of the form
n1
P( x)  an x  an1x
n
  a2 x  a1x  a0
2

where n is a non-negative integer

and the numbers an are constants.
The numbers an are called coefficients.
The value of the highest power, n, is the degree of
the polynomial
26
A polynomial of degree 1 has form f(x) = mx + c
so is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
is called a quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.

Example Sketches of four polynomials are shown below.

What degree do you think each has?

27
POWER FUNCTIONS have the form y  x where
a

a is a constant.

You should know the graphs of common functions such as:

y = x3

1
y = x2 y
x

y x

28
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
• You should know the sine (sin), cosine (cos) and
tangent (tan) functions
• Also cosec x 
1
, sec x 
1
, cot x 
1
.
sin x cos x tan x

• In calculus, USE RADIANS unless told otherwise.

• Complete the table:
q sin q cos q tan q
0
p/6
p/4
p/3
p/2 29
Trigonometric functions are periodic.
• sin x, cos x have period 2p, e.g. sin x = sin(x + 2p)
• sin wx has period T = 2p/w,
Graphs:
1 y = sin x

p 0 p 2p
1 y = cos x

y = tan x

p 0 p 2p

30
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS have the form y  a .
x

x is the exponent (or power or index)

a is the base
The most common exponential function (often called the
exponential function) is f(x) = ex.
e is an irrational number called the exponential constant,
e = 2.7182818…. (Its importance will become clearer later!)
Graphs
y = ex
You should know
(a) y = ex (exponential growth)
(b) y = e-x (exponential decay)
y = e-x

31
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
If x = ay then y = loga x. This is a logarithmic
function. a is again called the base.
If no base is given, log x should be understood to
mean log10 x (log to the base 10).
But in calculus we almost always natural logs,
notated ln, which are logs to the base e.
That is ln x = loge x.
Graphs
You should know the
graph y = ln x

32
Extra note: CIRCLES
A circle of radius r centred at (a,b) has
equation ( x  a)2  ( y  b)2  r 2

Note that a circle cannot be described

by writing a single function. (Why not?)

However we can write functions for

the upper half of the circle y  b  r 2  ( x  a)2
and the lower half y  b  r 2  ( x  a)2

You should be able to sketch circles from their equations.

You may need to first rearrange an equation into the
standard circle form using the technique of 'completing
the square'. 33
Example 11
Sketch the graph of the equation x2  y 2  2 y  1
and describe it in words.

34
1.3.3 Piecewise Functions & Symmetry
PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS
A piecewise function is defined by different formulae in
different parts of its domain. Two common examples are:
1) The Modulus Function
|x| is called the modulus or absolute value of x.
We have x   x if x  0
 x if x  0

2) A Step Function
0 if x  0
f ( x)  
1 if x  0

On graphs, indicates that the end point is included,

indicates that the end point is not included. 35
Example 12
The table below gives the cost C of mailing a parcel as a
function of its mass m. Write a formula for C(m) and sketch
the graph of the function.
Mass of Parcel Cost (USD)
Up to 100 g 1.25
100 to 250 g 2.30
250 to 500 g 4.10
500 to 1000 g 6.90

36
Example 13  x if x0
 1 if 0 < x 1
Sketch the graph of the function f ( x)  
2 if x 1
 x  1 if x 1

37
Symmetry An even function satisfies fe(-x) = fe(x)
An odd function satisfies fo(-x) = – fo(x)
Example 14
(a) Give examples of even and odd functions. Draw their graphs.

Note: The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect

to reflection in the y-axis. The graph of an odd function is
symmetric with respect to rotation by 180° about the origin. 38
Example 14, cont.
(b) Show that f(x) = x3 – 1/x is an odd function.

It is easily proved that:

• Any sum of two or more even functions is even
• Any sum of two or more odd functions is odd
• For products, even × even = even
odd × odd = even
odd × even = odd
39
Example 15: Investigation Exercise (prep. for Section 1:4)
By plotting points or otherwise, sketch the following graphs:
1.(a) y = x2, (b) y = x2 + 2, (c) y = (x – 2)2.

2.(a) y = sin x, (b) y = 2 sin x, (c) y = sin 2x.

40
 1.4 New Functions from Old
Functions
1.4.1 New Graphs from Old Graphs
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function.
We can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions by some simple transformations (without
needing to plot points or other analysis).

(Your answers to Example 15 should illustrate some of the

following ideas.)

41
TRANSLATIONS For a function f(x) and positive constant c,
to obtain the graph of
y = f(x) + c, shift the graph of y = f(x) UP by c units
y = f(x) – c, shift the graph of y = f(x) DOWN c units
y = f(x + c), shift the graph of y = f(x) LEFT c units
y = f(x – c), shift the graph of y = f(x) RIGHT c units

42
Example 16 (a) Sketch 1
y . (b) Sketch y  x  2 .
x 1

(c) Figure A is the graph of f(x) = x2. What is the equation of

graph B?

A B

43
Example 17 Sketch the following graphs:
(a) y = sin x, (b) y = 1 + sin x, (c) y = sin(x + p/4).

44
STRETCHES
To obtain the graph of y = 2f(x)
y = cf(x), stretch y = f(x) y = f(2x)
vertically by a factor c y = f(x)
y = f(cx), compress y = f(x)
horizontally by a factor c

Example 18 Sketch: (a) y = 3 sin x, (b) y = sin(px).

45
REFLECTIONS
To obtain y = – f(x),
reflect y = f(x) in the x-axis
To obtain y = f(–x),
reflect y = f(x) in the y-axis

Example 19
Sketch: (a) y = – x2 , (b) y   x

46
Example 20 The graph of f(x) is shown. Match the
other graphs with their equations: (a) y  f ( x  4)
(b) y  f ( x)  3
(c ) y  f ( x ) / 3
(d ) y   f ( x  4)
(e) y  2 f ( x  6)

47
Example 21 Sketch: (a) y = 1 – sin x , (b) y = |sin x|

 f ( x) where f ( x)  0
Note that y = |f(x)| means y  
 f ( x) where f ( x)  0
So to obtain the graph of y = |f(x)|,
• parts of y = f(x) above the x-axis are unchanged,
• parts below the x-axis are reflected in the x-axis. 48
1.4.2 Combinations and Compositions of Functions
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B respectively.
These functions can be combined or composed to make
new functions.

Combinations of Functions
Algebraic operations on f and g are defined as follows:
(f+g)(x) = f(x)+ g(x) with domain A  B
(f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x) with domain A  B
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) with domain A  B
(f /g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) with domain A  B  {x: g(x)  0}.

Addition and subtraction of functions can also be done

graphically.
49
Example 22
Let f ( x)  x, g ( x)  4  x 2
a) State the domains of f and g.

b) Find f + g and its domain.

c) Find f / g and its domain.

50
 Compositions of Functions
Suppose y  f (u)  sin u, and u  g ( x)  2 x  1
By substitution, y  f (u)  f ( g ( x))  sin(2 x  1)

This procedure is called composition.

The new function is called the composition or
composite of f and g, denoted f ० g.

(f ० g)(x) = f(g(x))

f ० g is defined whenever both f and g are

defined. I.e. Its domain is the set of all x in the
domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.

Note: In general f ० g  g ० f
51
Example 23
Let f ( x)  x3 , g ( x)  x  2
Find (a) f ० g , (b) g ० f , (c) g ० g ० f .

52
One-to-One Functions

y=x y = x2

In both graphs above, y is a function of x:

for every x there is exactly one value of y = f(x).
For y = x, it is also true that
for every value of y there is exactly one value of x.
So y = x is called a one-to-one function.
y = x2 is not one-to-one: e.g. y = 1 for x = 1 and x = -1.
53
Definition
A function f is called one-to-one if it never takes the
same value twice. That is, f(x1) ≠ f(x2) whenever x1≠ x2.

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal
line intersects its graph more than once.
Example 24
Are the following functions one-to-one?
(a) y = sin x (b) y = x3 + 1

54
1.4.3 Inverse Functions
Remember a function can be thought of as a machine:

Q: Can we have another machine which does the

reverse process?
f(x) ? x
?

A: If the original function is one-to-one, then we can!

The ‘reverse’ function is called the inverse function.
55
Definition
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and
range B. Then its inverse function, f –1, is defined by
f 1 ( y)  x  f ( x)  y
for any y in B, and has domain B and range A.

x f(x) x
f -1

Notes
1. f –1 is a special symbol for the inverse.
The -1 is NOT an exponent. I.e. f –1(x)  [f(x)] –1 = 1/ f(x).

2. f ( f 1 ( x))  x for all x  B, f 1 ( f ( x))  x for all x  A.

56
Finding an Inverse Function
To find the inverse of a given function f(x):
1. Write y = f(x).
2. Solve the equation to find x in terms of y.
3. To express f –1 as a function of x, interchange x and y.
This gives y = f –1(x).

Example 25
(a) Find the inverse of the function f(x) = x2 + 3, x ≥ 0.

57
Example 25, cont.
(b) Find the inverse of the function g(x) = ex

(c) Sketch graphs of the functions f and g and their inverses.

58
Graphs of Inverse Functions
• If f maps a onto b, then f –1 maps b onto a.
• So if the graph of f includes (a, b)
then the graph of f –1 includes (b, a).
• Point (b, a) is obtained from (a, b) by
reflecting in the line y = x.

• So the graph f –1 is obtained

by reflecting the graph f in the
line y = x.

Your answers to Ex25 should illustrate this! 59

Non-one-to-one functions and Inverses
Many important functions are not one-to-one!
But if we restrict the domain (as in Example 25a) we can
obtain a one-to-one then find the inverse of this function.

For example … Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Sine Function

The function f ( x)  sin x,  p / 2  x  p / 2 is one-to-one.
The inverse of this restricted sine function is denoted by
sin-1 or arcsin:
y  sin 1 x  arcsin x  sin y  x and  p / 2  y  p / 2

1
NOTE sin x does NOT mean (sin x)1  cosec x
60
Inverse Cosine Function
f ( x)  cos x is one-to-one on [0, p], so we define
y  cos1 x  arccos x  cos y  x and 0  y  p

Inverse Tangent Function

For tangent we take the interval (p/2, p/2), and define
y  tan 1 x  arctan x  tan y  x and  p / 2  y  p / 2

The graphs are the reflections of the original graphs in the line y = x. 61
 1.5 Parametric Curves
Introduction
Suppose a particle moves
along the curve C.
C cannot be described by
an equation of the form
y = f(x). (Why not?)
But the x- and y- coordinates of the particle are both
functions of time: x= f(t) and y= g(t).
t is called a parameter. C is called a parametric curve.
C has parametric equations x= f(t) and y= g(t).
We can also write c(t) = (f(t), g(t)).
Generally, a parameter may be any quantity on which two other
quantities depend. Time and angle are common parameters. 62
Example 26 (a) Sketch the curve x = t2 – 2t , y = t + 1.
We can construct a table of values and thus plot the curve:
t x y
-2 8 -1
-1 3 0
0 0 1
1 -1 2
2 0 3
3 3 4
4 8 5

(b) Find an equation for the curve in the form x = f(y).

63
Notes
• The parameter can sometimes be eliminated (as in
the previous example). But this is not always possible.
• The direct equation and parametric equations describe
the same curve. But if the parameter is time, the
parametric equations also tell us when the particle was
at each point. I.e. the parametric equations also tell us
how the curve is traced.
• The parameter domain can be
restricted.
E.g. x = t2 – 2t, y = t + 1,
0 ≤ t ≤ 4.

• Parametric forms are especially useful for complicated

curves which are not functions (or not one-to-one).
64
Parametric curves are easily drawn by computers.

[From: Stewart]

Parametric curves are widely used in computer-aided

design (CAD). For example, Bézier parametric curves are
used in manufacturing (especially in the car industry) and
in printing (specifying the shapes of letters and other
symbols). - See Rogawski p.627-628, Stewart 2nd ed p.236.
65
Example 27
Sketch the curve with parametric equations
x = sin t y = sin2 t

66
Some Common Parametrizations
Parameter Equations of a Straight Line
Any straight line can be represented parametrically.
This can be done many different ways. One way is:
The line segment that joins (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be
described by the parametric equations
x  x1  ( x2  x1)t , y  y1  ( y2  y1)t , 0  t  1

Example 28
Find parametric equations for the line segment:
a) from (1, 2) to (4, 9), b) from (-2, 5) to (3, -1).

67
Parameter Equations of a Circle
Consider a circle of radius R centred at the origin.
We know the circle has equation x2 + y2 = R2.
But we can also write x = R cost, y = R sint, where t
is the angle the point makes with Ox.
So we can write
c(t) = (R cost , R sint).

If t varies from 0 to 2p, the

circle is traversed once,
anti-clockwise.

Q: • What happens as t
varies from 0 to -p?
68
Example 29
Write parametric equations for a circle of radius R centred at
(a, b). State the range of the parameter if the circle is to be
traversed twice, anti-clockwise, starting from (a+R, b).

Parameter Equations of an Ellipse

x = 3 cost,
In a similar way, the ellipse y = 2 sint.
x2 y 2
2
 2 1
a b
is conveniently parameterised
by x = a cost, y = b sint.
69
Example 30: The Cycloid
The curve traced out by a point P on the circumference of a
circle as the circle rolls along a straight line is a cycloid. If the
circle has radius r and rolls along the x-axis, and one position
of P is the origin, find parametric equations for the cycloid.

Let the parameter be the angle of rotation, q, of the circle.

Let q = 0 when P is at the origin.
Consider 0 < q < p/2.
The distance the circle has rolled from
the origin is OT = arc PT = rq
So the centre of the circle is at C(rq, r).
70
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y).
Then
x = |OT| – |PQ| = rq – rsinq = r(q – sinq)
y = |TC| – |QC| = r – rcosq = r(1 – cosq)

So the parametric equations are:

x = r(q – sinq), y = r(1 – cosq )
One arch comes from one rotation of the circle, 0  q  2p.
Notes:
1. We have only derived the equations for 0 < q < p/2, but it
can be shown that these same equations are valid for all q.)
2. We could eliminate q to write y(x) but the parametric
equations are much simpler and easier to use.

We will meet parametric curves again later in the course …

71
1.6 Definition of a Limit
Introduction
Suppose a scientist wants to know the value of a
certain physical quantity at zero air pressure. In his
laboratory he can produce low air pressures but he
cannot achieve a perfect vacuum. What might he do?

In calculus we are often interested in the value of a

function f(x) when x is very close to a number x0 but not
necessarily equal to x0.
The mathematical concept for handling such problems is
the limit of a function.
72
Limits: A Working Definition
We ask:
As x gets closer and closer to x0 (but x  x0), does
f(x) get closer and closer to some finite number L?
If ‘yes’, we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 equals L.
Written lim f ( x)  L
x x0
or f ( x)  L as x  x0
Equivalently: we can make the value of f(x) as close as
we like to L by taking x sufficiently close to x0.

Note: lim f ( x) depends only on the values of f(x) near x0.

x x0
The value of f(x0) is not relevant! f(x0) may have a different
value or be undefined.
73
Three Examples
We will consider the following functions:
sin x | x| 1
f ( x)  , g ( x)  , h( x)  sin .
x x x
These functions are not defined at x = 0.
But we can look at their behaviour close to x = 0.
(I) Consider f(x). Using a calculator or computer we can
draw a table of values or plot the graph.

It seems that as x  0, f ( x)  1. I.e. lim f ( x)  1 74

x0
One-Sided and Two-sided Limits
For the function above, we get the same answer whether
we approach from above or below. This is not always the
case. So we need the concept of one-sided limits.
A limit from the left lim f ( x)
(x approaching x0 from below): x x0

A limit from the right lim f ( x)

(x approaching x0 from above): x x0

The two-sided limit lim f ( x) exists if and only if

x x0
both one-sided limits exist and are the same, i.e.

lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  L

x x0 x x0 x x0
75
Example 31
| x|
(II) Sketch a graph of g ( x)  .
x
What is the value of lim g ( x) , lim g ( x) and lim g ( x) ?
x0 x0 x0

76
(III) The graph of h( x)  sin(1 x) is shown below. What
can we say about lim h( x) , lim h( x) and lim h( x) ?
x0 x0 x0

• As x  0+, 1/x gets bigger and bigger …

• ... and sin(1/x) continues to oscillate in the range [-1,1].
I.e. the function does not tend towards any fixed value.
• This means lim h( x) does not exist.
x0
• Similarly lim h( x) does not exist.
x0
• So also lim h( x) does not exist.
x0 77
Example 32
Use the given graph of the function f to state the value of the
following limits. If a limit does not exist, explain why.

(a) lim f ( x)
x1

(b) lim f ( x)
x1

(c) lim f ( x)
x1

(d ) lim f ( x)
x3

(e) lim f ( x)
x4

78
Limits: Formal Definition [Optional]
The definition given above is rather informal. More
formally, the concept of a limit may be defined as follows.
Definition
Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval
containing x0, except possibly at x0. We say lim f ( x)  L
x x
if for every small quantity e > 0 there exists a d > 0 such
0

that | f(x) – L |< e for all x satisfying 0 < | x – x0|< d.

I.e. graphically, if f(x) lies inside the

horizontal strip of the width 2e around
L then x lies inside the vertical strip of
the width 2d around x0 (irrespective or
whether or not point (x0, L) belongs to
the graph of f).
79
Similar definitions can be written for one-sided limits.
These definitions can be used to find limits.
Example 33 (Optional)
3x  1 11
Use the definition above to prove that lim 
x4 2 2

80
1.7 Evaluating Limits. Laws of
Limits.
In section 1.5 we used tables and graphs to ‘guess’
limits. Then we met a formal proof but this is hard work
to use! Now we will develop tools for finding limits
precisely and relatively easily.
1.7.1 An Initial Theorem
From the definition of a limit, the following simple but
important result can be proved:

For any constants x0 and c,

lim c  c and lim x  x0
x x0 x x0
81
1.7.2 Laws of Limits

(For proofs, see textbooks.)

From these basic laws, further results can be derived.

E.g.
can be proved by repeated application of (iii) with f(x)=g(x).
82
Example 34
Using the theorem and laws above, find lim (2 x 2  3x)
x2

1.7.3 Limits of Elementary Functions

Most of the functions we meet are elementary functions:
polynomials, power functions, rational functions (ratios of
two polynomials), exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric
and inverse trigonometric functions, and all the functions
which can be obtained from these by addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and composition.
E.g.
83
Direct Substitution Property
If f is an elementary function and x0 is in the
domain of f , then lim f ( x)  f ( x0 )
x x0

So if f is elementary and x0 is in its domain, the limit can

be found simply by substituting x0 into the formula for f.
If x0 is not in the domain then this property cannot be used!
In some cases the limit can still be found by algebraic
manipulation. Other techniques will be studied in Chapter 3.
Example 35 Find the following limits:
x2  1
(a) lim
x1 x  1

84
 x2 1
(b) lim
x1 x  1

x 1
(c) lim
x1 x  1

85
Example 36 Find the following limits:
x 3
(a) lim
x1 x  7

x p
(b) lim
xp e2

 x p 
(c) lim cos  2 
xp  e 

x 1 x  1
(d ) lim f ( x) where f ( x)  
x1 4 x 1

x 2
(e) lim
x 4 x2  5x  4
86
1.7.4 The Squeeze Theorem (or sandwich theorem)

If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval

containing x0, except possibly at x0, and if
Lim f ( x)  Lim h( x)  L then Lim g ( x)  L .
x x0 x x0 x x0

If g is trapped between f
and h, and if f and h have
the same limit L at x0, (i.e.
f and h meet at x0), then g
must also have the same
limit L at x0.

87
Example 37
1
Use the squeeze theorem to show that lim x sin  0
x0 x

88
 sin x
Proof that lim  1 (using the Squeeze Theorem)
x0 x

Consider a sector of a circle of radius 1, as

shown in the figure, with angle 0  x  p 2.

Area ∆OAB ≤ area of sector OAB ≤ area ∆OAC

So 1
2
sin x  2
1
x  tan x.
1
2
sin x
The first inequality gives sin x  x hence  1.
sin x x
sin x
The second inequality gives x  hence  cos x.
cos x x
 1 for 0  x  p2 .
sin x
Thus cos x 
x
Replacing x with –x, the inequality also holds for  p2  x  0.
 1 for 2p  x  p2 , x  0.
sin x
So cos x 
x sin x
lim cos x  lim 1  1 so by the squeeze theorem, lim  1.
x0 x0 x0 x 89
1.8 Limits involving Infinity
A cup of hot tea is placed in a room which is air
conditioned at 25 ºC. After a long time, what will
the temperature of the tea be?
1.8.1 Limits at Infinity
2 x2  1
Example Consider f ( x)  .
x 3 2

What happens to the value of f(x) as x becomes arbitrarily

large (approaches infinity)?
- Both numerator and denominator become large
- But the quotient does not become large …
Dividing throughout by x2, f(x) (x  0).

As x  , 1/x2 0 so f(x)  2. So we say Lim f ( x)  2 .

x 90
Limits at Infinity (Informal Definition)
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞).
Then Lim f ( x)  L means the value of f(x) gets closer
x
and closer to L as x gets bigger and bigger.
Let g be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a).
Then Lim g ( x)  L means the value of g(x) gets closer
x
and closer to L as x gets more and more negative.
[x   may be read as “x approaches infinity”, “x becomes
infinite” or “x increases without bound”.]
Graphically, such a limit corresponds to a horizontal
asymptote, y = L.
An asymptote is a straight line which a graph approaches
arbitrarily close to at long distances from the origin. It may
be approached in many different ways:

2 x2  1
E.g. For f ( x)  ., Lim f ( x)  2 and Lim f ( x)  2
x 3
2 x x
So as x , f(x) approaches the straight line y = 2.
We say y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
1.8.2 Infinite Limits
Example Consider the function h( x)  1 x
Sketch the graph. What is Lim h( x) ?
x0

• As x → 0+ , the value of h(x) gets bigger and bigger,

without bound.
• So h(x) do not approach any fixed value L.
• So the limit does not exist.
• However it is convenient to say that xLim
h( x )  
0
[as x → 0+, h(x) “approaches infinity” or “tends to infinity”]

• Similarly, it is convenient to say that Lim h( x)  

x0
93
Infinite Limits (Informal Definition)

The notation Lim f ( x)   means f(x) becomes larger

x x0
and larger as x gets closer and closer to x0;
And Lim f ( x)   means f(x) becomes more and
x x0
more negative as x gets closer and closer to x0.

Note: Whenever a limit has the value ∞ or −∞, this

means the limit does not exist.
(±∞ are useful concepts but are not real numbers!)

Graphically, where a function has an infinite limit, the

graph has a vertical asymptote.
E.g. x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of h(x)=1/x.
Example 38
Sketch the graphs of the functions f(x) = 1/x2 and g(x) = ln x
i) What asymptotes does each graph have?
ii) State the values of the following limits:
1
(a) lim 2 ,
x0 x
1
(b) lim 2 ,
x0 x
1
(c) lim 2 ,
x0 x

(d ) lim ln x,
x

(e) lim ln x.
x0

95
Example 39 Find the following limits:
3x 2  1
(a) lim
x 2 x2  5

1
(b) lim
x0 x3

(c) lim ( x 2  x  x)
x

(d ) lim ( x 2  x  x)
x

96
1.9 Continuity
Definition
A function f is continuous at x0 if Lim f ( x)  f ( x0 )
x x0

I.e. To be continuous, f(x) must satisfy three conditions:

1) f is defined on an open interval containing x0;
2) xLim
x
f ( x) exists;
0

3) Lim f ( x)  f ( x0 )
x x0

Graphically, f is continuous at x0 if its graph extends

some distance to the right and left of the point (x0, f(x0))
and has no break at that point.

97
Conversely, f is discontinuous at x0 if there is a break,
or the left and right limits are not equal or do not exist.
Discontinuities are classified into three types:
(a) Removable Discontinuities
could be ‘removed’ by redefining
the function at a single number.

(b) Infinite Discontinuities

(c) Jump Discontinuities

98
Example 40
a) Consider again the graph shown.
At what values of x is f discontinuous?
What type of discontinuities are these?

 x2  1
 x  1.
b) Consider f ( x)   x  1 Is f continuous at x = 1?
 1 x 1


99
Further DEFINITIONS
A function f is continuous from the right at x0 if
Lim f ( x)  f ( x0 )
x x0
A function f is continuous from the left at x0 if
Lim f ( x)  f ( x0 )
x x0

Example 40 cont. At x = 1 is f continuous from the left or right?

A function f is continuous on the open interval (a, b) if it

is continuous at every interior point of the interval.
A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it
is continuous on the open interval (a, b), continuous from
the right at x = a and continuous from the left at x = b.
Graphically, a function is continuous on (a, b) if that part of the
graph can be drawn without lifting one’s pen off the paper!
100
Further Theorems

If functions f and g are continuous at x0, then so are

f + g, f − g, fg, and f /g (provided g(x0)  0).
If g is continuous at x0 and f is continuous at g(x0), then
the composite function f ◦ g is continuous at x0.
Every elementary function is continuous on its domain.

The inverse of any continuous function is also continuous.

(For proofs, see textbooks.)
The last theorem can be established graphically.
Remember that the graph of f −1 is the reflection of the
graph of f in the line y = x. So if the graph of f has no
break then the graph of f −1 will also have no break.
101
1.9 The Intermediate Value
Theorem Theorem
If f is continuous on a finite closed interval [a, b] and
if M is a real number lying between f(a) and f(b), then
there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = M.
I.e., in the interval [a, b], a continuous function takes on
every value between f(a) and f(b) at least once.
The idea is obvious graphically:
if a graph starts at height f(a) and
finishes at height f(b) and is
continuous, it must cross the a line
of height M at least once.
(For formal proof, see textbooks.)
102
A common use of this theorem is in locating roots of
equations: if f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and if f(a) and f(b)
have opposite signs so f(a)f(b) < 0, then there must exist
a number c in (a, b) such that f(x) = 0.
Example 41
Show that x4 + x2 − x − 3 = 0 has a root in the interval
[1, 2].

103
Investigation Exercise (to prepare for Chapter 2)
Consider your journey from your home to IU on a typical
day. a) Sketch an approximate graph of distance as a
function of time. b) Also consider: during your journey, what
was your maximum speed? your minimum speed? your
average speed? How do these speeds relate to your graph?

104