5.

Data Encoding and Modulation [18 marks]

1. Baseband Communication (Analog/Digital)

2. Data Encoding and Modulation.
3. Types of Analog Modulation: Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase
Modulation.
4. Pulse Modulation System: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM).
5. Encoding Analog Data as Digital Signal: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
6. Encoding Digital Data as Digital Signals.
7. Line Coding Schemes: NRZ, RZ, Manchester, AMI.
8. Block Coding, Scrambling.
9. Digital Modulation: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK),
Phase Shift Keying (PSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
1. Baseband Communication
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2.Data encoding and Modulation
 Modulation
• Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of
a high frequency signal called carrier signal according with a
modulating signal which typically contains information to be
transmitted.
• The technique of superimposing the message signal on the
carrier is know as modulation.
• The three key parameter's are: Amplitude (volume) ,phase
(Phase) and frequency (Pitch).
• Modulation of a sine waveform is used to transform a
baseband message into a pass band signal, for example low
frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF-
Signal)
 Need for Modulation
Short operating Range- when a wave has a large frequency, the
energy associated with it will also be large. Thus low frequency
signals have less power that does not enable them to travel over
long distances.
Poor Radiation Efficiency- The radiation becomes very poor for
low frequency signals.
• Mutual Interference- If all audio frequencies are send
continuously from different sources, they would all get mixed
up and cause erroneous interference air. If modulation is done,
each signal will occupy different frequency levels and can be
transmitted simultaneously without any error.
• Huge Antenna Requirement- For a effective signal
transmission, the sending and receiving antenna should be at
least 1/4th of the wave length of the signal. Thus, for small
frequencies, the antenna will have kilometers of length. But if
the signal has the range of MHz frequency, then the antenna
size would be less.
• Requirements of multiple signal transmission- Modulation
allows us to send a signal over a band pass frequency range. If
every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can
transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel,
all using different frequency ranges ( Multiplexing)
 Encoding
• Encoding is the process of converting data into a
format required for a number of information
processing needs, including:
– Program compiling and execution.
– Data transmission, storage and
compression/decompression.
– Application data processing, such as file conversion.
– Encoding is also used to reduce the size of audio and
video files.
– E.g. ASCII (American standard code for Information
Interchange), MIME ( Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions).
 3. Types of Analaog Modulation

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

Different versions of AM
 Frequency Modulation
a type of modulation where the Frequency of the
carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion
to the message signal while the amplitude and phase
are kept constant.
• FM modulation Index:
• Ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.

Frequency Deivation
β=
Modulating frequency
• The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from
the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B. Where  is usually 4.
• Narrowband FM: B is small enough that the terms in the
Bessel expansion. Modulation index must be less than 0.5,
used for short distance and data bandwidth is small. E.g. short
distance communications using vehicle mount radios.
• Wideband FM: modulation index is above 0.5, wider
bandwidth, high quality signals. E.g. broadcast FM stations .
• The amount by which the signal frequency varies is
very important. This is known as the deviation and is
normally quoted as the number of KiloHertz deviation.
• E.g. the signal may have a deviation of ±3KHz. In this
case the carrier is made to move up and down by 3KHz.
• FM is used worldwide to provide high fidelity sound
over broadcast radio.
• FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality
than AM broadcasting.
• FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the
radio spectrum usually 88 to 108 MHz is used.
 Phase Modulation
• a type of modulation where the phase of the
carrier signal is modulated (changed) in
proportion to the message signal while the
amplitude and frequency are kept constant.
• Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting
radio waves and is an integral part of many digital
transmission coding schemes that underlines a
wide range of technologies like Wi-Fi, GSM and
satellite television.
 Phase modulated wave
• The effect of variation in amount of phase shift is proportional
to change in the carrier frequency. So called indirect form of
frequency modulation.
• Advantage: increased immunity to noise
• Disadvantage: More complex hardware at receiver.
 (For detail study on FM and PM)

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

 4. Pulse Modulation System: Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM).

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

 Pulse Modulation System
• The process of transmitting signals in the form of
pulses (discontinuous signals) by using special
techniques.
• Two Types of Pulse Modulation
• Analog Pulse Modulation
– Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
– Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
– Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
• Digital Pulse Modulation
– Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
– Delta Modulation (DM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
• The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each
sample is proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that
sampling instant. This technique is called sampling.
• For minimum distortion, the sampling rate should be more
than twice the signal frequency.
 Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM/PDM)
• In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the
duration or length or width of each pulse is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of the analog signal.
• The negative side of the signal is brought to the positive side
by adding a fixed D.C voltage.
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
• In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and
width whereas the position of each pulse is varied as per
instantaneous value of the analog signal.
• PPM signal is further modification of PWM signal. It has
positive thin pulses (Zero time or width) corresponding to the
starting edge of a PWM pulse and negative thin pulses
corresponding to the ending edge of a pulse.
PAM, PWM and PPM at a glance
 5. Encoding Analog Data as Digital Signal: Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM).

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• PCM is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. The
signals in PCM are binary; that is, there are only two possible
state, 1 and 0.
• Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data,
including full-motion video, voices, music, telemetry.
• Analog signal is converted into digital signal by using a digital
code.
• PCM involves three steps:
– Sampling
– Quantization
– Encoding
 Basic Block diagram of PCM
1.Sampling: The process of generating pulses of zero width and of
amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal. The
number of pulses per second is called sampling rate.
2. Quantization: The process of dividing the maximum value of the analog
signal into a fixed number of levels in order to convert the PAM into a
Binary code. The levels obtained are called Quantization levels.
3. Encoding/Coding: The process of assigning digital signals to the
quantized levels.
PCM
 Sampling
• Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
• Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
• fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
• There are 3 sampling methods:
– Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
– Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
– Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude
value
• The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation
PAM and the outcome is a signal with analog (non
integer) values
Three different methods of sampling

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be

at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
 Quantization Zones
• Assume we have a voltage signal with
amplitutes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
• We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
• Zone width = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
• The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10
to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15,
+15 to +20
• The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5,
2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
 Assigning Codes to Zones
• Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
• The number of bits required to encode the zones,
or the number of bits per sample as it is
commonly referred to, is obtained as follows:
nb = log2 L
• Given our example, nb = 3
• The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000,
001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
• Assigning codes to zones:
– 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
– 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.
Figure Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
PCM
• advantages
– Robustness to noise and interference
– Efficient regeneration
– Uniform format
– Easily multiplexed
– Signals may be stored.
– Enables encryption
– Easy storage
• Disadvantages
Requires larger bandwidth.
Need synchronization
Not compatible to analog system.
 6. Encoding Digital Data as Digital Signals.
7. Line Coding Schemes: NRZ, RZ, Manchester, AMI.
8. Block Coding, Scrambling.

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

NOTE:

ENCODING
(D/D) (A/D) (D/A) (A/A)
Information must be encoded into signals before it can be transported across communication
media. We must encode data into signals to send them from one place to another.

This includes Analog to Analog Encoding (A/A), Analog to Digital Encoding (A/D) , Digital to
Analog Encoding (D/A) , Digital to Digital Encoding (D/D) .

 Analog-to-analog modulation can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude modulation

(AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). (studied earlier)
 Analog to Digital Encoding (A/D) can be accomplished by using PCM. (studied earlier)
 Digital to Analog Encoding (D/A) can be accomplished by using ASK, FSK , PSK,
QAM.
 Digital to Digital Encoding (D/D) can be accomplished by using Line coding techniques.
 Digital-to-Digital Encoding ( Line Coding):
Digital-to-Digital Encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital
signal. (eg. computer-to-printer)

01011101 Digital/digital
• encoding •

Unipolar

Digital/ digital encoding Polar

Bipolar

Unipolar
Digital transmission systems work by sending voltage pulses along a media link,
usually a wire or a cable. In most types of encoding, one voltage level stands for
binary 0 and another level stands for binary 1. The polarity of a pulse refers to whether
it is positive or negative.

Unipolar encoding is so named because it uses only one polarity. Therefore, only one
of the two binary states is encoded, usually the 1. The other state, usually 0, is
represented by zero voltage, or an idle line.
Unipolar encoding uses only one level of value.

 
 Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

_• Time

1’s encoded as positive, 0’s are idle. Unipolar encoding is straight forward and
inexpensive to implement. However, it has two problems that make it unusable: DC
component and synchronisation.
DC component
à
Average amplitude is nonzero creates a direct current (DC) component, when a
signal contains a DC component it cannot travel through media that cannot handle DC
components: e.g. microwaves or transformers.

Synchronisation
When a signal is unvarying, the receiver cannot determine the beginning and ending of
each bit. Therefore, Synchronisation problem in unipolar encoding can occur
whenever the data stream includes a long uninterrupted series of 1’s or 0’s.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding uses two voltage levels: one positive and one negative. In most polar
encoding methods the average voltage level on the line is reduced and the DC
component problem of unipolar encoding is alleviated.

Polar

NRZ RZ Biphase

NRZ-L NRZ-I Manchester Differential

Manchester

   
 Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Encoding
In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal is always either positive or negative. In NRZ
system if the line is idle it means no transmission is occurring at all.

• NRZ-L (Non-return-to-zero, Level)

In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependant upon the state of the bit.
A positive voltage usually means the bit is 0, and negative voltage means the bit is a 1
(and vice versa).

• NRZ-I (Non-return-to-zero, Invert)

In NRZ-I, an inversion of the voltage level represents a 1 bit. It is the transition
between a positive and a negative voltage, not the voltages themselves that represents
a 1 bit. A 0 bit is represented by no change.
An advantage of NRZ-I over NRZ-L is that because the signal changes every time a 1
bit is encountered, it provides some synchronisation.
Each inversion allows the receiver to synchronise its timer to the actual arrival of the
transmission.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

NRZ-L
Time

NRZ-I Time

   
 RZ (Return-to-zero) Encoding
To assure synchronisation, there must be a signal change for each bit. The receiver can
use these changes to built up, update, and synchronise its clock.
One solution is return to zero (RZ) encoding, which uses three Values: positive,
negative, and zero.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to encode
one bit and therefore occupies more bandwidth. But of the three alternatives discussed
above, it is the most effective. Because a good encoded digital signal must contain a
provision for synchronisation.

Biphase Encoding
Probably the best existing solution to the problem of synchronisation is biphase
encoding. In this method, the signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does
not return to zero. Instead it continues to the opposite pole. As in RZ, these mid-
interval transitions allow for synchronisation.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways: Manchester and differential
Manchester.

• Manchester
Manchester encoding uses the inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both
synchronisation and bit representation. A negative-to-positive transition represents
binary 1 and a positive-to-negative transition represents binary 0.
   
  

Amplitude 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

• Differential Manchester
In this method, the inversion at the middle of the bit is used for synchronisation, but
the presence or absence of an additional transition at the beginning of the interval is
used to identify the bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
The bit representation is shown by the inversion and non-inversion at the beginning of
the bit.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

Bipolar Encoding

Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels: positive, negative and zero. The zero level
is used to represent binary 0 positive and negative voltages represent alternating 1s. (If
st nd
1 one +ve, 2 is -ve).
* Three types of bipolar encoding are popular use by the data communications
industry: AMI, B8ZS, and HDB3.

 
  

• Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

Bipolar AMI is the simplest type of bipolar encoding. The word mark comes from
telegraphy and means 1.
AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral, zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary
1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

By inverting on each occurrence of a 1, bipolar AMI accomplishes two things: first,

the DC component is zero, and second, a long sequence of 1s stays synchronised.
Two variations of bipolar AMI have been developed to solve the problem of
synchronisation sequential 0s. The first used in North America, is called bipolar 8-zero
substitution (B8ZS); the second, used in Europe and Japan, is called high-density
bipolar 3 (HDB3). Both are adaptations of bipolar AMI that modify the original
pattern only in the case of multiple consecutive 0s.

Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)

B8ZS is the convention adopted in North America to provide synchronisation of long

strings of 0s. In most situations B8ZS functions identically to bipolar AMI. Bipolar
AMI changes poles with every 1 it encounters. These changes provide the
synchronisation needed by the receiver, but the signal does not change during a string
of 0s, so synchronisation is lost. The solution provided by B8ZS is to force artificial
signal changes, called violations

• In B8ZS, if eight 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of two ways
based on the polarity of previous 1.

 
 Polarity of Polarity of previous 1 bit
Previous 1 bit

+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

will change to

+ 0 0 0 + - 0 - + - 0 0 0 - + 0 + -

(Violation) (Violation) (Violation) (Violation)

High-Density Bipolar 3 (HDB3)

In HDB3 if four 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of four
ways based on the polarity of the previous 1 and the number of 1s since the last
substitution.

+ 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0

th
Violation in the 4 consecutive zero

+ 0 0 0 + - 0 0 0 -

If the number of 1s since the last substitution is odd

+ 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0

st th
Violation in the 1 & 4 consecutive zero

+ - 0 0 - - + 0 0 +

If the number of 1s since the last substitution is even

   
  

Ex
Compare the bandwidth needed for unipolar encoding and RZ encoding. Assume the
worst-case scenario for both.
Solution
The worst case scenario (the situation requiring the most bandwidth) is alternating 1s
and 0s for unipolar, for RZ the worst-case is all 1s.

Unipolar encoding
Value

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Time

Time

Value
A
RZ encoding

• Time

Time

RZ needs twice the bandwidth of unipolar.

   
Ex
Compare the bandwidth needed for Manchester and Differential Manchester
encoding. Assume the worst-case scenario for both.
Solution
The worst-case scenario for Manchester is consecutive 1s or consecutive 0s. There
are two transistors for each bit (one cycle per bit). For Differential Manchester the
worst – case is consecutive 0s with two transitions per each bit (one cycle per bit).
The bandwidths, which are proportional to bit rate, are the same for each.
Ex
Using B8ZS, encode the bit stream 10000000000100. Assume that the polarity of
the previous 1 is positive.
Amplitude

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Time
 (for more details consult this section from text book
which is given below)

Compiled by: Ravi Poudel

 B8ZS
• Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+-
• Causes two violations of AMI code
• Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
• Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all
zeros
 HDB3
• High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• String of four zeros replaced with one or two
pulses
B8ZS
9.Digital Modulation: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK),
Phase Shift Keying (PSK), Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
 Digital Data, Analog Signal

A cos(2f c t   )

4.69
 Keying
Keying is a family of modulation forms where the modulating
signal takes one of a specific (predetermined) number of values at
all times. The goal of keying is to transmit a digital signal over an
analog channel. The name derives from the Morse code key used
for telegraph signaling.

Modulation is the general technique of shaping a signal to convey

information. When a digital message has to be represented as an
analog waveform, the technique and term keying.

Several keying techniques exist, including phase-shift keying,

frequency-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying. Bluetooth, for
example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between
devices.
4.71
4.72
4.73
4.74
 Differential PSK
Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some
reference signal

4.75
4.76
4.77
Advantage:
• Very good noise immunity.
• For the same bit error rate, the bandwidth required by
QPSK is reduced to half as compared to BPSK.
• Because of reduced bandwidth, the information
transmission rate of QPSK is higher.
• Low error probability.
Disadvantages:
• Inter-channel interference is significantly large in
QPSK.
• QPSK relative to BPSK is that it is more sensitive to
phase variations.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
• Combination of ASK and PSK
• Logical extension of QPSK
• Send two different signals simultaneously on same
carrier frequency
—Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
—Each carrier is ASK modulated
—Two independent signals over same medium
—Demodulate and combine for original binary output

4.79
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which two
carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees are modulated and the
resultant output consists of both amplitude and phase variations.
In view of the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are
present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and
phase modulation. QAM is extensively used as modulation
scheme for digital telecommunication system such as 802.11 Wi-
Fi standards. QAM is being used in optical fiber systems as bit
rates increases 16QAM and 64QAM.

4.80
 Signal Constellation

4.81
4.82
Advantage:
increase the efficiency of transmission for radio
communications systems by utilizing both amplitude and
phase variations
Disadvantage: it is more susceptible to noise because the
states are closer together.