ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

www.bioinformation.net
Review
Volume 19(9)
Received September 1, 2023; Revised September 30, 2023; Accepted September 30, 2023, Published September 30, 2023

DOI: 10.6026/97320630019925

BIOINFORMATION Impact Factor (2023 release) is 1.9 with 2,198 citations from 2020 to 2022 across continents taken for IF calculations.

Declaration on Publication Ethics:

The author’s state that they adhere with COPE guidelines on publishing ethics as described elsewhere at https://publicationethics.org/.
The authors also undertake that they are not associated with any other third party (governmental or non-governmental agencies) linking
with any form of unethical issues connecting to this publication. The authors also declare that they are not withholding any information
that is misleading to the publisher in regard to this article.

Declaration on official E-mail:

The corresponding author declares that lifetime official e-mail from their institution is not available for all authors

License statement:
This is an Open Access article which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly credited. This is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

Comments from readers:

Articles published in BIOINFORMATION are open for relevant post publication comments and criticisms, which will be published
immediately linking to the original article without open access charges. Comments should be concise, coherent and critical in less than 1000
words.

Disclaimer:
The views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not reflect the views or opinions of Bioinformation and (or) its
publisher Biomedical Informatics. Biomedical Informatics remains neutral and allows authors to specify their address and affiliation details
including territory where required. Bioinformation provides a platform for scholarly communication of data and information to create
knowledge in the Biological/Biomedical domain.
Edited by P Kangueane
Citation: Rajaseger et al. Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023)

Hydroponics: current trends in sustainable crop

production
Ganapathy Rajaseger*, Kit Lun Chan, Kay Yee Tan, Shan Ramasamy, Mar Cho Khin, Anburaj Amaladoss 1 &
Patel Kadamb Haribhai

Centre for Research & Opportunities in Plant Science (CROPS), School of Applied Science, Temasek Polytechnic, 21 Tampines Ave 1,
Singapore 529757; 1Centre Centre for Aquaculture and Veterinary Science (CAVS), School of Applied Science, Temasek Polytechnic, 21
Tampines Ave 1, Singapore 529757, *Corresponding author.

925
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Author contacts:
Ganapathy Rajaseger*- E-mail: [email protected]
Kit Lun Chan -E-mail: [email protected]
Kay Yee Tan - E-mail: [email protected]
Shan Ramasamy - E-mail: [email protected]
Mar Cho Khin - E-mail: [email protected]
Amaladoss Anburaj - E-mail: [email protected]
Kadamb Patel- email: [email protected]

Abstract:
The combination of Hydroponics with smart technology in farming is novel and has promise as a method for effective and environmentally
friendly crop production. This technology eliminates the need for soil and reduces water usage by providing nutrients straight to the
plant's roots. The Internet of Things (IoT), sensors, and automation are all used in "smart farming," which allows for constant monitoring of
soil conditions, nutrient levels, and plant vitality to facilitate fine-grained management and optimization. The technology-driven strategy
improves crop output, quickens growth rates, and keeps conditions ideal all year round regardless of weather or other environmental
circumstances. In addition, smart farming lessens the need for organic chemical inputs, promotes environmentally safe methods of pest
management, and minimizes the amount of waste produced. This ground-breaking strategy may significantly alter the agricultural sector
by encouraging regionalized food production, enhancing food security, and adding to more resilient farming practices. This comprehensive
review delves into current trends in Hydroponics, highlighting recent advancements in smart farming systems, such as Domotics, Data
Acquisition, Remote Cultivation, and automated AI systems. The review also underscores the various types and advantages of smart
farming hydroponic technology, emphasizing the requirements for achieving efficiency in this innovative domain. Additionally, it explores
future goals and potential developments, paving the way for further advancements in hydroponic smart farming.

Keywords: Smart Farming, Hydroponics, IoT, Sensors, Domotics, Remote Cultivation, Data Acquisition, Future smart farming.

Graphical abstract:

Background: middle of the 20th century as a solution to boost food production in

Hydroponics is the practice of growing plants in a nutrient-rich locations with limited resources and space [5]. It is believed that the
water solution instead of soil [1]. The term "hydroponics" Hanging Gardens were created utilizing the first known application
originated from the Greek- "hydro," which means water, and of hydroponic cultivation [6]. To prove that plants might grow
"ponos," which means labour [2]. Peat moss, charcoal, gravel, rock successfully without soil, a Flemish botanist named Jan van
wool, perlite, coco peat, and coconut coir are only some of the inert Helmont undertook experiments in the 17th century. Later, in 1800,
media used in hydroponic systems to support plant roots [3, 4]. The French scientists De Saussure and Boussingault proved that plants
system may be engineered to give the plants the optimal quantity of require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen for proper growth.
water, nutrients, and oxygen for optimal development. Hydroponic Subsequently, in 1860, German scientists Sachs and Knop added to
systems are used commercially and in private homes to cultivate a De Saussure and Boussingault's list by cultivating plants in aqueous
wide variety of plant life, including vegetables, fruits, herbs, and solutions including salts of phosphorus, sulphur, potassium,
flowers. While the concept of soilless growing has been around for calcium, and magnesium [7, 8]. William Frederick Gericke is often
millennia, the modern hydroponic system was developed in the cited as an early proponent of growing plants without soil. Because
926
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

he believed it would be more efficient and successful, Gericke and simultaneously combating demand of land and climate change
focused on developing methods for cultivating plants without soil. concerns [21].
Using lettuce, tomatoes, and cucumbers as examples, he conducted
a slew of experiments demonstrating that plants could grow and Hydroponics, however, is a crucial feature of contemporary
flourish in nutrient-rich water so long as their fundamental farming, especially in the context of "smart farming." It offers some
nutritional demands were met. The concept of soilless agriculture benefits and addresses serious problems with traditional
owes a great deal to Gericke's research, which also laid the agricultural methods. Hydroponics has several advantages over
framework for modern Hydroponics [9]. Hydroponics is now conventional agricultural techniques like using soil and
widely utilized in commercial and domestic settings to cultivate greenhouses. Hydroponics allows for economical water
various products, from leafy greens to tuber crops to tomatoes and consumption, typically using as much as 90% less water than
herbs. Its promise to boost food production and sustainability, conventional farming methods [22]. Hydroponics, with its carefully
decrease water consumption, and raise crop yields has recently calibrated nutrient solutions, may produce far greater quantities of
increased in popularity [10]. greens than conventional soil gardening [23]. Hydroponics also
allows for greater crop output per unit area because of its vertical
Importance and relevance of Hydroponics in urban farming: farming methodology, which makes the most efficient use of
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization's report in available space [24]. It was recorded that there was a significant
2001, it is projected that the global population will reach 9.7 billion decrease in photosynthetic photon flux density and shoot fresh
by 2050. This will require a 60% rise in the production of food weight in the Vertical Farming Systems [VFS] as the distance from
worldwide. The current state of under nourishment has found to the apex to the foundation increased. However, despite this
affect around 11% of the global population, and there has been an reduction, the VFS generated a greater amount of crop per unit of
upward trend in this figure in recent times. As though, food cultivation space compared to the horizontal hydroponic system
security has emerged as a prominent concern in the current era, [25]. The study's findings indicate that VFS may be a viable
representing a critical challenge for the agricultural sector [Tilman, substitute for horizontal hydroponic development mechanisms.
2002] [11-13].
Furthermore, the number of malnourished individuals stands at Additionally, the study suggests that integrating artificial lighting
approximately 690 million. According to research, livestock into the VFS may lead to even higher yields. Pests and illnesses are
farming utilizes around 80% of the global agricultural land, less likely to be a problem with hydroponic systems, lowering the
necessitating significantly more land than plant-based food demand for chemical pesticides [26]. Finally, Hydroponics allows
farming. According to research, approximately 30% of the global for continuous production throughout the year independent of
food supply is wasted annually [14]. According to recent data, most external weather conditions, guaranteeing a steady supply of fresh
of the world's population resides in urban areas, surpassing the vegetables [27]. Hydroponics often provides a better Return On
number of individuals living in rural regions. Specifically, in 2018, Investment [ ROI] than conventional farming methods because of
cities accommodated 55% of the global population [15]. According its greater productivity and quicker harvest times [28]. Research
to another study, the percentage of the global population residing findings indicate that hydroponic lettuce production has the
in urban areas was 30% in 1950 [16]. However, projections indicate potential to generate significantly higher yields per acre in
that by 2050, this figure is expected to increase to 68% [17]. Even comparison to soil-based cultivation, with reported increases of up
though, urban populations have been rapidly increasing, to 20 times. The enhanced productivity observed in hydroponic
nevertheless, agriculture has been able to meet their growing farming systems has been found to result in improved financial
demands by producing food that requires higher energy, land, returns and a faster return on investment. Compared to
water, and generates increased greenhouse gas emissions. The conventional agricultural methods, hydroponic systems may
primary concern lies in whether agriculture can sustainably keep increase lettuce yields by as much as 20 times per acre [29]. Brault et
up with the changing demands of urban populations while also al., conducted a study on the year-round production of lettuce
promoting agricultural prosperity and reducing poverty in both using the nutrient film technique in a greenhouse with artificial
rural and urban regions [18]. When taking the perspective of lighting to investigate the feasibility of using this technique to
urbanisation and limiting the poverty, focusing on smart farming produce lettuce throughout the year, which involved the use of a
is a far more effective way to reduce poverty than investing in other greenhouse with artificial lighting to provide the necessary light
areas, as agriculture has given its pivotal role in a country's and the nutrient film technique to provide the necessary nutrients
infrastructure and its potential impact on conflicts and wars which to the plants. The study's findings indicated that hydroponic lettuce
were driven by historical land-related food disputes [19]. Such that farming in a controlled environment enables uninterrupted and
the expansion of urban areas creates competition for resources such reliable year-round crop yield, thus surmounting any seasonal
as soil, water, and labour with agriculture. This could be attributed constraints [30].
to the influx of people and the reclassification of land use [20]. The
competition for limited resources has led to a situation where By implementing a controlled environment and precise nutrient
advanced agriculture is required to increase its productivity to management, the authors demonstrated the feasibility of achieving
addressing the issue on diminishing the burden of poverty chain uninterrupted tomato production regardless of external weather
conditions, facilitating year-round market supply [31]. The

927
 ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

researchers achieved continuous pepper production throughout the and renewable energy sources, can contribute to a more
year by maintaining optimal environmental conditions, including environmentally friendly approach to farming [37].
temperature, light, and nutrient supply [32]. In another study, the
research findings indicate that implementing hydroponic Nutritional Quality and Flavour:
cultivation methods and regulated environmental factors enabled The precise control of nutrient levels and growing conditions in
uniform strawberry yield, irrespective of seasonal constraints [33]. hydroponic cultivation can improve crop quality and flavour.
These benefits demonstrate the practicality and longevity of Hydroponic cultivation can be particularly noteworthy for
growing hydroponically-cultivated leafy greens. speciality crops, herbs, and medicinal plants due to the potential to
optimize specific compounds and active ingredients. [38].
Advantages of hydroponic farming System:
Resource Efficiency: The optimization of resources like water, Pest and Disease Control:
nutrients, and space is a key benefit of Hydroponics. Hydroponic Hydroponics provides a soil-less environment, reducing the risk of
farming techniques have been found to reduce water usage by up soil-borne pests and diseases. Integrated Pest Management [IPM]
to 90% compared to conventional soil-based farming. Additionally, techniques can be implemented more effectively in Hydroponics,
this method allows for the recycling and reutilization of nutrient utilizing biological controls and minimizing the need for chemical
solutions, promoting sustainability and minimizing waste. The pesticides. This leads to healthier plants and safer produce [39].
implementation of vertical farming techniques has been found to Urban Agriculture and Local Food Production: Research suggests
optimize space utilization, resulting in the ability to achieve high- that Hydroponics is a suitable method for urban agriculture as it
density crop production [34]. allows food production in confined spaces such as rooftops, vertical
farms, or indoor facilities. Promoting local food production has
Year-Round Crop Production: been found to positively reduce transportation distances and
Hydroponics allows for cultivation throughout the year without improve access to fresh, regionally produced crops. Strengthening
being affected by seasonal or climatic constraints. Growers can local involvement and knowledge about sustainable food systems is
utilize controlled environments to establish the ideal conditions for also observed [14]. Scientific Research and Innovation:
plant growth, encompassing temperature, humidity, light intensity, Hydroponics is a platform for scientific research and innovation in
and nutrient concentrations. Maintaining a consistent and agriculture. Researchers can explore new techniques, develop
dependable food supply, decreasing reliance on imported goods, improved cultivars, and test novel approaches for sustainable food
and improving food security are all important factors to consider production. Integrating smart technologies, automation, and data
[35]. analytics further advances the field and facilitates continuous
improvements in hydroponic farming practices. Hydroponics is a
Increased Crop Yields: game-changer in modern agriculture, offering increased efficiency,
Research has shown that hydroponic systems accurately regulate sustainability, and productivity. Its ability to overcome the
growth conditions, leading to increased plant growth rates and limitations of traditional farming methods makes it a valuable tool
greater crop yields than traditional farming techniques. Research for meeting the challenges of food security, environmental
has shown that customizing nutrient delivery and optimizing the conservation, and the growing demand for nutritious and high-
root zone environment can improve plant health and productivity. quality produce.
[36] .
Environmental Sustainability: The utilization of Hydroponics has Types of Hydroponic Systems:
been found to reduce the adverse effects of agriculture. The Hydroponic systems can be classified mainly into two based on the
elimination of soil dependency results in a reduction of soil erosion, substrate used soilless-solution culture and granular-substrate
loss of nutrients, and spoilage. Integrating Hydroponics with culture Hydroponics [40]. Types of hydroponic systems that are in
sustainable practices, such as organic pest control, water recycling, use today and their specification with the list of plants that grow
best in them are tabulated (Table 1).
Table 1: Types of Hydroponic systems and specific plants
S.No Hydroponic Characteristics Specific Plants Reference
System
1. Nutrient Film The roots of plants in NFT systems are constantly bathed in a thin coating of nutrient-rich water, from Leafy Greens, Herbs, [41]
Technique which they may draw the nutrients they need. The excess liquid is collected and subjected to a recycling Strawberries
(NFT) process Beans
Raddish, Cucumber
2. Deep Water This involves the suspension of plant roots in a nutrient solution that is continuously oxygenated Lettuce, Herbs, Leafy Greens, [32, 40]
Culture through an air pump. The roots of plants that remain submerged in water can absorb more nutrients And Plants With Larger Root
(DWC): and oxygen due to their prolonged exposure to the aquatic environment. The Dutch bucket system is a Systems Like Tomatoes,
well-liked deep-water hydroponic system that offers a productive and regulated environment for plant Cucumbers, And Peppers.
growth. Individual buckets or containers filled with an inert medium, such as perlite or coconut coir,
support the plants while enabling their roots to reach a nutrient-rich solution. Due to its scalability,
simplicity of use, and adaptability for various plants, this system is commonly employed in commercial
Hydroponics.
3. Drip System: The utilization of drip systems entails the direct delivery of nutrient solutions to the root zone of plants Vegetables, Fruits, Herbs, [10]
through an arrangement of tubes and drippers. The method involves dripping the solution onto the And Flowering Plants.

928
 ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

chosen growing medium, such as perlite or coco coir, and subsequently allowing it to drain back into
the container for potential reuse.
4. Ebb and Flow This involves the cyclic submersion of plants in a nutrient solution, followed by subsequent drainage Tomatoes, cucumbers, [10]
(Flood and back into a reservoir. The regular repetition of this cycle facilitates the provision of nutrients and oxygen peppers, Strawberries.
Drain) to the roots. Lettuce.
Spinach.
Radishes.
Beans.
5. Aeroponic This involves the suspension of plant roots in the air, with intermittent nutrient solution application as a Leafy Greens, Herbs, [42]
fine mist or spray to the roots. The observed phenomenon enables a higher level of oxygenation and Strawberries
nutrient uptake. Capsicum,
Cauliflower,
Chilli
6. Wick System Passive hydroponic setups known as wick systems are characterized by their simplicity. In this Small Plants, Herbs, And [43]
experimental setup, the plants are situated within an inert growing medium, and a wick composed of a Low-Nutrient-Demanding
cotton rope is employed to facilitate the upward movement of the nutrient solution from a reservoir to Plants
the root zone.
7. Krakty method Among the other types of hydroponic methods, this system is much easier and cheaper; it does not Leafy Greens, Herbs [44] [ 45]
require electronic devices and does not need electric current to operate. The entire crop needs an initial
administration of water and nutrients, making the system an effective plant production method. The
static, suspended-pot method is highly efficient for minimizing water wastage.

Overview on Recent developments in Hydroponics: might greatly enhance yield quality [49]. As a result, farming will
Innovative technologies, including smart home technology become increasingly data-driven and data-enabled. Even though
(domotics), IoT automated growing techniques, and AI-based machines do a sizable portion of processing work, individuals will
systems, have increasingly entered the mainstream recently and, to still be engaged. Innovative agriculture combines various
add to that, have relevant applications in indoor hydroponic automated technologies with big data availability to optimize and
productions [46, 47]. The amount and accessibility of knowledge on increase the production of crops to eliminate the need for human
the web means that increasing numbers of individuals are starting intervention and labour [50]. The technical developments brought
to explore these growth strategies for various motives, and about by globalization now include innovative agriculture. More
both hydroponic and indoor cultures are growing in popularity automation and machine learning in farming are anticipated to
with farmers [48]. result from new technologies like the Internet of things (IoT) and
cloud computing that could implement data and communication
Domotics for indoor cultivation- control tools: processes, increasing production [51]. Large firms and companies
It is important to consider the concept carefully while establishing a are anticipating that massive Data in Peta and Zeta bytes has an
facility for indoor production and hydroponic planting. enormous opportunity to generate revenue in various manners [52].
Specifically, the spot, dimension, targeted plant species, and tools The term "Internet of Things" (IoT) describes an interconnected
required for the particular task must be considered. A hydroponic system of objects, tools, automobiles, constructions, and other
farming system and an indoor conservatory must operate with technological sensing devices, like software enabling the
various specialized gadgets. To provide the optimal climate for the exchanging of data. This primarily includes Radio Frequency
growth of plants, we will consequently need lights with specialized Identification (RFID), and sensors. The fusion of the natural
ranges for horticulture, aspirators for the movement of air, environment with computing devices and online resources offers
humidifiers, fans, heat producers, etc. Thermo-hygrometers for valuable data and functionality for improved production [53]. In a
determining both humidity and temperature, heating systems that study in 2017 to validate the effect of Internet of the Things on
regulate aspirators or cooling systems, and hygrostats to regulate Smart Hydroponic Farming Ecosystem (HFE)" sensors and relays
humidifiers or dehumidifiers are a few control devices employed were exploited efficiently. The authors incorporated the monitoring
nowadays for improved and controlled production. However, and regulating characteristics into their prototype design to
advanced Software-based controls with programs that can handle validate variables for 27 days: temperature of air and water,
information collected by sensors and regulate the operation of moisture, pH level, electrical conductivity (EC), water height, flow
lights, aspirators, humidifiers, etc., through in-built applications to rate and nutrient concentration. The Arduino 2560-based
maintain stable every environmental condition are inadequate now. information recorder was developed to gather data from five
sensors on six distinct variables and store it on an SD card to show
Data Acquisition for Cultivation: system efficiency instantaneously [54]. Kyaw et al. designed a
The effectiveness or lack thereof of the yield might be influenced by prototype utilizing sensors to collect data and actuators to regulate
a wide range of internal and external elements, including settings to validate aquaponics (growing fish with Hydroponics).
conventional methods of manual monitoring and measurements, They employed smartphone apps for quick systems management
which tend to be ineffective and insufficient in various ways. In this and cloud-based storage for their regression data assessment of fish
time when information is easily accessible, sustaining the and plant growth [55].
authenticity of the agricultural system depends on reliable
information gathering and dissemination. These numbers and facts Remote cultivation:
are statistics compiled to provide backed-up, empirical results that
929
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Typically, a remote monitoring system comprises two overarching Aquaponics: A sustainable hydroponics approach to the circular
classifications of components, namely the remote telemetry units economy:
(RTUs) and the master stations. In broad terms, the Remote It is the method of cultivating plants and animals [ often fish] close
Terminal Units (RTUs) acquire data, while the master units analyze to one another. Bacteria convert noxious fish wastes like ammonia
and execute commands based on the acquired information. Remote into plant-friendly nitrates and nitrites. Aquaponics relies on fish
Terminal Units (RTUs) operate by being configured to collect exact waste as its primary food supply; thus, understanding this concept
categories of data. Every device is designed to oversee particular is essential. In turn, the plants filter the water, making it safe for the
elements of the agricultural land and transmit a notification to the fish. This approach is beneficial since it helps save money and
central system in case of any deviation from the predetermined biological resources by reducing waste [59, 60].
parameters [56].
AI-Driven Hydroponics:
Integration of IoT in Vertical Farming: Glenn Dbritto et al. have researched land and water conservation
Vertical farming is a popular trend in Hydroponics that involves using an artificial intelligence system in the hydroponic cultivation
stacking multiple layers of plants in a vertical arrangement. This of Tomato F1 hybrid Suhyana seed. The system provides a
farming method saves space, reduces water usage, and increases controlled environment where a combination of water, nutrient
yields per square foot of growing area. In response to increased solution, and light is autonomously supplied to the plant roots. This
demand for agricultural productivity, vertical farming is a new approach aims to optimize plant growth while minimizing water
technology that aims to boost crop yield per unit of land. VF is a usage and promoting sustainable land use practices [61]. A Deep
technically challenging and pricey crop production method that neural network (DNN) was implemented in a study by Mehra et
uses protected horticulture systems like glasshouses and controlled al., to regulate the hydroponic system's efficacy parameters
environment facilities along with numerous layers of growth (environmental conditions) [62]. Sensors linked to both an Arduino
surfaces and/or inclined production surfaces. As a result, VF and a Raspberry Pi 4 have been integrated into a prototype indoor
requires a scientific approach that considers various elements, IoT-based hydroponic control system for the nutrient film
including lighting, crop nutrition, growing systems, energy technique; to automatically adjust and manage the nutrient and pH
efficiency, construction, and site selection [9]. The Internet of levels in the study system [63]. A recent study conducted by Sun
Things (IoT)is used in vertical farming to monitor environmental Park involved the development and implementation of an
conditions and collect data on individual plants. IoT systems use integrated system that utilizes IoT-Edge-AI-Cloud to track
this information to formulate accurate recommendations for the environmental data in strawberry hydroponics to identify optimal
amounts of light, water, and nutrients that should be provided to harvest times. The monitoring system is suggested to gather,
each plant. An IoT device prototype for smart vertical farming with organize, and visualize data related to the circumstances in which
LED lights, sensors, a wooden board, and a battery is presented in strawberries are grown. Additionally, a deep learning algorithm
the International Journal for Research in Applied Science and was utilized to classify the maturity level of strawberries in images.
Engineering Technology. The prototype is equipped with sensors An integrated interface was employed to visualize the monitoring
such as a light-detection resistor (LDR), soil moisture sensor (SMS), and analysis results, offering fundamental data for strawberry
and LM35 temperature sensor (TMS), which together gather data cultivation. Authors demand that even if the area used for
on plant development and then analyze and show that data in a strawberry farming grows, the suggested system, which is based on
web application for optimal efficiency [57]. Recently, there have a virtualized container and the IoT-Edge-AI-Cloud idea, may be
been reports of a smartphone app developed in Android Studio readily scaled and flexible. The hydroponic strawberry atmosphere
that allows users to regulate and track plant development in was monitored for 4 months to verify the effectiveness of the
hydroponic vertical farming systems. Using Internet of Things monitoring system. Furthermore, the verification of the
technology, sensors are used to monitor environmental and dietary harvesting was decided by utilizing strawberry images obtained
factors including temperature, humidity, TDS, pH, and water level. from Smart Berry Farm [64].
The Thing-Speak cloud platform was then used to send the data.
The Tashi Home Pindfresh system and Arduino and Raspberry Pi Factors involved in an effective hydroponic system:
have been utilized as control centres [58]. Factors affecting seed germination and seedling establishment
for hydroponics system:
Aeroponics Technology: Regulated farming, specifically greenhouse food crop production,
Aeroponics is an indoor horticulture technique that suspends plant has been identified as a highly intensive form of cultivation that can
roots in a nutrient-rich mist, allowing maximum oxygenation and effectively tackle the challenges of climate change, freshwater
nutrient uptake. This highly efficient farming method can result in scarcity, and the increasing demand for food. The primary concern
faster plant growth and higher yields. According to Martin-Laurent in the context of seedlings pertains to the challenge of insufficient
et al. (1999) [10], aeroponics technology is modern, relevant, and germination and emergence. Controlling the factors that influence
novel. For reforestation of damaged land in humid climates, it can seed germination can improve crop development and reduce
cultivate plants in huge quantities and tree seedlings linked to soil production costs by enhancing seed germination and emergence
microorganisms, such as AM fungi. [65]. Factors influencing seed germination are tabulated in Table: 2

930
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Table 2: Factors affecting Seed germination

Factors Effect on Seed Germination
Temperature: The germination of seeds is dependent on specific temperature conditions. The germination of plant species is influenced by the temperature range that is most
suitable for their growth. Research has shown that ensuring appropriate temperature conditions can enhance the speed and consistency of seed germination.
Maintaining the appropriate temperature for specific seeds during germination in a hydroponic system is crucial to monitoring [66].
Light: The importance of light in the process of seed germination and early seedling development has been widely recognized in the field of plant research. It has
been observed that the germination process of most seeds is triggered by exposure to light, while some seeds may require a period of darkness to initiate
germination. The optimal intensity and duration of light are crucial factors in hydroponic systems. Artificial grow lights, such as LED or fluorescent lights, can
provide the seedlings with the required light energy [66, 67].
Water and Hydroponic systems rely on water as the primary medium for delivering plant nutrients. Adequate water availability and moisture levels are critical for seed
Moisture germination. Ensuring the seeds are consistently moist but not overly saturated is important, as excess water can lead to rotting or damping-off diseases.
Maintaining an appropriate moisture balance in the growing medium is vital for successful seedling establishment. Wetting the chosen medium before
planting the seeds is recommended without soaking it excessively. In order to achieve successful germination, it is crucial to maintain a consistent moisture
level for the seeds. However, it is important to note that excessive water can impede the growth of the initial shoots and roots, ultimately hindering the
establishment of the plant. It is also recommended to maintain a consistently moist environment for the medium during the germination process and the initial
days following sprouting. Overwatering must be avoided to prevent medium saturation [68].
Oxygen Oxygen availability is a crucial aspect that affects seed germination and root development in hydroponic systems. The respiration process of seeds necessitates
oxygen, and oxygen in the growth medium is a critical factor in ensuring the successful establishment of healthy seedlings. Using an inert growing medium,
such as perlite, vermiculite, or rockwool, is common in hydroponic systems. This method facilitates optimal oxygen exchange. Adequate oxygen supply to the
roots is crucial to nutrient solution aeration. [69, 70].
Nutrients: Although seeds possess certain nutrients to facilitate their initial growth, further nutrients are necessary for the healthy development of seedlings. A balanced
nutrient solution is required in hydroponic systems, which should contain essential macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, along with
micronutrients like iron, zinc, and manganese, in appropriate concentrations. Optimal seedling growth can be supported by ensuring a proper nutrient balance
and maintaining the desired pH level of the nutrient solution [70].
pH Level: The measurement of acidity or alkalinity in a solution is commonly referred to as pH. Plants' optimal growth depends on their specific pH requirements, which
vary among plant species. Maintaining an appropriate pH range within the nutrient solution is crucial for successful germination and establishment of
seedlings in a hydroponic system. Research has shown that the optimal pH range for most plants is slightly acidic to neutral, with a range of approximately 5.5
to 6.5. Frequent monitoring and adjustment of the pH level in the nutrient solution is crucial in establishing an ideal growth environment for the seeds [70].
Seed Quality: The role of seed quality and viability is crucial in determining the success of germination. Using premium seeds from trustworthy sources enhances the
probability of prosperous germination and seedling establishment. In order to maximize the germination potential of seeds, it is important to use fresh,
disease-free, and properly stored seeds [71].

Effect of support system for plant growth in a hydroponic system: effective drainage. They exhibit a pH value of 7, indicating a neutral
Rockwool: Rockwool has been identified as a commonly used nature. Furthermore, it displays a notable resistance to degradation
growing medium in hydroponic systems. The material under and does not undergo breakdown over extended periods. Using
consideration is produced by melting rock and spinning it into clay pellets is prevalent in hydroponic systems that operate through
fibres. Its notable properties include high water retention capacity flood and drain (ebb and flow) mechanisms. Plant roots require
and adequate aeration. The use of Rockwool has been found to stability and efficient oxygen exchange, which specific structures
provide a stable structure for root development, which in turn can facilitate. The water-holding capacity of these materials is
promotes efficient nutrient uptake. The versatility and accessibility limited, which may necessitate more frequent irrigation [72].
of this substance make it suitable for various plant species [72]. Sponge: Sponges and foam cubes have been identified as common
Coco coir: Using coco coir as a growing medium is a sustainable support systems utilized in aeroponic or nutrient film technique
and eco-friendly practice, given that it is derived from coconut (NFT) hydroponic systems. Providing a stable structure for seed
husks. The material under investigation exhibits favourable water germination and root development is crucial to plant growth and
retention characteristics and facilitates adequate aeration. The use development. According to studies, sponges exhibit notable water
of coco coir has been found to have a positive impact on root retention capabilities and can retain nutrient solutions near roots.
growth, as well as creating a favourable habitat for beneficial They also facilitate adequate aeration and prevention of
microbial activity. The capacity to buffer nutrient solutions is a waterlogging. The maintenance of sponges may necessitate
recognized characteristic of the subject, which guarantees the meticulous observation to avoid desiccation or excessive saturation.
appropriate nutrient supply to the plants [72]. Peat moss: Peat moss Biochar: Biochar production involves subjecting organic matter to
is a frequently utilized growth substrate in hydroponic systems. high temperatures in an oxygen-free environment, producing
The material exhibits exceptional water-holding properties and carbon-rich material with a porous structure. The material exhibits
demonstrates a high capacity for moisture retention. Improper soil outstanding characteristics of water retention and aeration.
management can lead to compaction, which can impede the growth Research has shown that applying biochar can enhance the capacity
of roots. The acidity of peat moss necessitates careful monitoring of the root zone to retain nutrients and promote microbial activity.
and adjustment of the nutrient solution's pH. Adding perlite or Moisture regulation is one of the benefits of this technique, which
vermiculite is a common practice to enhance aeration in the also mitigates the risk of overwatering. The low nutrient-holding
medium [72]. Expanded clay pellets: The lightweight and aerating capacity of the soil may necessitate supplementary fertilization [73,
properties of expanded clay pellets, also referred to as hydroton or 74]. Classification of Hydroponics based on the usage of substrates
clay pebbles, are making them highly interested in the hydroponics in the medium is listed in Table 3.
field now. Additionally, these pellets have been noted to provide

931
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Table: 3: Hydroponic system based on substrate employed as a medium

Hydroponic System Growing Medium Advantages Disadvantages
Solution Culture
Nutrient Film No solid medium, a thin film of nutrient solution  Water and nutrient efficiency  System failure risks
Technique flows over the roots  Oxygenation of roots  pH and nutrient balance maintenance
 Rapid plant growth  Limited root support
 Space efficiency  Sensitivity to temperature fluctuations:
 Reduced pests and diseases  Initial setup and cost
Deep Water Culture No solid medium, roots suspended in nutrient  Increased oxygenation  Equipment and setup cost
solution  High growth rates  Monitoring and maintenance
 Water efficiency  Power dependency
 Nutrient control  Root diseases
 Reduced pests and diseases

Aeroponics No solid medium, roots suspended in air, misted  Water and nutrient efficiency  System complexity and maintenance
with nutrient solution  Oxygenation of roots  Vulnerability to power outages
 Rapid plant growth  Sensitivity to environmental factors
 Space efficiency  Initial setup and cost
 Reduced pests and diseases  Risk of root drying
Medium Culture
Rockwool Rockwool fibres provide support and moisture  Excellent water retention  Initial high cost of the material
retention  Good aeration for root development  Requires proper pH adjustment
pH stability for optimal nutrient uptake  Limited availability in some regions
Insulation against temperature  Environmental impact due to its production process
fluctuations
 Disease-resistant and sterile medium
 Reusable multiple times
 Suitable for a wide range of plant species

Perlite Lightweight and porous material allowing good  Aeration Dust and floating particles
aeration  Lightweight Limited cation exchange capacity
 pH-neutral Fragile and breakdown over time
 Reusability Limited structural support
Vermiculite Mineral-based medium with moisture retention  Water retention Potential for root rot
and drainage properties  Aeration Cost and availability
 Insulation Limited reusability
 Nutrient Retention Limited structural support
 pH-neutral Compaction
Coco Coir Derived from coconut husks, it provides water  Aeration  High cost of the material
retention and aeration.  Lightweight  Limited cation exchange capacity
 pH-neutral  Fragile and breakdown over time
 Reusability  Limited structural support
Expanded Clay Lightweight clay pebbles for aeration and support  Excellent drainage properties  High initial cost compared to other media
Pebbles  Lightweight and easy to handle  Requires regular cleaning to prevent clogging
 Provides good aeration for root  Limited water-holding capacity may require more
development frequent watering
 pH-neutral and inert material  It can be dusty and require rinsing before use
 Reusable multiple times  It may require additional support structures for heavy
 Suitable for a variety of plant species plants

Effect of Nutrients in Hydroponics and its Importance: The criticality of the nutrient solution composition and regular
Plant growth primarily depends on the availability of 17 essential monitoring of the nutrient solution and plant nutrient status is a
nutrients. Which in turn can be broadly classified into significant aspect to consider. The major salt deficiencies that a
macronutrients and micronutrients? The importance of both for the hydroponic system may encounter include nitrogen, calcium, iron,
nourishment and growth of plants cannot be overstated. This magnesium, and boron deficiencies. The detrimental effects of
includes macro-nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, soluble salts have been attributed to various factors, including but
phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, and magnesium and not limited to over-fertilization, suboptimal water quality, gradual
micro-nutrients like iron, manganese, zinc, boron, molybdenum, accumulation of salts in the aggregate media, and inadequate
chlorine, copper, and nickel. Plants acquire carbon, hydrogen, and drainage. Insufficient leaching during the process of fertigation in
oxygen through natural means, specifically from the air and water Hydroponics can lead to the accumulation of soluble salts in the
they consume, with the remainder obtained from the soil. The roots medium due to water evaporation [75]. Nutrient antagonism and
obtain nutrients from nutrient solutions or aggregate media in interaction is a crucial parameter that warrants serious
hydroponic systems. Research has shown that hydroponic systems consideration in the context of hydroponic systems. Research
are comparatively less tolerant than soil-based systems, and any suggests that plants tend to absorb nutrients proportionally to their
issues related to nutrients can rapidly manifest plant symptoms. presence in the nutrient solution. The phenomenon of nutrient
932
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

uptake in excess leading to a higher uptake of one nutrient at the pH less than 5), a low substrate pH can also lead to Mg
cost of yet another has been observed and is classified as nutrient insufficiency [80]. However, in their study on cormrbid conditions
antagonism. The nutrient levels in the nutrient solution may not of Mg deficiency in mulberry plants, Rajesh Kumar Tewari et al.,
necessarily guarantee optimal plant growth and development. has implicated the induction of oxidative stress and antioxidant
Despite sufficient nutrient supply, plant nutrient deficiency may responses in these plants due to Mg deficiency in a hydroponic
still occur [75, 76]. Some major nutrients significance has been condition oxidative stress and antioxidant responses in mulberry
discussed below. plants. They have also reported a significant decrease in H2O2
production in Mg deficit plants.
Nitrogen deficiency:
In instances of nitrogen deficiency, the colour of leaves may change Iron Deficiency:
to a lighter shade of green or, in severe cases, a yellow hue. An alkaline soil growing system similar to that found in sugar beet
Observations can be made from stunted development and fields was created by buffering the hydroponic medium with
discolouration, specifically a slight purple tint, on the stems and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to characterize iron deficiency. The
undersides of leaves. Whereas if the feeding solution includes study claimed that the in vivo ability for Fe3+-chelate decrease
excessive nitrogen, roots become stunted, causing blossoming to be boosted substantially in both Fe efficient genotypes (NB1 and
delayed [77]. NB1xNB4) but less than two times in the Fe inefficient genotype
(NB4). It was found that the distribution and period of enhanced
Boron Deficiency: Fe3+-chelate decline capacity were contingent on the Fe efficiency
Boron deficits are rare and often accompany calcium shortages, integrity of individual genetic makeup [81]. In another study, Low
mainly in the case of plant's deficit with water. Boron generally Fe levels influence pigment and micronutrient contents of chile
improves root uptake of potassium and phosphorus and keeps pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) were studied through a hydroponic
plant cell walls intact and functioning [78]. Xin Song and colleagues system. It was found that the total extractable pigments of red fruits
studied hydroponic sugar beetroot growth and yield to determine and their surface colour remained unaffected by iron treatment.
the impact of Boron (B) depletion. Sugar beetroot seedlings' SLW However, leaf Fe and Fe ++ were directly proportional to iron
and root-shoot ratio increased after exposure to a Boron deficit for supplement, on the other hand, indirectly proportional to copper,
14 days. Enzyme activities such as peroxidase, catalase, and phosphorus, and zinc concentrations in the leaf [82].
superoxide dismutase have decreased due to this deficiency,
whereas malonaldehyde and proline have increased. Oxidative pH level of nutrient solution:
stress was caused by the accumulation of ROS in plant cells and the pH indicates the solution's acidity or alkalinity. 0–14, with 7
subsequent loss of antioxidant enzyme performance. According to neutrals. Maintaining nutrition solution pH levels in the optimal
this research, a lack of boron can negatively impact a plant's range increases nutrient availability. Soilless culture nutrient
development and structure [79]. solutions should have a pH between 5 and 7 (typically 5.5) as they
are weakly neutralized and needs automated pH adjustment to
Magnesium Deficiency: keep the root environment between 6 and 6.5 [83]. Even though
Hydroponic production requires a full hydroponic nutrient Phosphorous (H2PO4 to HPO4) buffers pH, pH between 1 to 10
solution, which includes Mg as one of the key ingredients. Mg mM, it is harmful to plants. A circulating solution with around 0.05
insufficiency can be made worse by nutritional inconsistencies. mM has substantially less buffering power than the new
Magnesium (Mg) uptake can be blocked by certain ions, such as Ca replenishment mixture that replaces transpiration losses because
and K. Higher levels of either Ca or K can inhibit Mg uptake; plants actively absorb phosphorus [84]. Nutrients commonly
therefore, the standard goal ratio is 2:1 for Ca:Mg and 4:1 for K:Mg. employed in nutrient solutions of hydroponic growing systems,
Mg deficiency can also be caused by a few other, less frequent their functions, and the diseases associated with their deficiency in
factors, including a cool root zone or a stunted root system due to plants are tabulated in Table 4.
illness or waterlogging. As Mg is poorly accessible at low pH (e.g.,

Table 4: Nutrients commonly used in hydroponic nutrient solutions

Nutrient Classification Function in Plant Major Source Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrate (NO3-) and Ammonium (
Nitrogen (N) Macro Essential for growth, leaf development, and protein synthesis Stunted growth, yellowing leaves
NH4+)
Key role in root development, energy transfer, and Poor root growth, purplish
Phosphorus (P) Macro Phosphate (PO4-)
flower/fruit formation leaves
Vital for overall plant health, nutrient uptake, and disease Weak stems, yellowing edges of
Potassium (K) Macro Potassium (K+)
resistance leaves
Calcium (Ca) Macro Essential for cell wall structure and overall plant stability Calcium (Ca2+) Blossom end rot, stunted growth
Magnesium (Mg) Macro Crucial for chlorophyll production and enzyme activation Magnesium (Mg2+) Yellowing between leaf veins
Sulfur ( S) Macro Important for protein synthesis and overall plant vigor Sulfate (SO4-) Yellowing of younger leaves
Yellowing leaves with green
Iron (Fe) Micro Required for chlorophyll formation and enzyme functions Iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+)
veins
Manganese (Mn) Micro Necessary for photosynthesis and enzyme activities Manganese (Mn2+) Yellowing between leaf veins
Stunted growth, malformed
Zinc (Zn) Micro Essential for enzyme activation and hormone regulation Zinc (Zn2+)
leaves
933
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Copper (Cu) Micro Important for enzyme functions and photosynthesis Copper (Cu2+) Wilting, leaf discoloration
Molybdenum
Micro Required for nitrogen fixation and enzyme activity Molybdate (MoO4-) Yellowing of older leaves
(Mo)
Boron (B) Micro Vital for cell division, pollen formation, and sugar transport Borate (BO3-) Brittle and distorted leaves
Reduced growth, leaf
Nickel (Ni) Plays a role in nitrogen metabolism and enzyme function Nickel (Ni2+)
deformation

Effect of physical factors: efficient resource utilization, improved plant health, and, ultimately
Light: higher yields in hydroponic cultivation.
The significance of light in photosynthesis cannot be overstated, as
it is the primary source of energy for plants to synthesize organic Advantages of hydroponic smart farming:
compounds. Through this process, plants convert light energy into Increased Yield:
chemical energy, which is then utilized to support their metabolic Precise control over environmental factors promotes optimal plant
processes and promote growth. Artificial lighting systems such as growth. Nutrient-rich solutions lead to healthier and more vigorous
LED lights can be utilized in smart Hydroponics to regulate light's plants and higher yields than traditional soil-based cultivation
intensity, spectrum, and duration meticulously. The optimization of methods.
light settings is a crucial factor in plant growth, as it enables
growers to provide the appropriate amount and quality of light that Water Efficiency:
is required for each growth stage. The light requirements of plants Hydroponics uses up to 90% less water than soil-based farming.
vary depending on the species, with some requiring specific Recirculating systems minimize water wastage and evaporation.
amounts of red and blue light. Light regulation in smart Water is efficiently delivered directly to plant roots, reducing water
Hydroponics is crucial for providing plants with adequate energy usage.
for photosynthesis, which leads to healthy growth, strong
development, and enhanced yield [85]. Space Efficiency:
Hydroponic systems are highly space-efficient and require less
Temperature: land. Vertical growing techniques maximize production in limited
Temperature plays a significant role in plant growth and metabolic areas. Suitable for urban farming, rooftops, or areas with limited
processes. In smart Hydroponics, the temperature can be precisely agricultural space.
regulated to create an ideal plant environment. Each plant species
has an optimal temperature range for growth and development, Controlled Environment:
including germination, root growth, and flowering. Maintaining the Precise control over light, temperature, humidity, and nutrient
appropriate temperature range can enhance enzymatic activity, levels is needed. Ideal growing conditions tailored to specific plant
nutrient uptake, and overall plant performance. Smart hydroponics requirements. Year-round cultivation regardless of seasonal
systems often use sensors and automated controls to monitor and limitations.
adjust temperature levels, ensuring that plants are kept within their
preferred temperature range [85]. Reduced Environmental Impact:
Less land and water usage minimize the ecological footprint.
Humidity: Decreased need for pesticides and herbicides. Minimized soil
The term humidity pertains to the quantity of water vapour in the erosion and nutrient runoff, preserving soil quality.
atmosphere. The careful management of humidity in smart
Hydroponics can lead to the creation of an optimal growing Superior Plant Quality:
environment. The impact of high humidity levels on transpiration Enhanced nutrient delivery promotes healthy plant growth. Higher
rates in plants has been studied, with findings suggesting potential concentrations of desired compounds in herbs and medicinal
benefits for certain plant species during the vegetative growth plants. Improved flavour, aroma, and nutritional value.
stage. Research has shown that high humidity levels can lead to the
development of fungal diseases. Low humidity has been found to Rapid Growth and Harvest:
cause rapid moisture loss in plants, potentially resulting in water Plants grow faster in Hydroponics due to optimized growing
stress. Incorporating humidifiers, dehumidifiers, or ventilation conditions. Shorter crop cycles and faster harvest times. Quick
systems in smart hydroponics systems enables the maintenance of turnaround and increased production capacity.
accurate humidity levels. The manipulation of humidity levels by
growers can facilitate an optimal environment for plants, fostering Disease and Pest Control:
robust growth and mitigating the likelihood of pathogenic Soil-free environment minimizes the risk of soil-borne diseases and
infections [86]. In smart Hydroponics, the ability to control and pests. Easier monitoring and management of plant health. Reduced
optimize physical factors gives growers greater precision and reliance on chemical treatments.
flexibility in creating an ideal growing environment. By fine-tuning
light, temperature, and humidity, growers can mimic optimal Sustainability:
conditions for specific plant species, growth stages, and Efficient resource utilization reduces waste and promotes
environmental preferences. This level of control allows for more sustainability.
934
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

Water and nutrient recycling systems minimize environmental

impact. Lower carbon footprint compared to traditional farming High-Yield Crop Selection:
methods. Hydroponic system studies emphasize the importance of
prioritizing high-yield crops that can provide maximum output
Flexibility and Scalability: within a confined space. The prioritization of crops with shorter
Hydroponic systems can be scaled up or down to suit different growth cycles, higher nutritional value, and greater demand is a
needs. Versatile setups accommodate various plant species— crucial aspect of agricultural research. This study aims to
adaptability to different growing environments and locations. By investigate and determine appropriate crop cultivars that are well-
harnessing these advantages, Hydroponics could offer a highly suited for the climatic conditions of Singapore and can be cultivated
efficient and sustainable method of cultivation, enabling growers to effectively through hydroponic or other advanced agricultural
maximize yields, optimize plant quality, and minimize methods.
environmental impact.
Efficient Resource Utilization:
Future Goal: The optimization of resource utilization can be achieved by
Achieving 30% food sustainability by 2030 with only 1% arable land implementing smart irrigation systems, water recycling, and
requires careful planning, innovation, and the implementation of nutrient management strategies. Implementing techniques such as
various strategies. Some key considerations for achieving this goal drip irrigation, fogging, or precision fertigation can reduce water
include: and nutrient wastage. Research has shown that the implementation
of recirculating hydroponic systems can result in a significant
Hydroponics in hospitals: reduction in water consumption.
Integrating mobile hydroponic systems in hospitals is a potential
future direction for Hydroponics. This approach is considered Agro-technology and Automation:
innovative and can improve nutrition and patient care. Culturing Implementing advanced agro-technology and automation can
high-value plants rich in essential nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and enhance productivity and decrease labour demands in the
therapeutic compounds can improve the quality of meals in agricultural sector. The implementation of IoT-based systems,
hospitals. This targeted nourishment may support patients' sensors, and data analytics are being researched to monitor and
recovery and overall well-being. Integrating a mobile hydroponic control environmental parameters, detect crop health issues, and
system with vertical farming techniques can optimize cultivation in optimize resource usage. Implementing automated processes, such
a small area, allowing for efficient use of space in various settings as robotic seeding, harvesting, and maintenance, has the potential
such as roof-top gardens, balconies, or dedicated indoor spaces. to address labour limitations [89]. Sustainable Energy Sources: The
Implementing this approach guarantees an uninterrupted provision implementation of advanced agro-technology and automation has
of superior plant specimens such as herbs, leafy greens, or been shown to impact productivity and labour requirements in
medicinal plants. Using these plants in cooking, teas, or extracts can agriculture positively. Implementing IoT-based systems, sensors,
serve as a natural source of remedies and supplements for patients, and data analytics can be utilized to monitor and control
which may aid in fulfilling their dietary needs. Hydroponics environmental parameters, detect crop health issues, and optimize
provides a controlled environment that enables year-round resource usage. Implementing automated processes, such as robotic
cultivation, reducing reliance on seasonal produce and potential seeding, harvesting, and maintenance, can potentially address
supply fluctuations. labour limitations [90, 91]. Collaboration and Partnerships:
Promoting collaboration among government agencies, research
Vertical Farming and Rooftop Gardens: institutions, industry stakeholders, and the community is essential.
Vertical farming and rooftop gardens should be extensively Promoting knowledge sharing, research collaborations, and public-
explored due to the limited availability of land. Vertical farming private partnerships is essential in driving innovation, exchanging
involves growing crops in vertically stacked layers, enabling best practices, and collectively working towards achieving food
optimal utilization of space. Establishing rooftop gardens on sustainability goals [92]. Education and Awareness: This study aims
buildings has been identified as a potential method for expanding to increase public awareness and knowledge regarding food
areas available for food production. [87]. sustainability and the advantages of locally cultivated produce.
Research suggests that urban farming initiatives in schools,
The practice of indoor agriculture: community centres, and residential areas can involve citizens in
It encompasses greenhouse systems, can facilitate crop production sustainable food production and create a sense of food security [93].
throughout the year while safeguarding crops from unfavourable Policy Support and Incentives: Research suggests that
weather conditions. The practice of Controlled Environment implementing supportive policies and incentives can effectively
Agriculture (CEA) entails meticulously regulating environmental promote urban farming initiatives. Research suggests that
variables, including light, temperature, humidity, and CO2 providing grants, subsidies, tax incentives, and streamlined
concentrations, to facilitate the most favourable conditions for plant regulatory processes can effectively encourage investment in urban
growth. Implementing CEA technologies has potentially improved agriculture. The study aims to investigate the impact of policies on
productivity and resource efficiency [88]. fostering innovation, research, and the adoption of sustainable

935
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

farming practices [94]. Food Waste Management: The effective [10] Sharma N et al. JSWC. 2018 17:71. [DOI:10.5958/2455-
management of food waste is a crucial area of research that requires 7145.2018.00056.5].
attention. The promotion of composting, recycling, and utilising [11] Lal RL and Degrad. Dev. 2001. 12: 519. [DOI: 10.1002/ldr.472].
food waste as a valuable resource for bioenergy or fertilizers is [12] Kisinyo P & Opala P et al. Afr J Agric Res. 2020 16: 1223.
recommended. The reduction of food waste has the potential to [DOI:10.3390/w14233975].
alleviate the burden on resources and foster a more sustainable [13] Molotoks A et al. Food and Energy Secur. 2021 10: 261. [DOI:
food system [95, 96]. By considering these factors and 10.1002/fes3.261].
implementing a comprehensive approach that encompasses [14] Wijerathna-Yapa A &Pathirana R. Agri. 2022 12: 1554 [DOI:
technology, innovation, collaboration, and sustainable practices, 10.3390/agriculture12101554].
locals can work towards achieving their 30% food sustainability [15] Harvey CA et al. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2014 369:
goal by 2030, despite limited arable land availability. 20130089 [DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0089].
[16] Herath H & Mittal. Int J Inf Manag Data Insights. 2022 2:
Conclusion: 100076. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jjimei.2022.100076].
In conclusion, Hydroponics holds immense promise for the future [17] https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/populati
of agriculture. This innovative cultivation method offers a range of on/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.
advantages that address the challenges faced by traditional farming [18] Satterthwaite D. et al. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci Philos T
practices. With its ability to maximize resource efficiency, enable R Soc B.2010 365 2809. [PMC2935117]
year-round crop production, and enhance yields, Hydroponics has [19] Rehman A. J Clean Prod. 2022 375: 134178. [DOI:
the potential to revolutionize the way we grow food. By utilizing 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134178].
Hydroponics, we can optimize water, nutrients, and space, [20] Zucaro A et al. Front Sustain Cities. 2022 3.
reducing waste and promoting sustainability. The controlled [DOI:10.3389/frsc.2019.00001].
environments of hydroponic systems allow for precise control over [21] Abegunde VO et al. Climate. 2019 7: 132 [DOI:
growing conditions, resulting in accelerated growth rates and doi.org/10.3390/cli7110132].
higher crop yields. This, in turn, contributes to food security, [22] Resh HM. Hydroponic food production 2022: CRC press 2022.
reduces dependence on imports, and increases the availability of [ISBN 9780367678753]
fresh, locally-grown produce. Moreover, Hydroponics offers a [23] Jones Jr JB. Complete guide for growing plants hydroponically:
pathway to environmental sustainability by reducing soil erosion, CRC Press 2014. [doi.org/10.1201/b16482]
minimizing chemical inputs, and integrating with eco-friendly pest [24] Jensen MH & Collins W. Hortic Rev 1985 7: 48.
control methods. It also opens up possibilities for urban agriculture, [DOI:10.1002/9781118060735.ch10].
allowing for food production in limited spaces and bringing [25] Touliatos D et al. Food and Energy Secur. 2016 5: 184. [PMCID:
farming closer to urban centres. As technology advances, PMC5001193].
integrating smart technologies, automation, and data analytics with [26] Manzocco L et al. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011 91: 1373. [DOI:
Hydroponics further enhances its potential. This integration 10.1002/jsfa.4313].
enables real-time monitoring, precise control, and automation of [27] https://psci.princeton.edu/tips/2020/11/9/the-future-of-
various processes, leading to greater efficiency, reduced labour farming-hydroponics.
requirements, and improve overall productivity. [28] Armas KL et al. JAETS. 2023 4: 864. [DOI:
10.37385/jaets.v4i2.2040].
References: [29] Majid M et al. Agric Water Manag. 2021 245: 106572. [DOI:
[1] AlShrouf A. Am Sci Res J Eng Technol Sci. 2017 27:247. [ISSN 10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106572]
(Online) 2313-4402]. [30] https://geekgardener.in/2011/10/07/hydroponic-lettuce-in-
[2] Khan FA. Int J of Agr Env F Sci. 2018 2: 59.[ DOI: nft/.
10.31015/jaefs.18010]. [31] Malik A et al. Pak J Agric Res. 2018 31: 33.
[3] Wahome PK et al. W J Agr Sci. 2011 7: 692. [ISSN 1817-3047]. [DOI:10.17582/journal.pjar/2018/31.2.133.144]
[4] George P & George N et al. Int. J Modern Trends Eng Sci. 2016 [32] Singh H et al. Agronomy. 2019 9: 433. [DOI:
3: 97. [ISSN: 2348-3121]. 10.3390/agronomy9080433].
[5] Rodríguez-Delfín et al. Rooftop urban agriculture. 2017 61: 81. [33] Takeda F (editor). International Symposium on Growing Media
[ISBN: 978-3-319-57719-7] and Hydroponics. 1997. 481
[6] https://hightechgreens.com/what-is- hydroponic- [34] https://www.edengreen.com/blog-collection/benefits-of-
cultivation-2 hydroponics#:~:text=The%20ability%20of%20hydroponic%20
[7] Jones JB. J Plant Nutr. 1982 5:1003. [DOI: greenhouses,space%20efficiency%20of%20hydroponic%20far
10.1080/01904168209363035]. ming
[8] Hussain A et al. Int J Agr and C Sci. 2014 7:833. [ISSN 2227- [35] https://extension.umn.edu/how/small-scale-hydroponics
670X ©2014 IJACS Journal] [36] https://www.freshwatersystems.com/blogs/blog/what-are-
[9] Gericke WF. 1940. Digital Library of India Item 2015.271694. hydroponic
[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271694] [37] Velazquez-Gonzalez R and Sosa-Savedra JC. Agriculture. 2022
12: 646. [DOI: 10.3390/agriculture12050646]

936
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

[38] https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/58552 [68] https://www.saferbrand.com/articles/secrets-to-successful-

[39] Jensen MH. Acta Horticulturae 1997 481: 87. seed-starting
[DOI.10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.481.87] [69] Liu G et al. Hort. Sci. 2012 47: 1714. [DOI:
[40] Niu G & Masabni J. et al., Plant Factory .2022. p. 153-66. 10.21273/HORTSCI.47.12.1714]
[eBook ISBN: 9780323859226] [70] AI Mamun A et al. Heliyon. 2023 9: e14420
[41] Janick J. Hort Rev 2003 30. [ISBN: 978-0-470-65082-0] [doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14420]
[42] Nir, I. Acta Hortic. 1982 126: 49 [DOI: [71] Shriji. Shriji Irrigation. 2021 3.
10.17660/ActaHortic.1982.126.49] [https://www.shrijigreen.com/blog/different-types-of-
[43] https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print- hydroponic-seeds].
publications/hla/hydroponics-hla-6442.pdf. [72] White B. Alternative Hydroponic Substrates. 2004.
[44] https://www.trees.com/gardening-and-landscaping/the- [https://gpnmag.com/article/alternative-hydroponic-
gratky-method. substrates/]
[45] Kratky, BA. Acta Hort. 2004 648: 83 [73] Awad YM et al. J Clean Prod. 2017 156: 581. [
[46] Javaid M et al. IJIN 2022 3:150 [DOI: DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.070]
10.1016/j.ijin.2022.09.004]. [74] https://www.rit.edu/sustainabilityinstitute/blog/what-
[47] Sathish KS and Mohamed DG et al. Int J Elec Comp Eng 2020. biochar-and-how-it-
10: 6389 [DOI:10.11591/ijece.v10i6.pp6389-6398] made#:~:text=Biochar%20is%20a%20carbon%2Drich,with%20
[48] Hermawan H et al. E3S Web of Conferences. 2022 348: 00024. a%20focus%20on%20biochar.
[doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202234800024] [75] Sanchez and Gioia FD. Horticulturae. 2021 7: 1-5. [DOI:
[49] Tagle S et al. HNICEM 2018. [DOI:10.1109/HNICEM. 10.3390/ horticulturae7040069.
2018.8666373ICEM] [76] Marschner P & Rengel Z. Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of
[50] Pivoto D et al. Infor Pro Agri. 2018 5:2. [DOI: Plants. 2023 499. [DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819773-8.00003-4].
10.1016/j.inpa.2017.12.002]. [77] https://www.advancednutrients.com/articles/identifying-
[51] Wolfert S et al. Agri Sys. 2017 153:69. [DOI: deficiencies-in-your-hydroponic-nutrients
10.1016/j.agsy.2017.01.023]. [78] https://hydrobuilder.com/about
[52] Salvatore P. J Inf Technol Case Appl.2016. 18:186. [DOI: [79] Song X et al. Sugar Tech. 2022 24: 532. [DOI: 10.1007/s12355-
10.1080/15228053.2016.1220197] 021-01064-5]
[53] Pitakphongmetha J et al. Int Comp Sci Eng. 2016. [DOI: [80] Mattson N. e-Gro Edible Alert. 2018 3: 2016. [https://www.e-
10.1109/ICSEC.2016.7859872] gro.org/pdf/E303.pdf]
[54] Ravi L et al. Int J Electr Comput Eng. 2020 10: 389. [81] Campbell SA & Nishio JN. J Plant Nutr. 2000 23: 741. [DOI:
[DOI:10.11591/ijece.v10i6]. 10.7831/ras.3.1]
[55] Kyaw TY & Ng AK. Energy procedia. 2017 143:342. [DOI: [82] Anchondo JA et al. HortSci. 2001 36: 1206. [DOI:
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.694] 10.21273/HORTSCI.36.7. 1206]
[56] Siregar B et al. ICISS. 2017 [DOI:10.1109/ICTSS.2017.8288884] [83] Singh H & Bruce D. Technical Report. 2016. [DOI:
[57] Chin YS & Audah. AIP conference proceedings. 2017 1883: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20271.94885]
020021. [DOI:10.1063/1.5002039]. [84] Bugbee B. Acta Horticulturae 2004 648 :99. [
[58] Kaur G & Upadhyaya P. ICRITO 2022. DOI:10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.648.12]
[DOI:10.1109/ICRITO56286.2022.9964872] [85] [https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/agri-
[59] Love D et al. Aquaculture. 2015 435:67. technology/farming- for-tomorrow/hydroponics-know-
[doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.09.023] plants-growth-requirements/]
[60] Love D & Genello L et al. Aqua Eng. 2015 68: 19. [DOI: [86] https://scienceinhydroponics.com/2019/07/five-important-
10.1016/j.aquaeng.2015.07.003]. things-you-should-know-about-humidity-in-
[61] Dbritto G & Hamdare S et al. Env Sci.2018: hydroponics.html
[DOI:10.1109/ICSCET.2018.8537317]. [87] Van GT and Geelen D et al. Agronomy. 2022 12:2 [DOI:
[62] Mehra M et al. Comp Elect Agri. 2018 155:473. 10.3390/agronomy12010002].
[DOI:10.1016/j.compag.2018.10.015]. [88] Cowan N and Skiba U et al. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2022;6
[63] Vincentdo V & Surantha N. Electronics. 2023 12:1446. [DOI: [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.891256].
10.3390/electronics12061446]. [89] https://landincome.com/blog/5-automation-technologies-
[64] Park S & Kim J. Electronics. 2021 10:1400. [DOI: that-improve-agricultural-returns.
10.3390/electronics10121400]. [90] https://avisomo.com/the-potential-for-renewable-energy-in-
[65] Feizi H et al. Not Sci Biol. 2012 4:116. [DOI: vertical-farming.
10.15835/nsb417324]. [91] https://www.waaree.com/blog/solar-powered-hydroponics.
[66] Baxter LL et al. AGE. 2019 2:1. [DOI:10.2134/age2018.11.0059]. [92] https://www3.weforum.org/docs/IP/2016/NVA/NVAGui
[67] Kobayashi K et al. Opt Photonics J. 2013 3:74 [DOI: detoCountryLevelAction.pdf
10.4236/opj.2013.31012]. [93] Colson-Fearon B & Versey HS. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health. 2022 19: 12752. [PMID: 36232052].

937
ISSN 0973-2063 (online) 0973-8894 (print)

Bioinformation 19(9): 925-938 (2023) ©Biomedical Informatics (2023)

[94] OECE. 2012. [https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/green- [96] Nguyen XC & Nguyen TP, et al. Biotechnol. Rep. 2020 713:
development/50559116.pdf] 136404 [DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136404].
[95] Sufficiency E et al. Energy Nexus. 2022 6: 1[DOI:
10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100077 ].

938