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Octal is not in Syllabus

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 DE morgans Theorem for 3 variables

1.
2. (X+Y+Z)’ = X’.Y’.Z’

X Y Z X’ Y’ Z’ (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z)’= LHS X’Y’Z’ = RHS

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

2. (X.Y.Z)’ = X’+Y’+Z’

X’+Y+’Z’ =
X Y Z X’ Y’ Z’ (X.Y.Z) (X.Y.Z)’= LHS
RHS

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

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BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

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NOR GATE IMPLEMENTATION

1.)NOT

……………

2).AND

----------------

3) -------------------

= ( A + B ) ( C + D)
1.Implement F=(A+B)(C+D) USING NOR IMPLEMENTATION

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
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A system which transmits information from one point another point is known as communication
system. Fig 1. shows the block diagram of a general communication system.

Fig 1 communication system block diagram

The essential components of a communication system are information source, input transducer,
transmitter, communication channel, receiver and destination.

(i) Information Source

A communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This information

originates in the information source. And hence, the function of information source is to produce
required message which has to be transmitted.

(ii) Input Transducer

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. The message from
the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when the message produced by
the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time-
varying electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage

which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.
(iii) Transmitter

The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects. Such
as restriction of range of audio frequencies, amplification and modulation. All these processing of the
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message signal are done just to ease the transmission of the signal through the channel.

The Channel and The Noise

(iv)
The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter
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to the receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the channel is to provide a physical
connection between the transmitter and the receiver.
During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced
in the system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required signal at any
point in a communication system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the
channel.
(v) Receiver

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from
the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried
out in transmitter.

(vi) Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original
form.
For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer
i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.
Define Modulation & its need.
“The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier
Wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation”.
The resultant wave is called modulated wave. Therefore, modulation permits the transmission to
occur at high frequency while it simultaneously allows the carrying of the information signal. It is also
the process of manipulating the frequency or the amplitude of a carrier wave in response to an incoming
voice, video or data signal

Why Modulation needed?

Modulation is required to match the signal to the transmission medium. Some of the major
reasons why modulation is required are:
i. Practical
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antenna length.
Ex- Audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, therefore, if they are transmitted directly into
space, the length of the transmitting antenna required would be extremely large. For instance, to radiate
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a frequency of 20 kHz directly into space, we would need an antenna length of 3 ×108/20 ×103 =
15,000 metres. This is too long antenna to be constructed practically. If a carrier wave say of 1000
kHz is used to carry the signal, we need an antenna length of 300 metres only and this size can be
easily constructed.
ii. Operating range. The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the
frequency of the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are
small, therefore, these cannot be transmitted over large distances if radiated directly into space. Thus
modulating a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and permit the transmission to occur at
this high frequency (i.e. carrier frequency).
iii. Wireless communication. One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should
be carried without wires i.e. radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable
because the efficiency of radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is
possible at high frequencies > 20 kHz.
iv. Modulation for ease of radiation
v. Modulation allows frequency assignment and multiplexing
vi. Modulation reduces the noise and interference

Types of Modulation
There are three basic types of modulation, namely ;
(i) Amplitude modulation
(ii) Frequency modulation
(iii) Phase modulation

(i)Amplitude Modulation
When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation.

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In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in accordance with
the intensity of the signal and the frequency of the modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier
frequency.
Frequency Modulation (FM) When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is called frequency modulation (FM). In frequency
modulation, only the frequency of the carrier wave is changed in accordance with the signal and the

amplitude of the modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier wave amplitude.

Phase modulation (P)M

hWen the phase of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is
called phase modulation

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