Neoclassical architecture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by

the neoclassical movement that began in the mid­18th century.
In its purest form, it is a style principally derived from the
architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles, and
the work of the Italian architect Andrea Palladio.

In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather

than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its
parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction
against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its
architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicising
features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition.
Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be
labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary The Cathedral of Vilnius
buildings.

In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to as Classicism (German: Klassizismus), while the
newer revival styles of the 19th century until today are called Neoclassical.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Palladianism
1.2 Neoclassicism
1.3 Interior design
1.4 Greek revival
2 Characteristics
3 Regional trends
3.1 Britain
3.2 France
3.3 Hungary
3.4 Malta
3.5 Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
3.6 Russia
3.7 Spain
3.8 The Third Reich
3.9 United States
4 Today
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

History
Intellectually, Neoclassicism was symptomatic of a desire to return to the perceived "purity" of the arts of Rome, to
the more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient Greek arts and, to a lesser extent, 16th­century Renaissance
Classicism, which was also a source for academic Late Baroque architecture.

Many early 19th­century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne­Louis
Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare
geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and
Edmund Burke's conception of the sublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining
that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally such ideas give rise to
"architecture parlante".

Palladianism

A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the

Rococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the
earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian
architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland.

The baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four
influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century
which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture:
Vitruvius Britannicus (Colen Campbell 1715), Palladio's Four Books Palladian revival: Stourhead House,
of Architecture (1715), De Re Aedificatoria (1726) and The Designs of
designed by Colen Campbell and
Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs (1727). The most popular completed in 1720. The design is based on
was the four­volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The Palladio's Villa Emo.
book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that
had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At
first the book mainly featured the work of Inigo Jones, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by
Campbell and other 18th­century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th­century Britain.

At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect
earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington; in 1729, he and William
Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of
Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and ornament.
This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism.
In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's
finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk.
The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but
Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in
Woburn Abbey, an excellent example significance.
of English Palladianism, designed by
Burlington's student Henry Flitcroft in This classicising vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late
1746. Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in Perrault's east range of the
Louvre. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for
S. Giovanni in Laterano.

Neoclassicism

By the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including
those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first
gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton's excavations at Pompeii and other
sites, the influence of the Grand Tour and the work of William
Chambers and Robert Adam, was pivotal in this regard. In France, the
movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained
in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim
Winckelmann. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in
other countries such as Sweden and Russia.

International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl

Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially the Old Museum in Berlin, Altes Museum, built by Karl Friedrich
Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built Schinkel in Berlin.
White House and Capitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascent
American Republic. The style was international.

A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the
height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI
style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until
the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement
by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.

In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of
Chippendale, George Hepplewhite and Robert Adam, Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases, and the
Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the
German­born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg.

Interior design

Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior,

inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had
begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,
with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le
Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of
Herculaneum showed that even the most classicising interiors of the
Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on
basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often
bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned
into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. Château de Malmaison, 1800, room
for the Empress Joséphine, on the
The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely cusp between Directoire style and
interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, Empire style
lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze­like relief or painted in monotones en
camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of
laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone
colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the Goût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; when
Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion­loving Queen, brought the "Louis XVI"
style to court.

However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the
century, and furniture­makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more
likely to take from ancient pottery and stone­carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have
taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[1]
 A new phase in neoclassical design was inaugurated by Robert
and James Adam, who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the
1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their
return to Britain, they published a book entitled The Works in
Architecture in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book
of engraved designs made the Adam repertory available
throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the
rococo and baroque styles which had been fashionable in the
preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and
more elegant feel to Georgian houses. The Works in
Architecture illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers
had worked on and crucially documented the interiors,
furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams.
Interior of Home House in London, designed by
Robert Adam in 1777 in the Adam style. Greek revival

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural

examples, seen through the medium of etchings and
engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek
Revival. There was little to no direct knowledge of Greek
civilization before the middle of the 18th century in Western
Europe, when an expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti
in 1751 and led by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett began
serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after
his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce the first
Greek building in England, the garden temple at Hagley Hall
(1758–59).[2] A number of British architects in the second half
Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric
from their aristocratic patrons, including Joseph Bonomi and
John Soane, but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of
connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century.

Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new
note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as
an assertion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union, the Napoleonic
Wars, and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins's
winning design for the public competition for Downing College,
Cambridge that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in
architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of the most
important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden
Thomas Hamilton's design for the
(1808–09), the General Post Office (1824–29) and the British Museum
Royal High School, Edinburgh, 1831.
(1823–48), Wilkins University College London (1826–30) and the National
Gallery (1832–38). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in
collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created
monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the (Royal)
High School in Edinburgh (1823–29).

At the same time the Empire style in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the
decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of
Napoleon I in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French
state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German­speaking lands, Federal style
in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleonstil in Sweden. According to the art historian
Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo­classical movement, the
Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the
high­minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[3]

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant
antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals— although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered
anti­modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles. The centres of several European cities, notably St
Petersburg and Munich, came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Characteristics
High neoclassicism was an international movement. Though neoclassical
architecture employed the same classical vocabulary as Late Baroque
architecture, it tended to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than
sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and
shade were more flat; sculptural bas­reliefs were flatter and tended to be
enframed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual
features were isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and
complete in themselves.

Neoclassicism also influenced city A. Rinaldi. The White hall of the

planning; the ancient Romans had used Gatchina palace. 1760s. An early
a consolidated scheme for city example of the Italianate neoclassical
planning for both defence and civil interior design in Russian
convenience, however, the roots of this architecture.
scheme go back to even older
civilizations. At its most basic, the grid
system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider
boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very
logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were
The L'Enfant Plan for
oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion
Washington, D.C., as revised by
with the importance of public buildings.
Andrew Ellicott in 1792.
Many of these urban planning patterns found their way into the first modern
planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include Karlsruhe and Washington, D.C. Not all planned
cities and planned neighbourhoods are designed on neoclassical principles, however. Opposing models may be
found in Modernist designs exemplified by Brasília, the Garden city movement, levittowns, and new urbanism.

Regional trends
Britain

From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture
towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco­Roman ideal. James 'Athenian' Stuart's work The Antiquities of Athens
and Other Monuments of Greece was very influential in this regard, as were Robert Wood's Palmyra and Baalbec.
A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporary British
architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the Adam
Brothers, James Wyatt, Sir William Chambers, George Dance, James Gandon and provincially based architects
such as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of Chester.
In the early 20th century, the writings of Albert Richardson were
responsible for a re­awakening of interest in pure neoclassical design.
Vincent Harris (compare Harris's colonnaded and domed interior of
Manchester Central Reference Library to the colonnaded and domed
interior by John Carr and R R Duke), Bradshaw Gass & Hope and
Percy Thomas were among those who designed public buildings in the
neoclassical style in the interwar period. In the British Raj in India, Sir
Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marked the
sunset of neoclassicism. In Scotland and the north of England, where
the Gothic Revival was less strong, architects continued to develop the
neoclassical style of William Henry Playfair. The works of Cuthbert The central courtyard of Sir William
Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th Chambers' Somerset House in London.
century the results could be powerful and eccentric.

France

The first phase of

neoclassicism in France is
expressed in the "Louis
XVI style" of architects
like Ange­Jacques Gabriel
(Petit Trianon, 1762–68);
the second phase, in the
styles called Directoire
and "Empire", might be
characterized by Jean
Chalgrin's severe astylar
Saint Louis church in La Roche­sur­Yon Arc de Triomphe Château de Montmusard (1765), by
1812/1830 (designed in 1806). In Charles de Wailly.
England the two phases
might be characterized first by the structures of Robert Adam, the
second by those of Sir John Soane. The interior style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "Goût grec"
("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young king acceded to the throne in 1771 did Marie Antoinette,
his fashion­loving Queen, bring the "Louis XVI" style to court.

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and
engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival. Although several European
cities — notably St Petersburg, Athens, Berlin and Munich — were transformed into veritable museums of Greek
revival architecture, the Greek revival in France was never popular with either the State or the public.

What little there was, started with Charles de Wailly's crypt in the church of St Leu­St Gilles (1773–80), and
Claude Nicolas Ledoux's Barriere des Bonshommes (1785–89). First­hand evidence of Greek architecture was of
very little importance to the French, due to the influence of Marc­Antoine Laugier's doctrines that sought to
discern the principles of the Greeks instead of their mere practices. It would take until Laboustre's Neo­Grec of the
second Empire for the Greek revival to flower briefly in France.

Hungary

The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác. In this town the triumphal arch
and the neoclassical façade of the baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus
Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect Charles Moreau is the
 garden façade of the Esterházy
Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton
(today Eisenstadt in Austria). The
two principal architect of
Neoclassicism in Hungary was
Mihály Pollack and József Hild.
Pollack's major work is the
Hungarian National Museum
(1837–1844). Hild is famous for
his designs for the Cathedral of
Eger and Esztergom. The Hungarian National Museum, Budapest by
Reformed Great Church of Mihály Pollack, 1837­1847
Debrecen is an outstanding
Cathedral of Vác by I. M. A. example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the
Ganneval, 1762–1777 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian
architecture, the most important of which is the Chain Bridge (Budapest) by
William Tierney Clark.

Malta

Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th

century, during the final years of Hospitaller rule. Early examples
include the Bibliotheca (1786),[4] the De Rohan Arch (1798)[5] and the
Hompesch Gate (1801).[6] However, neoclassical architecture only
became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in
the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with
the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to
serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th century neoclassical
buildings include RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro­Cathedral (1844),
the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now destroyed Royal Opera The Rotunda of Mosta, which was built
House (1866).[7] between 1833 and 1860

Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th

century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as the Domvs Romana
museum (1922),[8] and the Courts of Justice building in Valletta (1965–71).[9]

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The center of Polish Neoclassicism was Warsaw under the rule of the last Polish king Stanisław August
Poniatowski. Vilnius University was another important center of the Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by
notable professors of architecture Marcin Knackfus, Laurynas Gucevicius and Karol Podczaszyński. The style was
expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the University's Observatory, Vilnius Cathedral and the
town hall.

The best­known architects and artists, who worked in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Dominik Merlini,
Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer, Szymon Bogumił Zug, Jakub Kubicki, Antonio Corazzi, Efraim Szreger, Christian Piotr
Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen.

Russia
 In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical
architecture was equal to Saint Petersburg architecture because this style
was specific for huge amount of buildings in the city.

In the Soviet Union (1917–1991), neoclassical architecture was very

popular among the political elite, as it effectively expressed state power and
a vast array of neoclassical building was erected all over the country.

Soviet neoclassical architecture was exported to other socialist countries of

the Eastern Bloc, as a gift from the Soviet Union. Examples of this include
A Russian Orthodox church near the Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw, Poland and the Shanghai
Lake Baikal in Siberia (built in International Convention Centre in Shanghai, China.
1816).
Spain

Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work of Juan de Villanueva,

who adapted Burke's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements
of Spanish climate and history. He built the Prado Museum, that combined
three functions — an academy, an auditorium and a museum — in one
building with three separate entrances.

This was part of the ambitious program of Charles III, who intended to
make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the
museum, Villanueva built the Astronomical Observatory. He also designed
several summer houses for the kings in El Escorial and Aranjuez and Prado Museum in Madrid, by Juan de
reconstructed the Major Square of Madrid, among other important works. Villanueva
Villanueva´s pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain.

The Third Reich

Neoclassical architecture was the preferred style by the leaders of the National Socialist movement in the Third
Reich, especially admired by Adolf Hitler himself. Hitler commissioned his favourite architect, Albert Speer, to
plan a re­design of Berlin as a city comprising imposing neoclassical structures, which would be renamed as
Welthauptstadt Germania, the centrepiece of Hitler's Thousand Year Reich.

These plans never came to fruition due to the eventual downfall of Nazi Germany and the suicide of its leader.[10]

United States

In the new republic, Robert Adam's neoclassical manner was adapted for
the local late 18th and early 19th­century style, called "Federal
architecture". One of the pioneers of this style was English­born Benjamin
Henry Latrobe, who is often noted as one of the first formally trained
America's professional architects and the father of American architecture.
The Baltimore Basilica, the first Roman Catholic cathedral in the United
The Lincoln Memorial, an early 20th States, is considered by many experts to be Latrobe's masterpiece.
century example of American
The widespread use of neoclassicism in American architecture, as well as
Renaissance neoclassical architecture.
by French revolutionary regimes, and the general tenor of rationalism
associated with the movement, all created a link between neoclassicism and
republicanism and radicalism in much of Europe. The Gothic Revival can be seen as an attempt to present a
monarchist and conservative alternative to neoclassicism.

In later 19th­century American architecture, neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance
movement, ca 1880–1917. Its last manifestation was in Beaux­Arts architecture (1885–1920), and its very last,
large public projects in the United States include the Lincoln Memorial (1922), the National Gallery in
Washington, D.C. (1937), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial (1936).

Today, there is a small revival of Classical Architecture as evidenced by the groups such as The Institute of
Classical Architecture and Classical America.[11] The School of Architecture at the University of Notre Dame,
currently teaches a fully Classical curriculum.[12]

Today
After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly
post­World War II until the mid­1980s), neoclassicism has seen somewhat
of a resurgence. This rebirth can be traced to the movement of New
Urbanism and postmodern architecture's embrace of classical elements as
ironic, especially in light of the dominance of Modernism. While some
continued to work with classicism as ironic, some architects such as
Thomas Gordon Smith, began to consider classicism seriously. While some
schools had interest in classical architecture, such as the University of
Virginia, no school was purely dedicated to classical architecture. In the
early 1990s a program in classical architecture was started by Smith and The Keating Millennium Centre at St.
Duncan Stroik at the University of Notre Dame that continues Francis Xavier University, Canada,
completed in 2001
successfully.[13] Programs at the University of Miami, Andrews University,
Judson University and The Prince's Foundation for Building Community
have trained a number of new classical architects since this resurgence. Today one can find numerous buildings
embracing neoclassical style, since a generation of architects trained in this discipline shapes urban planning.

As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the
umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo­Historicism/Revivalism,
Traditionalism or simply neoclassical architecture like the historical style.[14] For sincere traditional­style
architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or
vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st
century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist
Pritzker Prize.[15]

Regional developments

In the United States various contemporary public buildings are built in neoclassical style, with the 2006
Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example.

In Britain a number of architects are active in the neoclassical style. Two new university Libraries, Quinlan Terry's
Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and ADAM Architecture's Sackler Library illustrate that the
approach taken can range from the traditional, in the former case, to the unconventional, in the latter case.
Recently, Prince Charles came under controversy for promoting a classically designed development on the land of
the former Chelsea Barracks in London. Writing to the Qatari Royal family (who were funding the development
through the property development company Qatari Diar) he condemned the accepted modernist plans, instead
advocating a classical approach. His appeal was met with success and the plans were withdrawn. A new design by
architecture firm Dixon Jones is currently being drafted.[16]

See also
Neo­Historism
New Urbanism
Federal Period
Nordic Classicism
Neoclassical architecture in Milan
John Carr
Robert Adam
Sir William Chambers

References
1. Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted
2. Though Giles Worsley detects the first Grecian influenced architectural element in the windows of Nuneham Park from
1756, see Giles Worsley, "The First Greek Revival Architecture", The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 127, No. 985 (April
1985), pp. 226–229.
3. Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted
4. "Bibliotheca" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151206112815/http://www.culturalheritage.gov.mt/filebank/inventory/01141.
pdf) (PDF). National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands. 28 December 2012. Archived from the
original (http://www.culturalheritage.gov.mt/filebank/inventory/01141.pdf) (PDF) on 6 December 2015.
5. "Rohan Gate, Żebbuġ" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151204152202/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/201212
11/environment/Rohan­Gate­ebbu­.449132). Times of Malta. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.t
imesofmalta.com/articles/view/20121211/environment/Rohan­Gate­ebbu­.449132) on 4 December 2015.
6. Bötig, Klaus (2011). Malta, Gozo. Con atlante stradale (https://books.google.com.mt/books?id=DJRt65t6jpgC&pg=PA5
4#v=onepage&q&f=false) (in Italian). EDT srl. p. 54. ISBN 9788860407818.
7. "Architecture in Malta under the British" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151007210825/http://www.culturemalta.org/48/1
0/Architecture­in­Malta­under­the­British). culturemalta.org. Archived from the original (http://www.culturemalta.org/48/
10/Architecture­in­Malta­under­the­British) on 7 October 2015.
8. "Domvs Romana" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150105055519/http://heritagemalta.org/museums­sites/domvs­
romana/). Heritage Malta. Archived from the original (http://heritagemalta.org/museums­sites/domvs­romana/) on 5
January 2015.
9. "The Courts" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150106133921/http://judiciarymalta.gov.mt/the­courts). The Judiciary –
Malta. Archived from the original (http://www.judiciarymalta.gov.mt/the­courts) on 6 January 2015.
10. "Welthauptstadt Germania – Hitler's vision of a new Berlin" (http://akin.blog­city.com/welthauptstadt_germania.htm).
Akin.blog­city.com. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
11. "The Institute of Classical Architecture & Art" (http://www.classicist.org/). Classicist.org. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
12. "University of Notre Dame School of Architecture at the" (http://architecture.nd.edu/arch_home.aspx).
Architecture.nd.edu. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
13. School of Architecture at the University of Notre Dame (http://architecture.nd.edu/academics/) "Twenty years ago the
curriculum was reformed to focus on traditional and classical architecture and urbanism."
14. Neo­classicist Architecture. Traditionalism. Historicism. (http://arch­tour.blogspot.com/2009/03/neo­classicist­architectur
e.html)
15. Driehaus Prize for New Classical Architecture at Notre Dame SoA (http://architecture.nd.edu/about/driehaus­prize/):
"Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for
classicism in the contemporary built environment"; retained 7 March 2014
16. Booth, Robert (25 June 2010). "Prince Charles's role in Chelsea barrack planning row 'unwelcome' " (https://www.thegua
rdian.com/world/2010/jun/25/prince­charles­chelsea­barracks­planning). London: Guardian. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
Further reading
Détournelle, Athanase, Recueil d'architecture nouvelle, A Paris : Chez l'auteur, 1805
Dowling, Elizabeth Meredith, New Classicism, Rizzoli, 2004 ISBN 978­0­8478­2660­5 OCLC 56661784 (ht
tps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56661784)
Gabriel, Jean­François, Classical Architecture for the Twenty­first Century, Norton, 2004
Groth, Håkan, Neoclassicism in the North: Swedish Furniture and Interiors, 1770–1850
Honour, Hugh, Neoclassicism
Irwin, David, Neoclassicism (in series Art and Ideas) Phaidon, paperback, 1997
Lorentz, Stanislaw, Neoclassicism in Poland (Series History of art in Poland)
McCormick, Thomas, Charles­Louis Clérisseau and the Genesis of Neoclassicism Architectural History
Foundation, 1991
Praz, Mario. On Neoclassicism
Rawle, Tim (author), Tim Rawle and Louis Sinclair (photographers), John Adamson (editor), A Classical
Adventure: The Architectural History of Downing College, Cambridge, Cambridge, The Oxbridge Portfolio,
2015, 200 pp. ISBN 978 0 9572867 4 0 OCLC 931005141 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/931005141)
Skurman, Andrew, Contemporary Classical: The Architecture of Andrew Skurman, Princeton Architectural
Press, 2012 ISBN 978­1­61689­088­9

External links
Institute of Classical Architecture and Art (http://www.classicist.org)
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Traditional Architecture Group (http://www.traditionalarchitecture.c
media related to
o.uk/index.html) Neoclassical architecture.

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