UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY Student Notes:

Contents
1. Understanding Ecology .............................................................................................................. 2
1.1. Concept of Ecology and Environment ................................................................................. 2
1.2. Levels of Organisation of Ecology........................................................................................ 2
1.3. Functions of an Ecosysytem ................................................................................................ 5
1.4. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem .............................................................................................. 5
1.5. Food Chain .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.5.1. Definition...................................................................................................................... 7
1.5.2. Types of Food Chain ..................................................................................................... 7
1.6. Food Web ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.7. Ecological Pyramid .............................................................................................................. 8
1.7.1. Definition...................................................................................................................... 8
1.7.2. Types of Ecological Pyramids........................................................................................ 8
1.8. Ecological Productivity ...................................................................................................... 11
1.8.1. Definition.................................................................................................................... 11
1.9. Biological Interaction ........................................................................................................ 11
1.9.1. Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ................................................................ 12
1.10. Ecological Succession ...................................................................................................... 13
1.10.1. Types of Succession .................................................................................................. 13
1.11. Biogeochemical Cycles .................................................................................................... 14
1.11.1. Carbon Cycle ............................................................................................................ 15
1.11.2. Nitrogen Cycle .......................................................................................................... 15
1.12. Ecosystem Services.......................................................................................................... 18
2. UPSC Previous Years Question ................................................................................................. 20
3. Vision IAS Previous Years Questions ........................................................................................ 21

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1. Understanding Ecology Student Notes:

1.1. Concept of Ecology and Environment

Ecology can be defined as a scientific study of the interactions of organism with their physical
environment and with each other.
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the
word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally, ecology is the study of the earth as a
‘household’, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. They all live together as
interdependent components. The term ecology was first used by German zoologist Ernst
Haeckel in 1869.
An ecosystem is defined as a community of life forms in concurrence with non-living
components, interacting with each other. The term ecosystem was coined by Arthur Tansley in
1935.
Environment is the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development and
life of all organisms on earth. Thus it can be said as one’s surrounding.
Autecology: The study of relationship of individual species with the environment.
Synecology: The study of plant communities in relation to their habitats of a given
ecosystem.
Gaia hypothesis: This refers to a scientific hypothesis which states that the earth is a complex
living entity, with the sustenance of life dependent on the self-regulating interactions among
organisms and their inorganic surroundings.
• For instance, climatic conditions depend on the interactions among living organisms
like human beings and their non-living atmosphere, all of which regulate each other
constantly.
• The Gaia hypothesis is named after the mythical Greek goddess Gaia who personifies
the earth.
• It was first proposed by British scientist James Lovelock in his 1972 paper “Gaia as
seen through the atmosphere.”

1.2. Levels of Organisation of Ecology

The seven major ecological levels of organisations are:
• Organisms- They makes the basic unit of study in ecology. At each level, the biological unit
has a specific structure and function. At this level, the form, physiology, behaviour,
distribution and adaptations in relation to the environmental conditions are studied.
• Population- In ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same species, inhabiting
the same area, and functioning as a unit of biotic community.
• Biological Community- Biological/ Biotic community organisation results from
interdependence and interactions amongst population of different species in a habitat.
This is an assemblage of populations of plants, animals, bacteria and fungi that live in an area
and interact with each other.
(You will read about different types of interactions in detail further in this Chapter in topic 1.9
Biotic interactions)
• Ecosystem- The ecosystems are parts of nature where living organisms interact amongst
themselves and with their physical environment. An ecosystem in composed of a biotic
community, integrated with its physical environment through the exchange of energy and
recycling of the nutrients.
Ecosystems can be recognised as self- regulating and self-sustaining units of landscape, e.g.,
a pond or a forest.

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• Landscape- A landscape is a unit of land with a natural boundary having a mosaic of patches, Student Notes:
which generally represent different ecosystems.
• Biome- This is a large regional
unit characterized by a major Biotic Potential
vegetation type and associated • The maximum rate at which a population can increase
when resources are unlimited and environmental
fauna found in a specific
conditions are ideal is termed the population's biotic
climate zone. The biome potential.
includes all associated • Each species will have a different biotic potential due to
developing and modified variations in:
communities occurring within o the species' reproductive span (how long an
the same climatic region, e.g., individual is capable of reproducing)
forest biomes, grassland and o the frequency of reproduction (how often an
savanna biomes, desert biome, individual can reproduce)
etc. o "litter size" (how many offspring are born each
time)
On a global scale, all the earth’s o survival rate (how many offspring survive to
terrestrial biomes and aquatic reproductive age)
systems constitute the Carrying Capacity
biosphere. • For a given region, carrying capacity is the maximum
number of individuals of a given species that an area's
(You will read in detail about resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly
biomes in Chapter-2, Types of depleting or degrading those resources.
Ecosystem)
• Biosphere- Biosphere is a part of earth where life can exist. It represents a highly integrated
and interacting zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere
(land).
Biome and ecosystem are two different ecological concepts. Although they are closely related to each
other, they are different from each other.
Biome Ecosystem
It is a large area of land with distinct climate It is the interaction of abiotic and biotic
and plant and animal species. components between each other in a given area.
It is a large geographical area. It is a small geographical area.
It is greatly influenced by climatic factors such It is not much influenced by the climatic factors
as snow, ice, rainfall, temperature etc. like ice, snowfall, temperature etc.
It is a larger category of ecological units. It It is a part of biome made of biotic and abiotic
contains multiple ecosystems within it. factors.
As a biome is a collection of species it has a An ecosystem has a less diversity of plants and
great diversity of plant and animal species. animals species than that of a biome as it is
smaller in size.
Some common examples of biomes include Some common examples include coral reefs,
desert, tundra, grasslands, and tropical rain ponds, Gulf of Mexico etc.
forests.
Latitude has a great influence on a biome. An ecosystem is not affected by latitude.
All the animals of a biome may not interact with All the animals and organisms of an ecosystem
each other. interact with each other.

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 Student Notes:

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 Student Notes:
IMPORTANT TERMS
Ecotone: An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse
ecosystems).
• Ecotone is the zone where two communities meet and integrate.
• For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
• Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt
water) and riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet).
Ecocline: Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another when
there is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species composition.
• Ecocline occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors such as
altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc.).
Edge Effect – Edge Species
• Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the
boundary of two habitats (ecotone).
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the ecotone
is much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.
• In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• For example, the density of birds is greater in the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Ecological Niche
• Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.
• The functional characteristic of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that common
habitat.
• In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions:
• Habitat niche – where it lives, food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes
with,
• Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces,
• Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & another requirement.
• Niche plays an important role in the conservation of organisms. If we have to conserve species in
its native habitat, we should have knowledge about the niche requirements of the species.

1.3. Functions of an Ecosysytem

Ecosystems are complex dynamic system, they perform following functions:
1. Energy flow through food chain
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
3. Ecological succession or ecosystem development
4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, deserts and forests are examples of natural
ecosystem. Many of you have seen an aquarium; a garden or a lawn etc. in your neighborhood. These
are man-made ecosystem

1.4. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

The cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy through different trophic levels in an
ecosystem. Ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and nutrients obtained from different
external sources.
Sun is the primary source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation
less than 50 percent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). PAR, designates the
spectral range (wave band) of solar radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers that photosynthetic
organisms are able to use in the process of photosynthesis.

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Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire Student Notes:
living world. The energy of sunlight fixed in food production by green plants is passed through
the ecosystem by food chains and webs from one trophic level to the next. In this way, energy
flows through the ecosystem.

TROPHIC LEVEL
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The trophic level is the
number of steps an organism is from start of the chain.
A given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously. One must remember that
the trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such.
A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for
example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer
when it eats insects and worms.

• At the first trophic level, primary producers use solar energy to produce organic material
through photosynthesis.

• The herbivores at the second trophic level use the plants as food which gives them energy.
A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals such as
breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and
body temperature.
• The carnivores at the next trophic level feed on the herbivores and derive energy for their
sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher trophic
level and they feed on carnivores to get energy.

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1.5. Food Chain Student Notes:

1.5.1. Definition
The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is itself
consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain.
Food chain is also defined as “a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through
which energy is transferred”.
Every living being irrespective of their size and habitat, from the tiniest algae to giant blue
whales, need food to survive.

Food chain is structured differently for different species in different ecosystems. Each food chain
is the vital pathway for energy and nutrients to follow through the ecosystem.
1.5.2. Types of Food Chain
There are two types of food chains:
• Grazing food chain, beginning with autotrophs. In this, energy and nutrients move from
plants to the herbivores consuming them, and to the carnivores or omnivores preying upon
the herbivores.
• Detrital food chain, beginning with dead organic matter. In a detrital food chain, dead organic
matter of plants and animals is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and
moves to detritivores and then carnivores.

1.6. Food Web

The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as ‘a network of interconnected food
chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism of a biotic
community.

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A food chain cannot stand isolated in an Student Notes:
ecosystem. The same food resource may be a
part of more than one chain. This is possible
when the resource is at the lower tropic level.
A food web comprises all the food chains in a
single ecosystem. It is essential to know that
each living thing in an ecosystem is a part of
multiple food chains.(As illustrated in the
diagram)
A single food chain is the single possible path
that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the
interconnected and overlapping food chains in
an ecosystem make up a food web.
Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants are the foundation of all ecosystem
and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment and oxygen needed for survival and
reproduction.
The food web provides stability to the ecosystem.

10% rule
The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive trophic
levels. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of
energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic
level from the lower trophic level.

1.7. Ecological Pyramid

1.7.1. Definition
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different
organisms in an ecosystem.
Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a different trophic level, and their order,
which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy.
1.7.2. Types of Ecological Pyramids
• Pyramid of Biomass As the name suggests, the Biomass Pyramids show the amount of
biomass (living or organic matter present in an organism) present per unit area at each
trophic level. It is drawn with the producers at the base and the top carnivores at the top.
Pyramid of biomass is generally ascertained by gathering all organisms occupying each
trophic level separately and measuring their dry weight.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called standing
crop, which is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit
area.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass
Ecosystems found on land mostly have pyramids of biomass with large base of primary
producers with smaller trophic level perched on top, hence the upright pyramid of biomass.

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 Student Notes:

The biomass of autotrophs or producers is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic
level, i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. Similarly, the other consumers such
as secondary and tertiary consumers are comparatively less than its lower level respectively.
The top of the pyramid has very less amount of biomass.
Inverted Pyramid of Biomass
On the other hand, a reverse pyramidal structure is found in most aquatic ecosystems. Here,
the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted pattern.
This is because in a water body, the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and
reproduce rapidly. In this condition, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the
producer biomass at the base providing support to consumer biomass of large weight.
Hence, it assumes an inverted shape.

• Pyramid of Numbers
It is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of various trophic
levels. Large number of producers tends to form the base whereas lower number of top
predators or carnivores occupies the top. The shape of the pyramid of numbers varies from
ecosystem to ecosystem.
For example, in an aquatic ecosystem or grassland areas, autotrophs or producers are
present in large number per unit area. The producers support a lesser number of herbivores,
which in turn supports fewer carnivores.
Upright Pyramid of Numbers
In upright pyramid of numbers, the number of individuals decreases from the lower level to
the higher level. This type of pyramid is usually found in the grassland ecosystem and the

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 pond ecosystem. The grass in a grassland ecosystem occupies the lowest trophic level Student Notes:
because of its abundance.

Inverted Pyramid of Numbers

Here, the number of individuals increases from the lower level to the higher trophic level.
For example, the tree ecosystem.
• Pyramid of Energy
It is a graphical structure representing the flow of energy through each trophic level of a food
chain over a fixed part of the natural environment.
An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy
at each is transferred to another trophic level.
Energy pyramid, sometimes called trophic pyramid or ecological pyramid, is used in
quantifying the energy transfer from one organism to another along the food chain.

Energy decreases as one move through the trophic levels from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid. Thus, the energy pyramid is always upward.

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1.8. Ecological Productivity Student Notes:

1.8.1. Definition
Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by plants and the
subsequent use of that fixed energy by plant-eating herbivores, animal-eating carnivores, and
the detritivores that feed upon dead biomass.
Ecologists refer to the productivity of green plants as primary productivity.
Gross primary productivity is the total amount of energy that is fixed by plants, while net primary
productivity is smaller because it is adjusted for energy losses required to support plant
respiration. If the net primary productivity of green plants in an ecosystem is positive, then the
biomass of vegetation is increasing over time.

Gross Primary productivity= Net Primary Productivity + Energy loss due to respiration

Gross and net secondary productivities refer to herbivorous animals, while tertiary productivities
refer to carnivores.

Different productivity of various ecosystems

Because of differences in the availabilities of solar radiation, water, and nutrients, the world’s
ecosystems differ greatly in their Ecological Productivity.
ORDER OF PRODUCTIVITY

1.9. Biological Interaction

These are the manner in which species interact with each other. These interactions can be inter-
specific (interactions with different species) or intra-specific (interactions between same species).

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1.9.1. Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web Student Notes:
‘0’ is no effect; ‘–’ is detrimental; ‘+’ is beneficial.

Type of Species
Effect Comments
interaction 1 2

Negative Interactions

• The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce

penicillin an antibiotic substance which
One species is inhibited
inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria.
Amensalism – 0 while the other species
• A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the
is unaffected.
growth of the small plant. The small plant has
no effect on the large tree.

• Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs

use speed, teeth and claws to hunt and kill
One species (predator)
their prey.
benefits while the
Predation + – • Predators help in maintaining species
second species (prey) is
diversity in a community, by reducing the
harmed and inhibited.
intensity of competition among competing
prey species.

• Parasitism involves parasite living in or

on another living species called the host.
• The parasite gets its nourishment and often
shelter from its host.
Beneficial to one species
• Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite,
(parasite) and harmful
Parasitism + – many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common
to the other species
parasites of humans.
(host).
• The female mosquito is not considered a
parasite, although it needs our blood for
reproduction. Why? Because it doesn’t live on
the host.

• Competition occurs when two populations or

species, both need a vital resource that is in
short supply.
Adversely affects both • Woodpeckers and squirrels often compete for
Competition – –
species. nesting rights in the same holes and spaces in
trees, while the lions and cheetahs of the
African savanna compete for the same
antelope and gazelle prey.

Positive Associations

• Suckerfish often attaches to a shark. This

helps the suckerfish get protection, a free ride
One species (the as well as a meal from the leftover of the
commensal) benefits, shark’s meal. The shark does not, however,
Commensalism + 0 while the other species get any benefit nor is it adversely affected by
(the host) is neither this association.
harmed nor inhibited • Another example of commensalisms is
the relationship between trees and
epiphytic plants.

Interaction is favourable • Sea anemone gets attached to the shell

Mutualism + +
to both species of hermit crabs for the benefit of transport

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 and obtaining new food while the anemone Student Notes:
provides camouflage and protection utilizing
its stinging cells to the hermit crab.
• Some mutualisms are so intimate that the
interacting species can no longer live without
each other as they depend totally on each
other to survive.
• Such close associations are called symbiosis
(symbiosis is intense mutualism – E.g. coral
and zooxanthellae).

Neutral Interactions

Neither species affects

Neutralism 0 0 • True neutralism is extremely unlikely.
the other

1.10. Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of biological community evolves over
time.
1.10.1. Types of Succession
• Primary succession –It occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is
incapable of sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed sand
dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier.
• Secondary succession –It occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has
been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life
and nutrients from the environment.

In ecological terminology, the developmental stages of a community are known seral stages and the
final stage as the climax community.
The entire series of communities that is characteristic of a given site is called a sere.

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 Student Notes:

Other prominent types of Ecological Succession:

• Autotrophic Succession
Autotrophic Succession is characterised by early and continued dominance of autotrophic
organisms like green plants. It begins in a predominantly inorganic environment and the energy
flow is maintained indefinitely.
• Allogeneic Succession
In Allogeneic Succession, the replacement of the existing community is caused largely by any other
external condition and not by the existing organisms.
• Autogenic Succession
Autogenic Succession refers to that type when the community itself, as a result of its reactions with
the environment, modifies its own environment and thus causing its own replacement by new
communities.
• Hydrarch Succession
Plant succession starting on relatively shallow water, such as ponds and lakes, and culminating in a
mature forest.
• Xerarch Succession:
Plant succession starting on bare ground or rock and culminating in a mature climax forest. The
pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, result in the gradual accumulation of soil

1.11. Biogeochemical Cycles

All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.
Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through
the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration,
excretion, and decomposition.
Biogeochemical cycles can be either gaseous (which the reservoir pool is the atmosphere) or
sedimentary (reservoir pool is the Earth's crust)
• Gaseous Biogeochemical Cycles
o Carbon Cycle
o Nitrogen Cycle
o Water Cycle
o Oxygen Cycle
• Sedimentary Biogeochemical Cycle
o Phosphorus Cycle
o Sulphur Cycle

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1.11.1. Carbon Cycle Student Notes:
• Carbon enters into the living world in the
form of carbon dioxide through the process
of photosynthesis as carbohydrates.
• These organic compounds (food) are then
passed from the producers to the
consumers (herbivores & carnivores).
• This carbon is finally returned to the
surrounding medium by the process of
respiration or decomposition of plants and
animals by the decomposers.
• Carbon is also recycled during the burning of
fossil fuels.
1.11.2. Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in an elemental form and as such it cannot be utilized
by living organisms.
• This elemental form of nitrogen is converted into combined state with elements such as H,
C, O by certain bacteria, so that it can be readily used by the plants.

Nitrogen fixing Bacteria- Some bacteria can turn Nitrogen in to ammonia by the process known as
NITROGEN FIXATION. Examples-Azotobacter, Achaea etc.
Denitrifying Bacteria-These bacteria metabolize nitrogenous compounds using various enzymes turning
nitrogen oxides back to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide.

• Nitrogen is being continuously expelled into the air by the action of microorganisms such as
denitrifying bacteria and finally returned to the cycle through the action of lightening and
electrification.

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 Student Notes:

• Water Cycle
o The evaporation of water from ocean, rivers, lakes, and transpiring plants takes water in
the form of vapors to the atmosphere.
o This vaporized water subsequently cools and condenses to form cloud and water. This
cooled water vapor ultimately returns to the earth as rain and snow, completing the
cycle.

• OXYGEN CYCLE
o The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through the three main regions of
the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lithosphere. The Atmosphere is of
course the region of gases that lies above the Earth’s surface and it is one of the largest
reservoirs of free oxygen on earth.
o The Biosphere is the sum of all the Earth’s ecosystems. This also has some free oxygen
produced from photosynthesis and other life processes.
o The largest reservoir of oxygen is the lithosphere. Most of this oxygen is not on its own
or free moving but part of chemical compounds such as silicates and oxides

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 Student Notes:

• SULPHUR CYCLE
o Sulphur occurs in all living matter as a component of certain amino acids. It is abundant
in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial transformations, ends up
as sulphates usable by plants.
o Sulphur-containing proteins are degraded into their constituent amino acids by the
action of a variety of soil organisms. The sulphur of the amino acids is converted
to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by another series of soil microbes. In the presence of oxygen,
H2S is converted to sulphur and then to sulphate by sulphur bacteria. Eventually the
sulphate becomes H2S.

• PHOSPORUS CYCLE
o It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains, phosphates are
removed from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both soils and
water.
o Plants take up the phosphate ions from the soil. The phosphates then moves from plants
to animals when herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores.
o The phosphates absorbed by animal tissue through consumption eventually returns to
the soil through the excretion of urine and faeces, as well as from the final decomposition
of plants and animals after death.
o IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM-
✓ The same process occurs within the aquatic ecosystem. Phosphorus is not highly
soluble in water, thus binds tightly to molecules in soil; therefore it mostly reaches
waters by traveling with runoff soil particles.

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 ✓ Phosphates also enter waterways through fertilizer runoff, sewage seepage, natural Student Notes:
mineral deposits, and wastes from other industrial processes.
✓ These phosphates tend to settle on ocean floors and lake bottoms. As sediments are
stirred up, phosphates may re-enter the phosphorus cycle. Water plants take up the
waterborne phosphate which then travels up through successive stages of the
aquatic food chain.

1.12. Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning,
regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people and supporting services needed to
maintain the other services.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was initiated in 2001 by United Nations. The
objective of the MA was to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being,
the scientific basis for action needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those
systems and their contribution to human well-being.

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 Student Notes:

Examples of some plant resources

Medicinal herbs: Chamomile, Echinacea, Feverfew, Garlic, Ginseng, Goldenseal, Valerian etc.
Fiber Yielding Plants: Himalayan Nettle, Sisal Hemp, Jute, Cotton etc.

Natural Capital
• It includes those elements of the nature that provide valuable goods and services to humans, such
as the stock of forests, food, clean air, water, land, minerals, etc.
• It incorporates a broad perspective on the set of services provided by ecosystems assets.
• It is essential for economic growth, employment, and, ultimately, prosperity.
Natural Capital Accounting, or environmental-economic accounting
• It is a tool that can help to gain an understanding of the interaction between the economy and the
environment.
• It can be used to measure the state of ecosystems, flows of ecosystem services as well as changes in
stocks and flows of natural resources in relation to economic changes.
System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA)
• It is a statistical system that brings together economic and environmental information into a
common framework to measure the condition of the environment, the contribution of the
environment to the economy and the impact of the economy on the environment.
Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services
• The United Nations Statistics Division, UNEP, the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, and the European Union have launched this project.
• The project is funded by the European Union, aims to assist the five participating partner countries,
namely Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa, to advance the knowledge agenda on
environmental and ecosystem accounting.
• The project review policy demands, data availability and measurement practices in order to advance
and mainstream natural capital accounting and initiate pilot ecosystem accounts in each of the five
strategic partner countries.

The Economics of Environment and Biodiversity (TEEB)

• In 2007, G8+5 countries proposed to initiate the process of analyzing the global economic benefit
of biological diversity, the costs of the loss of biodiversity and the failure to take protective measures
versus the costs of effective conservation.
• In response to this, a global study was conducted by Germany and the European Commission under
Pavan Sukhdev which led to the establishment of TEEB.
• Based in Geneva, Switzerland, at the International Environment House, the TEEB office is hosted by
the UNEP.
• TEEB is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible”. Its principal objective is to
mainstream the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-making at all levels.

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 • In October 2010 it released its report " Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Synthesis of the Student Notes:
Approach, Conclusions and Recommendations of TEEB " and launched the Bank of Natural Capital
to communicate its findings to the general public.
• It is guided by three core principles:
o Recognizing value in ecosystems can sometimes ensure conservation and sustainable use. e.g.
the existence of sacred groves in some cultures has helped to protect natural areas and the
biodiversity they contain.
o Demonstrating value in economic terms is often useful for policy makers and others such as
business in reaching decisions that consider the full costs and benefits of an ecosystem. E.g. By
including the costs and benefits of conserving the ecosystem services provided by wetlands in
controlling floods compared to building flood defences.
o Capturing value involves the introduction of mechanisms that incorporate the values of
ecosystems into decisionmaking through incentives and price signals. This can include
payments for ecosystem services, reforming environmentally harmful subsidies or introducing
tax breaks for conservation.
IPBES Global Assessment Report
• The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an
independent intergovernmental body established in 2012 with now over 130 member states
around the world.
• The report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) is the most comprehensive scientific evaluation ever made of the state of our
nature, and gives a detailed account of health of the species that inhabit this earth, and the
condition of habitats that they live in and depend upon. It is the first intergovernmental Report of
its kind and builds on the landmark Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005, introducing
innovative ways of evaluating evidence.
• The Report concluded that the second-fastest mass extinction event in planetary history is
underway; the current rate of extinction is 100 to 1000 times greater than historical background
rates. Over one million species are at risk of extinction within the next few decades.
• The Report highlighted the importance of indigenous community in conservation. It notes,
“Nature managed by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities is under increasing pressure but
is generally declining less rapidly than in other lands.” This is significant since “at least” a quarter
of the world’s land area is “traditionally owned, managed, used or occupied by indigenous
peoples”.

2. UPSC Previous Years Question

Mains
1. What are the consequences of spreading of ‘Dead Zones’ on marine ecosystem? (2018) (10
marks)
2. Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment.
Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development
of a region. (2019)(15 marks)
Prelims
1. With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements :
(2013)
1. A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each
other.
2. Food chains are found within the populations of a species.
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by
others.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
Answer: (a)

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2. Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an Student Notes:
organism, but also its functional role in the community of organisms? (2013)
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche
(c) Habitat (d) Home range
Answer: (b)

3. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism
is / are known as decomposer organism/organisms? (2013)
1. Virus
2. Fungi
3. Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)

4. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet
Earth? (2014)
1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
4. Decay of organic matter
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c)

5. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of a food chain? (2014)
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings (b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans (d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
Answer: (a)

6. Consider the following statements (2019)

1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into the environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: d

3. Vision IAS Previous Years Questions

1. Ecosystem services are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human
well-being. In this context, distinguish between supporting, provisioning, regulating
and cultural services provided by ecosystems.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the importance of ecosystem services for human well-being.
• Differentiate between supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural services
provided by ecosystems.
• Conclude accordingly.

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Answer: Student Notes:
Ecosystem services are critical for human well-being as they provide indispensable
services at the local, regional and global scales, such as food production, water
purification, flood protection and climate-change mitigation. According to The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), ecosystem services can be categorized
in following four main types:
• Supporting services are the ecosystem services that are necessary for the production
of all other ecosystem services. These includes-
o Habitats for species: Habitats provide everything that an individual plant or
animal needs to survive like food, water, and shelter.
o Maintenance of genetic diversity: It distinguishes different breeds or races from
each other thus providing the basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene
pool for further developing commercial crops and livestock.
• Provisioning services are the ecosystem services that describe the material or
energy outputs from ecosystems. Water, food, wood and other goods are some of
the material benefits people obtain from ecosystems called ´provisioning services´.
Many provisioning services are traded in markets. However, in many regions, rural
households also directly depend on provisioning services for their livelihoods. They
include:
o Food: Ecosystem provides conditions for growing foods.
o Raw materials: It provides materials for construction and fuel including wood,
biofuels and plant oils.
o Fresh water: Ecosystem regulates the flow and purification of water.
o Medicinal resources: It provides many plants for traditional medicines and
provides raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry.
• Regulating services are defined as the benefits obtained from the regulation of
ecosystem processes. Maintaining the quality of air and soil, providing flood and
disease control, or pollinating crops are some of the ‘regulating services' provided by
ecosystems. These services include:
o Climate regulation: Trees provide shade whilst forests influence rainfall and
water availability both locally and regionally.
o Carbon sequestration: As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and effectively lock it away in their tissues.
o Natural hazard regulation: Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers
against natural disasters, thereby preventing possible damage.
o Water purification and waste management: Ecosystems such as wetlands filter
both human and animal waste and act as a natural buffer to the surrounding
environment.
o Other important services include pollination and pest control.
• Cultural services include non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.
Cultural services are deeply interconnected with each other and often connected to
provisioning and regulating services: Small scale fishing is not only about food and
income, but also about fishers’ way of life. These are:
o Spiritual enrichment: In many parts of the world, natural features such as
specific forests, caves, mountains etc. are considered sacred or have a religious
meaning.
o Intellectual development: Language, knowledge and the natural environment
have been intimately related throughout human history. Biodiversity,
ecosystems and natural landscapes have been the source of inspiration for much
of our art, culture and increasingly for science.
o Various kinds of tourism services: These provide considerable economic
benefits and are a vital source of income for many countries.

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 In spite of the ecological, cultural and economic importance of these services, Student Notes:
ecosystems are still being degraded at an unprecedented scale. It is primarily because
the value of ecosystems to human welfare is still being underestimated and not fully
recognized. In this context, Natural Capital Accounting is a key concept that recognizes
the economic cost of natural capital.

2. Explain the concept of biogeochemical cycles and their significance in the functioning
of ecosystems. What are the challenges that they face because of anthropogenic
factors?
Approach:
• Introduce the answer by explaining the concept of biogeochemical cycles.
• Explain its significance in the functioning of the ecosystem.
• Conclude the answer by enlisting challenges faced by these cycles due to human
interventions.
Answer:
A biogeochemical cycle is one of several natural cycles, in which conserved matter moves
through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. The main chemical
elements that are cycled are: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S).
Important biogeochemical cycles are :
• Water Cycle: All of the water that falls on the land does not immediately flow back
into the sea. Some of it seeps into the soil and becomes part of the underground
reservoir of fresh-water. Some of this underground water finds its way to the surface
through springs. The groundwater is taken in by the roots of plants and is used
for photosynthesis. The water is then released into the atmospheric
through evapotranspiration or is consumed when the plants are eaten.
• Nitrogen Cycle: “Nitrogen fixers” are organisms that can turn nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that other organisms can use to produce
nucleic acids, amino acids etc. These nitrogen fixers are such a vital part of the
ecosystem that agriculture cannot occur without them.
• Oxygen Cycle: The Oxygen from the atmosphere is used up in three processes,
namely combustion, respiration and in the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Oxygen
is returned to the atmosphere in only one major process, that is, photosynthesis.
• Carbon Cycle: Carbon is present in all living organisms and non-living things such as
minerals, the atmosphere, the oceans and the interior of the earth. There are two
fundamental processes in Carbon Cycles.
o Rapid Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle: Here inorganic carbon, which is present in
the atmosphere as CO2, is captured by autotrophs. These are usually
photosynthesizing organisms such as plants, bacteria and algae.
o Long Term Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle: When an organism dies, the carbon
stored within their body is broken down into CO2 and other organic substances
by decomposers. While some of this carbon is released into the atmosphere, a
large portion of it remains sequestered within the soil. Through this process, soils
become major reservoirs for carbon storage.

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 Anthropogenic activities have disturbed natural cycling of these elements. For example: Student Notes:
• Fossils fuels, which have stored carbon for years are burnt at the rate much faster
than the ability of the atmosphere to sink it. It results in greenhouse effect and
subsequent global warming.
• Deforestation is releasing carbon stored within plant matter and is reducing the
number of plants available to capture it.
• Artificial nitrate fertilizer, when washed away in water sources lead to blooms of “red
tides,” “brown tides,” and Pfiesteria bacteria – all of which produce toxins that can
sicken or kill humans and other animals.

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