6.

CALCULUS

FURTHER INTEGRATION
One of the first uses of integration was in finding the volumes of wine casks. Because the casks have
a curved surface, integration is required to determine area and volume.
Other uses of integration include determining centres of mass, fluid flow and modelling the behaviour
of objects under stress. In the real world the equations that model these types of applications are
generally not simple nor standard.
In this chapter, we develop a broader range of techniques and strategies to solve more complex
problems involving differential equations and integration.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
6.01 Integration by substitution
6.02 Rational functions with quadratic denominators
6.03 Partial fractions
6.04 Integration by parts
6.05 Recurrence relations
Test yourself 6
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
• use the method of integration by substitution
• integrate rational functions with quadratic denominators that are reducible or irreducible
• decompose rational functions into partial fractions
• use integration by parts
• integrate functions that form a recurrence relation (recursive formula)

iStock.com/zoroasto
 TERMINOLOGY
integration by parts: A method of integrating a the numerator and the denominator are
function by splitting it into one function to be polynomials.
differentiated and one function to be integrated. recurrence relation or recursive formula: A
partial fractions: A rational function can be formula or integral that is expressed in terms of
expressed as the sum of smaller fractions called itself with a smaller parameter value, for example
partial fractions that are easier to integrate. π π
n −1 2
rational function: A function that can be ∫02 sin n θ d θ =
n ∫0 sin n − 2 θ dθ.
f (x)
expressed as a fraction , such that both
g( x )

WS
6.01 Integration by substitution
In Mathematics Extension 1, Chapter 8, Further integration, we learned to use integration by
Homeworkby
Integration
substitution substitution for integrals of composite functions involving a function and its derivative.

EXAMPLE 1

Integration by Evaluate ∫6x2(2x3 − 1)4 dx.

substitution

Solution
du ∴ ∫6x2(2x3 − 1)4 dx = ∫ u4 du
Let u = 2x3 − 1, = 6x 2
dx 1
                  = u5 + C
du = 6x2 dx 5
1
                  = (2x3 − 1)5 + C
5

In cases like these you will notice that the derivative of ‘the function within the function’ can
be identified as the multiplier.
In many cases, you will be required to find and evaluate indefinite and definite integrals using
the method of integration by substitution where the substitution is not given. It is therefore
necessary to be able to identify convenient substitutions.

EXAMPLE 2

4x
Evaluate ∫ 2x 2 + 1
dx .

Solution
du
Let u = 2x2 + 1, = 4x
dx
du = 4x dx

222 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 4x 1
∴ ∫ 2
2x + 1
dx = ∫ u
du

1
−
= u ∫ 2 du
1
1
= 1
u 2 +C
2

= 2 u +C
  
= 2 2x 2 + 1 + C

EXAMPLE 3

sin x
Evaluate ∫ x
dx.

Solution
du 1 sin x sin u
Let u = x , =
dx 2 x
,
∫ x
dx = ∫ x
2 x du

so dx = 2 x du
∫
= 2 sin u du
= −2 cos u + C
= −2 cos x + C

Many integrations with trigonometric integrands, such as ∫(sinn x cos x) dx or

∫(cosn x sin x) dx, could use a simple substitution to form a standard integral.

EXAMPLE 4

Evaluate ∫(sin9 x cos x) dx.

Solution
du
Let u = sin x, noting that = cos x ∫ sin9 x cos x dx = ∫u9 du
dx
du = cos x dx. 1 10
                  = u +C
10
1
                  = sin10 x + C
10

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 223

 sin2 x and cos2 x
1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x)
2
1
cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2

These identities from Mathematics Extension 1, Chapter 8, Further integration, allow other
similar integrations to be quickly determined.
1 1
sin2 2x = (1 − cos 4x) or sin2 3x = (1 − cos 6x)
2 2
1 1
cos2 2x = (1 + cos 4x) cos2 3x = (1 + cos 6x)
2 2

EXAMPLE 5

π
Evaluate ∫0
4 cos 2 2x dx .

Solution
π π
1
∫0
4 cos 2 2x dx = ∫0
4
2
[1 + cos 4 x ] dx
π
1 1 4
=  x + sin 4 x 
2 4 0
1  π  
=  + 0 − ( 0 + 0 ) 
2  4 
π
=
8

EXAMPLE 6

4 1
Evaluate ∫1 (1 + x )2 x
dx .

Solution

Substitute u = 1 + x .

du 1
Therefore = ; that is, dx = 2 x du
dx 2 x

224 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 When x = 1, u = 2, and when x = 4, u = 3, so we get:
4 1 3 1
∫1 (1 + x )2 x
dx = ∫2 u2 x
2 x du

3
∫2
= 2 u −2 du

 1 3
= 2 − 
 u  2
 1  1 
= 2 − −  −  
 3  2 
 1
= 2 
 6
1
=
3

dx dx dx
For integrations of the form ∫ a cos x + b sin x , ∫ a cos x + b or ∫ a + b sin x we can use the
x
t-formulas where t = tan :
2

2t 1− t2 2t 2dt
sin x = 2
, cos x = 2
and tan x = 2
, along with dx = as proven below.
1+ t 1+ t 1− t 1+ t 2
 x
It is easy enough to show that when t = tan   then
 2
dt 1 2 x
= sec
dx 2 2
1  x
= 1 + tan 2   
             2   2 
1
            = (1 + t2)
2
2dt
and therefore: dx = .
1+ t 2

EXAMPLE 7
2π
θ dθ 1
Use the substitution t = tan
2
to show that ∫ π
3 = loge 3.
sin θ 2
2
Solution
2π π π π
When θ = , t = tan = 3, and when θ = , t = tan = 1
3 3 2 4

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 225

 2t 2dt
sin θ = 2
, dθ =
1+ t 1+ t 2
2π
dθ 3 1+ t 2 2dt
∫ π
3
sin θ
= ∫1 2t 1 + t 2
2
31
          = ∫1 t
dt
3
          =  log e t 1
          = loge 3 − loge 1
1

          = log e 3 − 0
2

1
          = loge 3 as required.
2

When changing the variable x2 in an integrand it usually involves x 2 , which is the same
as x . In this case, we take the positive case for convenience. There are other situations where
a similar problem arises, especially in the case of trigonometric functions; again we take the
convenient solutions that lie in the domain of the standard inverse trigonometric functions.

When the integrand has a sum or difference of 2 squares:

dx
∫ a2 + x 2
use the substitution x = a tan θ

∫ a 2 − x 2 dx use the substitution x = a sin θ or x = a cos θ

dx
∫ x − a2
2
use the substitution x = a sec θ

These results help to determine what should be the best substitution.

Some standard integrals

f ( x )n + 1
∫f ′(x)[  f (x)]n dx = +C ∫f ′(x) sec2 f (x) dx = tan f (x) + C
n +1
∫f ′(x)ef (x) dx = e f (x) + C f ′( x )  f (x) 
∫ 2
dx = sin −1 
 a 
+C
f ′( x ) a 2 −  f ( x ) 
∫ f (x)
dx = ln f ( x ) + C
− f ′( x )  f (x) 
∫f ′(x) sin f (x) dx = −cos f (x) + C
∫ 2
dx = cos−1 
 a 
+C
a 2 −  f ( x ) 
∫f ′(x) cos f (x) dx = sin f (x) + C f ′( x ) 1  f (x) 
∫ 2
a +  f ( x ) 
2
dx = tan −1 
a  a 
+C

226 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

Exercise 6.01 Integration by substitution
1 Find each integral using the given substitution.
x
x
ex e2
a ∫ ex + 1
dx , u = ex + 1 b ∫ x
e +1
dx , u = e 2

x
c ∫x(1 + x2)4 dx, u = 1 + x2 d ∫ 1− x
dx , u = 1 − x
x
e dx dx
e ∫ x
e −1
, x > 0, u = ex − 1 f ∫ a + x2
2
, x = a tan θ

x
g ∫x x − 3 dx, u = x − 3 h ∫ x +1
dx , x = u2 − 1
x
i ∫ x −1
dx, x = u2 + 1

2 Find each integral using an appropriate substitution.

x
e x x
a ∫ x
dx b ∫ ex 2 dx c ∫ 2
x +1
dx

(1 + ln x ) 2 (sin −1 x + 1)2 tan −1 ( x + 1)

d ∫ x
dx e ∫ 1− x2
dx f ∫ ( x + 1)2 + 1
dx

dx dx
g ∫ x (ln x )2 h ∫ x ln x
3 Find each integral using an appropriate substitution.
π π π
cos x cos x cos x
a ∫ 2
0 1 + sin x
dx b ∫0
2
(1 + sin x )2
dx c ∫ 0
2
(1 + sin x )3
dx
π
cos3 x
d ∫ 2
0 1 + sin x
dx e ∫ sin2 x cos3 x dx f ∫ sin3 x cos2 x dx
sin θ
g ∫ sin4 x cos5 x dx h ∫ sin5 x cos4 x dx i ∫ cos2 θ dθ

sin θ sin θ cos θ

j ∫ cos3 θ dθ k ∫ cos4 θ dθ l ∫ sin 2 θ dθ
cos θ cos θ sin3 θ
m ∫ sin3 θ dθ n ∫ sin 4 θ dθ o ∫ cos4 θ dθ

sin3 θ
p ∫
cos2 θ
dθ

4 Evaluate each definite integral.

π π
e tan θ 5 x
a ∫ 0
4 tan 4 x sec 2 x dx b ∫ 0
4
cos2 θ
dθ c ∫2 2
x −4
dx
π π π
ln
d ∫ ln
4 ex
π sin e x dx e ∫ 0
4 cos 2 x dx f ∫ 0
4 cos 2 4 x dx
6
π
g ∫ 0
4 sin 2 2x dx

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 227

 5 Evaluate each integral using an appropriate substitution.
8 x 3 3 6
a ∫
3 ( x + 1) x + 1
dx b
0
9 − x 2 dx ∫ c ∫0 9 + x 2 dx
1 ex 1 x
d ∫0 (1 + e x )2
dx e ∫0 1 + x dx

6 Verify the answer to Question 5b by considering the area the integral represents.

x
7 Using the substitution t = tan :
2
2π
π 1 dx
a evaluate ∫0 1 + sin x
dx b evaluate π3∫ sin x
2
π
1 1
c find ∫ 1 − cos x dx d show that 3 ∫
0 1 + sin θ
d θ = −1 + 3
π π
dθ π dθ
e show that ∫ 0
2 =
sin θ + 2 3 3
f evaluate ∫ 0
3
1 + cos 2θ

8 Find each integral using the given substitution.

dx dx dx 3
a ∫2
x +4
, x = 2 tan θ b
9 − x2
∫
, x = 3 sin θ c ∫ 4 x 2 + 9 , x = 2 tan θ
9 Evaluate each integral using an appropriate substitution.
1
1 dx 2 2dx 3dx 4 2xdx
a ∫0 4−x 2
b ∫0 16 − x 2
c ∫ 3
0 1 + 9x 2
d ∫3 25 − x 2

3 3
10 a Using the substitution u2 = 9 − x2, evaluate ∫0 x 9 − x 2 dx .
x dx
b Using the substitution t = tan
2
, find ∫
1 + cos x + sin x
.

c Using the substitution u = sec x, or otherwise, find ∫ sec3 x tan x dx.

2 dx
d Use the substitution x = 2 sin θ to evaluate
0
(4 − x 2 )3
. ∫
e x + e 2x
e Find the integral ∫ e 2x + 1
dx.
2
f Show that ∫0 x (4 − x ) dx = π.
2
π
g Show that ∫ 0
3 4 − 9 x 2 dx =
3
.

228 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 DID YOU KNOW?

Length of an arc
Integration can be used to find the length of an arc.
By considering a small portion of a curve and using
Pythagoras’ theorem, we get:
δL δy
  δy 2
2 2 2 2
δL ≈ δx + δy = δx 1 +   
  δ x  

As δx → 0, the length of the curve y = f (x) between the δx

points where x = a and x = b is:
2
b  dy 
L= ∫a 1 +   dx
 dx 
For example, the length of the arc on the circle, in the first quadrant, given by
x = a cos t and y = a sin t can be found using this expression:
2
a  dy 
L= ∫0 1 +   dx
 dx 
dy x
=−
dx y
a a 1
And the length of the arc L = ∫0 a2 − x 2
dx =
2
π a , as expected.

6.02 Rational functions with quadratic

denominators
Integration of rational functions with quadratic denominators can be classified into those
with denominators that can be factorised and those with denominators that do not reduce.
Of the 3 integrals below, the first one has a denominator that can be factorised but the others
all have irreducible quadratics so they cannot be factorised.
1 1 1
∫ 2
x + 2x + 1
dx , ∫ 2
x +1 ∫
dx , 2
x + 2x + 5
dx

Some integrals involve quadratics under a radical (square root) in the denominator.
1 1
∫ 4−x 2
dx ,∫ 3 − 2x − x 2
dx

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 229

 Other integrands with quadratic denominators also have a linear or quadratic function in the
numerator.
2x + 1 2x + 1 x2
∫ 2
x + x +1
dx , 2 ∫
x + 2x + 3
dx , 2
x +1
dx ∫
To integrate these functions, we need to know how to complete the square and recognise
standard forms for integration.

Some standard integrals

n ( ax + b )n + 1 f ′( x )
∫ ( ax + b ) dx =
a ( n + 1)
+C ∫ f (x)
dx = ln f ( x ) + C

1 1 −1 x 1  x
∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = a tan   + C
a ∫ 2
a −x
dx = sin −1   + C
2  a

EXAMPLE 8

Find:

a 1 1 1
∫ x 2 + 2x + 1 dx b
∫ x 2 + 1 dx c
∫ x 2 + 2x + 5 dx

Solution
1 1
a
∫ x 2 + 2x + 1 dx = ∫ ( x + 1)2 dx
∫
= ( x + 1) −2 dx

( x + 1)−1
= +C
−1
1
=− +C
x +1

1
∫ x 2 + 1 dx = tan
−1
b x+C

c Complete the square.

1 1
∫ x 2 + 2x + 5 dx = ∫ x 2 + 2x + 1 + 4 dx
1
= ∫ ( x + 1)2 + 4 dx
1  x + 1
= tan −1  +C
2  2 

230 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 EXAMPLE 9

Find:

a 1 1
∫ 4 − x2
dx b
∫ 3 − 2x − x 2
dx

Solution
1 x
a ∫ 4−x 2
dx = sin −1
2
+C

b Complete the square.

1 1
∫ 3 − 2x − x 2
dx = ∫ 2
− x − 2x − 1 + 4
dx

1
= ∫ 4 − ( x + 1)2
dx

 x + 1
= sin −1  +C
 2 

EXAMPLE 10

Find:

2x + 1 2x + 1
a
∫ x 2 + x + 1 dx b
∫ x 2 + 2x + 3 dx
Solution
a Recognise that the numerator is the derivative of the denominator.
2x + 1
∫ x 2 + x + 1 dx = ln x2 + x +1 + C

b Recognise that the numerator is almost the derivative of the denominator.

2x + 1 2x + 2 1
∫ x 2 + 2x + 3 dx = ∫ x 2 + 2x + 3 − x 2 + 2x + 3 dx
1
= ln x 2 + 2x + 3 − ∫ ( x + 1)2 + 2 dx
1  x + 1
= ln x 2 + 2x + 3 − tan −1   +C
2  2 
This is a combination of recognising the log result, splitting the numerator,
completing the square and recognising the y = tan−1 x result.

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 231

 Exercise 6.02 Rational functions with quadratic denominators
1 Find the integral of each function.
1 1 −2
a 2
b c
( x + 3) ( x − 4)2 2
x + 4x + 4
1 1 1
d 2
e 2
f 2
x +1 x +9 x +3
1 1
g 2
h 2
x +5 x − 4x + 4
2 Find:
1 1 1
a ∫1− x2
dx b ∫ 9−x 2
dx c ∫ 4 − x2
dx

1 1 1
d ∫ 9 − 4x 2
dx e ∫ 4x − x 2
dx f ∫ 2
−9 x + 12x
dx

1
∫ x 2 + 2x + 2 dx by first showing that x
2
3 a Find + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1.

1
b Find ∫ 2x − x 2
dx by first showing that 2x − x2 = 1 − (x − 1)2.

x2 + 2 1 x2 + 2
c Show that
x2 + 1
= 1 + 2 . Hence, find
x +1 ∫ x 2 + 1 dx.
1
d Show that x2 − 2x + 5 = 4 + (x − 1)2. Hence, find ∫ x 2 − 2x + 5 dx.
4 Find:
x2 x2 − 1 x2 + 4
a ∫ x 2 + 1 dx b ∫ x 2 + 1 dx c ∫ x 2 + 2 dx
x2 ( x + 1)2 ( x − 1)2
d ∫ x2 + 9
dx e ∫ x2 + 1
dx f ∫ x2 + 2
dx

5 Find:
2x + 1 4x + 3 x
a ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 5 dx b ∫ x 2 + 1 dx c ∫ x 2 + 1 dx
x −1 x x +1
d ∫ x 2 + 1 dx e ∫ x 2 − 2x + 2 dx f ∫ x 2 − 1 dx

232 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 6 Find each indefinite integral.
− dx dx dx
a ∫ 1− x 2
b ∫ 1− 4x 2
c ∫ 1+ 4x2
dx dx 2
d ∫ x2 + 4x + 8 e ∫ 4 x 2 + 4 x + 10 f ∫ x 2 − 6 x + 13 dx
x2 − 1
7 a The graphs of y = and y = 1 are y
x2 + 1
1.5
shown in the diagram. Evaluate the
area shaded. Leave your answer in 1
terms of π.
0.5
b The area shaded above is rotated
about the y-axis. Find the volume −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 x
of the figure generated. Leave your −0.5
answer as an exact value.
−1
c Calculate the volume of the solid of
revolution formed when
1
f (x) = is rotated about the x-axis between
2
x + 4x + 8
x = −1 and x = 2. Leave your answer in terms of π.

6.03 Partial fractions WS

f (x) Homework
A function , where f (x) and g(x) are polynomials, is called a rational function. Partial
fractions
g( x )
If the degree of f (x) is greater than the degree of g(x), the function is called an improper
function. If the degree f (x) is less than the degree of g(x), the function is called a proper
function. Integral
calculus

An improper function can be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational
x3 x
function. For example, 2 =x− 2
x +1 x +1
A proper function can be expressed as a sum of simpler fractions called partial fractions.
This process is also known as decomposing the function into partial fractions.

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 233

 EXAMPLE 11

6 A B C
If = + + , find the values of A, B and C and hence write
( x − 1)( x + 1)( x + 2) x − 1 x + 1 x + 2
6
as the sum of partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x + 1)( x + 2)

Solution
Multiply both sides by (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2):
6 = A(x + 1)(x + 2) + B(x − 1)(x + 2) + C(x − 1)(x + 1)
Expand and equate coefficients of x:
6 = A(x2 + 3x + 2) + B(x2 + x − 2) + C(x2 − 1)
= Ax2 + 3Ax + 2A + Bx2 + Bx − 2B + Cx2 − C
= (A + B + C)x2 + (3A + B)x + (2A − 2B − C)
Hence:
A+B+C=0 [1]
   3A + B = 0 [2]
2A − 2B − C = 6 [3]
From [2]: B = −3A [4]
     [1] + [3]: 3A − B = 6 [5]
Substitute [4] into [5]:
3A − (−3A) = 6
  6A = 6
  A = 1
Substitute into [4]:
   B = −3(1)
      = −3
Substitute into [1]:
1−3+C=0
−2 + C = 0
  C = 2

∴ A = 1, B = −3 and C = 2
6 1 3 2
∴ = − +
( x − 1)( x + 1)( x + 2) x − 1 x + 1 x + 2

234 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 Alamy Stock Photo/Artokoloro Quint Lox Limited
EXAMPLE 12

4 A B C
If 2
= + + , find the values of A, B and C and hence write as
( x − 1)( x + 1) x − 1 x + 1 ( x + 1)2
the sum of partial fractions.

Solution
Multiply both sides by (x − 1)(x + 1)2:
4 = A(x + 1)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 1) + C(x − 1) [*]
Expand and equate coefficients of x:
4 = A(x + 1)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 1) + C(x − 1)
= A(x2 + 2x + 1) + B(x2 − 1) + Cx − C
= Ax2 + 2Ax + A + Bx2 − B + Cx − C
= (A + B)x2 + (2A + C)x + (A − B − C)

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 235

 Hence:
A+B=0 [1]
2A + C = 0 [2]
A−B−C=4 [3]
From [1]:   B = −A [4]
From [2]:   C     = −2A [5]
Substitute into [3]:
A − (−A) − (−2A) = 4
4A = 4
A=1
Substitute into [4] and [5]:
B = −1
C = −2(1)
= −2
∴ A = 1, B = −1 and C = −2
4 1 1 2
∴ 2
= − −
( x − 1)( x + 1) x − 1 x + 1 ( x + 1)2
Alternatively, using [*] above, substituting x = 1, we obtain A = 1 rather quickly, and by
substituting x = −1, we can get C = −2, again fairly easily. Last, we can choose x to be any
other number, say x = 0, to find that A − B − C = 4 and therefore B = −1.

Repeated linear factors in denominator

To each linear factor ax + b occurring n times in the denominator of a proper function, there
A1 A2 An
corresponds a sum of n partial fractions of the form + 2
+…+ .
ax + b ( ax + b ) ( ax + b )n
4 1 1 2
For example: = − −
( x − 1)( x + 1)2 x − 1 x + 1 ( x + 1)2

236 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 EXAMPLE 13

5x + 2 A Bx + C
Find A, B and C such that 2
= + 2 .
( x − 1)( x + 2x + 4) x − 1 x + 2x + 4

Solution
Note that when a partial fraction has a quadratic denominator, then it has a linear
numerator Bx + C.
Multiply both sides by (x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 4):
5x + 2 = A(x2 + 2x + 4) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
= Ax2 + 2Ax + 4A + Bx2 − Bx + Cx − C
= (A + B)x2 + (2A − B + C)x + (4A − C)
Hence:
   A + B = 0 [1]
     2A − B + C = 5 [2]
  4A − C = 2 [3]
From [1]:     B = −A [4]
From [3]:    C = 4A − 2 [5]
Substitute into [2]:
2A − (−A) + 4A − 2    = 5
7A − 2      = 5
7A = 7
A=1
Substitute into [4] and [5]:
  B = −1
C = 4(1) − 2
=2
∴ A = 1, B = −1 and C = 2

Quadratic factors in denominator

To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c occurring once in the denominator of a
Ax + B
proper function, there corresponds a single partial fraction of the form 2 .
ax + bx + c
5x + 2 1 −x + 2
For example: = +
( x − 1)( x 2 + 2x + 4) x − 1 x 2 + 2x + 4

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 237

 EXAMPLE 14

1 A Bx + C Dx + E
Find A, B, C, D and E such that 2 2
= + 2 + .
x ( x + 1) x x + 1 ( x 2 + 1)2

Solution

Multiply both sides by x(x2 + 1)2:

1 = A(x2 + 1)2 + (Bx + C)(x2 + 1)x + (Dx + E)x

= A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x3 + x) + (Dx2 + Ex)
= Ax4 + 2Ax2 + A + Bx4 + Bx2 + Cx3 + Cx + Dx2 + Ex
= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A
Hence: A+B=0 [1]
C=0 [2]
   2A + B + D = 0 [3]
      C + E = 0 [4]
     A = 1 [5]
Substitute A = 1 into [1]: 1+B=0
B = −1
Substitute C = 0 into [4]: 0+E=0
E=0
Substitute A = 1, B = −1 into [3]: 2(1) − 1 + D = 0
1+D=0
D = −1
∴ A = 1, B = −1, C = 0, D = −1, E = 0.

Repeated quadratic factors in denominator

To each irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c occurring n times in the denominator of
a proper function, there is a sum of n partial fractions of the form
A1x + B1 A2 x + B2 An x + Bn
2
+ 2 2
+…+ .
ax + bx + c ( ax + bx + c ) ( ax 2 + bx + c )n
1 A Bx + C Dx + E 1 1 x x
For example: = + 2 + = = − −
x ( x 2 + 1)2 x x + 1 ( x 2 + 1)2 x ( x 2 + 1)2 x x 2 + 1 ( x 2 + 1)2

238 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

Once the rational functions are distributed as partial fractions they become far easier to
integrate using common integration strategies.

EXAMPLE 15

9x − 2
Find ∫ (2x − 1)( x − 3) dx .
Solution
Using partial fractions:
9x − 2 A B
= +
(2x − 1)( x − 3) 2x − 1 x − 3
9x − 2 = A(x − 3) + B(2x − 1)
Substituting x = 3, we get B = 5.
And so by putting x = 0, or any other number, A = −1.
Hence:
9x − 2 −1 5
∫ (2x − 1)( x − 3) dx = ∫ 2x − 1 + x − 3 dx
Integrating,
9x − 2 1
∫ (2x − 1)( x − 3) dx = − 2 ln 2x − 1 + 5 ln x − 3 + C

EXAMPLE 16

3x 2 − 2x + 1
Find ∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 2) dx .
Solution
Using partial fractions:
3x 2 − 2x + 1 Ax + B Cx + D
2 2
= 2 + 2
( x + 1)( x + 2) x +1 x +2
3x2 − 2x + 1 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x2 + 1)
      = Ax3 + 2Ax + Bx2 + 2B + Cx3 + Cx + Dx2 + D
      = (A + C)x3 + (B + D)x2 + (2A + C)x + 2B + D

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 239

 Equating coefficients:
A+C=0 [1]
B+D=3 [2]
2A + C = −2 [3]
2B + D = 1 [4]
[3] − [1]: A = −2
Substitute into [1]:
−2 + C = 0
C=2
[4] − [2]: B = −2
Substitute into [2]:
−2 + D = 3
D=5
Hence:
3x 2 − 2x + 1 −2x − 2 2x + 5
∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 2)dx = ∫ +
x2 + 1 x2 + 2
dx

−2x 2 2x 5
= ∫ x 2 + 1 − x 2 + 1 + x 2 + 2 + x 2 + 2dx
( ) (
= − ln x 2 + 1 − 2tan −1 x + ln x 2 + 2 + ) 5
2
 x 
tan −1 
 2 
+C

EXAMPLE 17

2x 2 + 5x + 3 A B Cx + D
The expression can be written as + + where A, B, C
( x − 1)2 ( x 2 + 4) x − 1 ( x − 1)2 x 2 + 4
and D are real numbers.

a Find A, B, C and D.

2x 2 + 5x + 3
b Hence find ∫ ( x − 1)2 ( x 2 + 4)
dx .

240 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 Solution
a Using partial fractions:

2x 2 + 5x + 3 A B Cx + D
2 2
= + 2
+ 2
( x − 1) ( x + 4) x − 1 ( x − 1) x +4

On multiplying both sides by (x − 1)2(x2 + 4):

2x2 + 5x + 3 = A(x − 1)(x2 + 4) + B(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x − 1)2
Substituting x = 1 we get 10 = 5B, so B = 2.
Substituting x = −1, we get 0 = −10A + 10 − 4C + 4D
−5 = −5A − 2C + 2D       [1]
Substituting x = 0, we get 3 = −4A + 8 + D
−5 = −4A + D               
[2]
Substituting x = 2, we get 21 = 8A + 16 + 2C + D
5 = 8A + 2C + D        [3]
Solving simultaneously, A = 1, B = 2, C = −1 and D = −1.
b Hence:

2x 2 + 5x + 3 1 2 x +1
∫ ( x − 1)2 ( x 2 + 4)
dx = ∫ x − 1 + ( x − 1)2 − x 2 + 4 dx

Integrating:

2x 2 + 5x + 3 2 1 1  x
∫ 2 2
( x − 1) ( x + 4)
dx = ln x − 1 − − ln ( x 2 + 4) − tan −1
x −1 2 2
  + C
2

Exercise 6.03 Partial fractions

1 Find each integral using partial fractions.
3x + 1 5x + 8
a ∫
( x − 3)( x + 2)
dx b ∫ ( x + 3)(2x − 1) dx
3x + 1 3x + 7
c ∫ ( x + 3)( x + 2) dx d ∫ ( x − 3)( x + 5) dx
3+ x ( a − b )x
e ∫ (1 + 2x )(1 − 3x ) dx f ∫ ( x − a )( x − b ) dx, a > b

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 241

 2 Find each integral.
2x 11
a ∫
( x − 2)( x + 2)
dx b ∫ 6 x 2 + 5x − 4 dx
x −7 3x 2 − 12x + 11
c ∫ 2x 2 − 3x − 2 dx d ∫ ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) dx
5x 2 + 9 x + 6 x −1
e ∫ ( x 2 − 1)(2x + 3)
dx f ∫ x 2 − 7x + 6 dx
A B C
3 By writing each integrand in the form + + , determine each integral.
x + a ( x + a )2 x + b
4 + 7x 1 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 25
a ∫ ( x + 1)2 (2 + 3x )
dx b ∫ ( x + 1)( x − 1)2
dx c ∫ ( x + 1)2 ( x − 2)2
dx

4 By decomposing into partial fractions, determine each integral.

x−2 x
a ∫ 2
( x + 1)( x + 1)
dx b 2
( x + 1)( x − 1)
dx ∫
x +3
c ∫ x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 3 dx
5 Using the expansions for the sum and difference of 2 cubes, a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2)
and a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2), find:
12 9x + 6
a ∫ 3
x +8
dx b
x3 − 8 ∫
dx

2 A Bx + C
6 a Find the real numbers A, B and C such that 2
= + .
(1 + x )(1 + x ) 1 + x 1+ x2
2
b Hence, find ∫
(1 + x )(1 + x 2 )
dx .

1 A B
7 a Find real values for A and B such that = + .
( x + 3)( x + 1) x + 3 x + 1
1 1
b Hence evaluate ∫
0 ( x + 3)( x + 1)
dx .

2x 2 + 5x + 3 A B Cx + D
8 Write 2 2
in the form + 2
+ 2 and then find the
( x − 1) ( x + 1) x − 1 ( x − 1) x +1
2x 2 + 5x + 3
integral ∫ ( x − 1)2 ( x 2 + 1)
dx .

2x 2 − x − 7 A B Cx + D
9 Write 2 2
as a partial fractions + 2
+ 2 and then
( x + 2) ( x + x + 1) x + 2 ( x + 2) x + x +1
1 2x 2 − x − 7
evaluate ∫ 0 ( x + 2)2 ( x 2 + x + 1)
dx .

( x + 1)3 C D
10 a Find the values of the constants A, B, C and D if 2
= Ax + B + + 2 .
x x x
3 (x + 1)3
b Hence find ∫1 x2
dx.

242 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 x 1  2x + 2  1
11 a Show that 2
=  2  − 2 .
x + 2x + 3 2  x + 2x + 3  x + 2x + 3
x
b Hence find 2 ∫
x + 2x + 3
dx .

1 1  1 1 
12 a Show that = 2 2 2 2 − 2 .
2 2 2 2 
( x + a )( x + b ) a − b x + b x + a2 
∞ 1
b Hence evaluate ∫0 ( x + a )( x 2 + b 2 )
2 2
dx .

INVESTIGATION

THE SHAPE OF A GOBLET

Mathematics can be used to model many real-life situations. In this task you are
modelling the shape of a goblet using mathematics and technology to ascertain the
volume of liquid the goblet can hold.
6 cm

12 cm
iStock.com/gedzun

5 cm

Task 1
1
Determine an equation, of the form y = a cosec (x − α) − b to model the shape of a
2
goblet. Find suitable values for a, b and α, given that (0, 0) and (3, 7) are on the curve
that models the goblet. Show that the function is symmetrical.
Task 2
Find the cross-sectional area of the goblet.
Support your answer with reasoning and calculations.
Task 3
Find the volume of liquid that can fill the goblet to the very top.
Support your answer with reasoning and calculations.
Discuss the accuracy, reasonableness and limitations of your results for this investigation.

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 243

 6.04 Integration by parts
There are 2 main methods for simplifying integration of a function. The substitution method
is based on the chain rule, while integration by parts is based on the product rule.
Integration by parts allows us to integrate functions such as ln x, tan−1 x and xex;
that is, find ∫ ln x dx, ∫ tan−1 x dx and ∫ xex dx.
The product rule for differentiation is:
d du dv
uv = v +u where u and v are functions of x.
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides:
du dv
uv = v∫ dx
dx + u ∫dx
dx

dv du
∫
∴ u
dx
dx = uv − v ∫
dx
dx

Integration by parts
If u and v are both functions of x, then:
dv du
∫ u dx = uv − v dx
dx ∫
dx
or ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

This expression often allows us to convert a difficult integral into more manageable integral
dv
parts. The key to using integration by parts lies in choosing the u and to split the function
dx
dv
into. One part, u, needs to be differentiated, while the other part, , needs to be integrated.
dx

EXAMPLE 18

Find ∫ xex dx.

Solution
Let u = x and v′ = ex
So u′ = 1 and v = ex
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
∫ xex dx = xex − ∫ ex × 1 dx
= xex − ∫ ex dx
= xex − ex + C

244 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 EXAMPLE 19

Find ∫ x sin x dx.

Solution
Let u = x and v′ = sin x
So u′ = 1 and v = −cos x
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
∫ x sin x dx = −x cos x − ∫ −cos x × 1 dx
   = −x cos x + ∫ cos x dx
   = −x cos x + sin x + C

For integrands such as ln x and sin−1 x that cannot be integrated easily but which can be
differentiated, let u be the integrand and v′ = 1.

EXAMPLE 20

Find ∫ ln x dx.

Solution
Let u = ln x and v′ = 1
1
So u′ = and v=x
x
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
1
∫ 1 × ln x dx = (ln x) × x − ∫ × x dx
x
∫ ln x dx = x ln x − ∫ 1 dx
= x ln x − x + C

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 245

 The LIATE rule
For integrating by parts, LIATE is a handy guide to choosing which function should be u to
differentiate.
L logarithmic function: ln x, loga x
I inverse trigonometric functions: tan−1 x, sin−1 x
A algebraic functions: x2, 2x10
T trigonometric functions: sin x, tan x
E exponential functions: ex, 5x

EXAMPLE 21

2
Evaluate ∫1 x ln x dx.
Solution

According to the LIATE rule, L for logarithms comes first, so let u = ln x.

Let u = ln x and v′ = x
1 1 2
So u′ = and v= x
x 2
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
2
2  1  2 1 1
∫ (ln x ) x dx = (ln x ) x 2  − ∫1 x × 2 x
2
dx
1  2 1
2
2 1  1 2
∫1 x ln x dx =  2 x ∫1 x dx
2
ln x  −
1 2
2
1 1  1 1 
=  × 22 ln 2 − × 12 ln1 −  x 2 
2 2  2  2 1
1 1 1 
= (2ln 2 − 0) −  × 22 − × 12 
2 2 2 
1  3
= 2ln 2 −  
2  2
3
= 2ln 2 −
4

246 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 INVESTIGATION

DIFFERENTIATE, HENCE INTEGRATE

Because integration by parts is the reversal of the product rule for differentiation, many
problems requiring integration by parts can also be approached using differentiation.
d
For example, x sin x = sin x + x cos x and so we can deduce that
dx
∫ x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x.
Differentiate the given functions to find following integrals.
1 Use the derivative of x ln x to find ∫ ln x dx.
2 Use the derivative of xex to find ∫ xex dx.
3 Use the derivative of x cos x to find ∫ x sin x dx.
4 Use the derivative of xnex to find ∫ xnex dx.

EXAMPLE 22

Find ∫ xn ln x dx.

Solution

Let u = ln x and v′ = xn
1 1 n+1
So u′ = and v= x
x n +1
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
1 n +1 1 n +1 1
∫ (ln x ) x ∫
n
dx = (ln x ) x − x dx
n +1 n +1 x
x n +1 1
∫ x n ln x dx =
n +1
(ln x ) −
n +1 ∫ x n dx

x n +1 1  1 n +1
= (ln x ) −  x  +C
n +1 n + 1 n + 1 
x n +1  1 
=  ln x −  +C
n +1 n + 1

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 247

 The table method
Integration by parts can be done using the table method. It works best when applied to
certain functions in the form f (x) = g(x)h(x) where one of g(x) or h(x) can be differentiated
multiple times easily, while the other function can be integrated multiple times easily.
There are 2 types of tabular integrations. The first type is when one of the factors of f (x)
goes to 0 when differentiated multiple times. The second type is when neither of the factors
of f (x) goes to 0 when differentiated multiple times.
Type 1
Find ∫ x3 cos x dx. Let u = x3 and v′ = cos x.

Sign Derivatives of u Integrals of v

3
+ x cos x
− 3x2 sin x
1
+ 6x −cos x
− 6 −sin x
+ 0 cos x

The integral is then found by multiplying the derivative in line 1 by the integral in line 2, and
so on (see arrows in table).
∫ x3 cos x dx = x3 sin x − 3x2(−cos x) + 6x(−sin x) − 6(cos x) + C
  = x3 sin x + 3x2 cos x − 6x sin x − 6 cos x + C
Type 2
Find ∫ ex sin x dx. Let u = ex and v′ = sin x.

Sign Derivatives of u Integrals of v

x
+ e sin x
x
− e −cos x
+ ex −sin x
− ex cos x

You will notice that neither of the functions goes to 0. In the second type we can stop at any
multiplication as in Type 1 and finish with the integral of the product of the last 2 functions.
∫ ex sin x dx = ex(−cos x) − ex(−sin x) + ∫ ex(−sin x) dx + C
It is preferable to stop when the product being integrated is the same as the original question,
so we can bring it to the LHS.
2 ∫ ex sin x dx = −ex cos x + ex sin x + C
Hence:
1 x
∫ ex sin x dx = e (sin x − cos x) + C
2

248 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

Exercise 6.04 Integration by parts
1 Find each integral using integration by parts.
a ∫ ln (x+ 1) dx b ∫ ln x2 dx
c ∫ x cos x dx d ∫ xe−x dx
e ∫ x sin 2x dx f ∫ xe2x dx
g ∫ x ln x dx

2 Find each integral using integration by parts. Some will need to be integrated twice.
a ∫ ex sin x dx b ∫ ex cos x dx
2
c ∫ x e x dx d ∫ x2 ln x dx
e ∫ x2 sin x dx f ∫ x tan−1 x dx
g ∫ x2e4x dx

3 Evaluate each each definite integral using integration by parts.

2 1
∫1 ln x dx ∫0 e dx , put u =
x
a b x
e 0.5
∫1 ln x dx ∫0 cos 2x dx
2 −1
c d
π 2
∫0 x cos x dx ∫0 ln ( x + 1) dx
2
e f
π
g ∫− π x sin x dx

6.05 Recurrence relations

Sometimes when integrating a function with a high power, such as (cos x)6, we find the
integral of the same function with a smaller power in the answer, such as (cos x)5.
A recurrence relation is a recursive formula that expresses an integral in terms of a similar
integral with a smaller power.
Two examples of a recurrence relation for integrating a difficult function are:
∫ xnex dx = xnex − n ∫ xn − 1ex dx
(tan x )n − 1 n−2
∫ tan n x dx =
n −1 ∫
− (tan x ) dx

With repeated application of the formula, we can eventually reduce the power of the integral
to 1 or 0, when it can be easily found.

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 249

 EXAMPLE 23

1
If In = ∫ cosn x dx, prove that In = [sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2] for n > 0.
n
Solution
Let u = (cos x)n − 1 and v′ = cos x
So u′    = (n − 1)(cos x)n − 2(− sin x) and v = sin x
    = −(n − 1) sin x (cos x)n − 2

Using integration by parts:

∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
In = ∫ cosn x dx
= (cos x)n − 1 sin x − ∫ −(n − 1) sin x (cos x)n − 2 sin x dx
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1) ∫ sin2 x (cos x)n − 2 dx
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1) ∫ (1 − cos2 x)(cos x)n − 2 dx
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1) ∫ (cos x)n − 2 − cosn x dx This last term is the same
integral as in the question.
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1) [∫ (cos x)n − 2 dx − ∫ cosn x dx]
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1) [In − 2 − In]
= sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2 − (n − 1)In
Move −(n − 1)In to the LHS:
In + (n − 1)In = sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2
(1 + n − 1)In = sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2
nIn = sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2
1
In = [sin x (cos x)n − 1 + (n − 1)In − 2] as required.
n

250 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 EXAMPLE 24

In = ∫ xnex dx for n ≥ 0.

a Show that In = xnex − nIn − 1

b Hence evaluate I3.

Solution
a Let u = xn and v′ = ex
So u′ = nxn − 1 and v = ex
Using integration by parts:
∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

In = ∫ xnex dx
= xnex − ∫ exnxn − 1 dx
= xnex − n ∫ xn − 1ex dx
= xnex − nIn − 1 as required.
b From a, I3 = x3ex − 3I2,
but  I2 = x2ex − 2I1
and  I1 = x1ex − 1I0
I0 = ∫ x0ex dx = ex + C
Hence:
I3 = x3ex − 3I2
= x3ex − 3(x2ex − 2I1)
= x3ex − 3[x2ex − 2(x1ex − 1I0)]
= x3ex − 3[x2ex − 2(xex − ex)] + C
= x3ex − 3(x2ex − 2xex + 2ex) + C
= ex(x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 6) + C

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 251

 Exercise 6.05 Recurrence relations
1 Prove each recurrence relation.
a ∫ xn cos x dx = xn sin x − n ∫ xn − 1 sin x dx
b ∫ (ln x)n dx = x(ln x)n − n ∫ (ln x)n − 1 dx
1 n
c ∫ x n e 2x dx = x n e 2x −
2 2
∫
x n − 1e 2x dx

(tan x )n − 1 n−2
d ∫ tan n x dx =
n −1
− (tan x ) ∫
dx Hint: tann x = (tan x)n - 2 tan2 x
n
1
2 Let I n = ∫0 (1 − x 2 ) 2 dx , where n ≥ 0 and is an integer.
n
a Show that I n = I n − 2, for n ≥ 2.
n +1
b Evaluate I5.
1 n
3 For every integer n ≥ 0, I n = ∫0 x ( x 2 − 1)5 dx .
n −1
Prove that for n ≥ 2, I n = I n − 2.
n + 11

4 a Differentiate sinn − 1 θ cos θ, and express your result in terms of sin θ.

b Hence, deduce that
π π
n −1
∫0
2 sin n θ dθ =
n ∫0
2 sin n − 2 θ d θ , for n ≥ 1.
π
c Evaluate ∫0
2 sin 4 θ d θ.

e2
5 For integers n ≥ 0, I n = ∫1 (log e x )n dx.

Show that for n ≥ 1, In = e22n − nIn − 1.

x 2n
1
6 Let I n = ∫
0 x2 + 1
dx , where n is an integer n ≥ 0.
π
a Show that I 0 = .
4
1
b Show that I n + I n − 1 = .
2n − 1
1 x4
c Hence, find ∫
0 x2 + 1
dx .

π
7 Let I n = ∫
0
4 sec n x dx , where n is an integer.
1 
a Show that I n = ( 2 )n − 2 + ( n − 2) I n − 2  for n > 1.
n −1
b Hence evaluate I4.

252 MATHS IN FOCUS 12. Mathematics Extension 2 ISBN 9780170413435

 6. TEST YOURSELF

4
+1
1 Find ∫ x 3e 6 x dx .
2 dx
2 Evaluate ∫2
x x2 − 1
, using the substitution x = sec θ.

3 Using an appropriate substitution, find ∫ sin θ sec3 θ dθ.

π
dθ π 3
4 Show that 2 ∫
0 2 + cos θ
=
9
.
3 dx
5 Evaluate ∫
0 (3x + 1)2
.

dx
6 Find ∫ 9 − (3 − x )2
.

0 2
7 Evaluate ∫− π2 2
x +4
dx.

dx
8 Find ∫ x2 − 4x + 7.
x2 0.5
9 Evaluate
0 x2 − 1 ∫
dx .
1 A B 1
10 Find real numbers A and B such that = +
x ( x − 1) x x − 1
. Hence, find ∫ x ( x − 1) dx.
1 A B C
11 Find real numbers A and B such that 2
= + + .
( x + 1)( x − 1) x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1)2
1
Hence, find ∫ ( x + 1)( x − 1)2 dx .

2x − 3
12 Using partial fractions, find ∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 dx.
2x 2 + 3x − 1
13 Find ∫ x3 − x 2 + x − 1
dx .

1
x2 + 3
14 Find ∫ 0
2
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2)
2
dx to 2 decimal places.
e ln x
15 Use integration by parts to evaluate
1 x2
dx . ∫
16 Use integration by parts to show that ∫ (ln x)2 dx = x [ln x ]2 − 2x ln x + 2x + C.
e ln x
17 Use integration by parts to evaluate
1 x
dx . ∫
ln 2
18 Evaluate ∫0 xe x dx.
1 2n
∫0 ( x
2
19 If In = − 1)n dx for n ≥ 0, show that In = − I n − 1 for n ≥ 1.
2n + 1

ISBN 9780170413435 6. Further integration 253