Understanding TCP/IP

Introduction

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives
• By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe OSI Layers and TCP/IP suite of layers
• Describe the need of layers
• Describe the difference between layers
• Describe the layers wise protocols

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Network Architecture

There are two types of addresses

associated with the computer system
• MAC Address- used for
communication between
computers on the same network
• IP Address- used for
communication between the
systems on different networks and
it goes beyond router; each
computer system connected to
internet should have a Unique ID

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 OSI

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

OSI Vs TCP/IP

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Overview of Protocols

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Layer Headers and Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

De-Multiplexing

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

How Client-Server Communicates

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 How Client-Server Communicates

Since DNS and Web Server machines are same, first the ARP reply will be cached so next time it
will not send the ARP request for Web Server

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Conclusion
• In this chapter you learnt about:
• About OSI Layers and TCP/IP suite of Layers
• The need of layers
• The difference between layers
• The layers wise protocols

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Data Link Protocols

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives
• By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• Describe the Data Link Layer
• Describe the protocols associated in this layer
• Describe the switched network
• Describe the Ethernet

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP/IP- Data Link Layer

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 MAC and LLC
• In any broadcast network the stations must ensure that only
one station transmits at a time on the shared communication
channel
• The protocol that determines who can transmit on a broadcast
channel is called Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol
• The MAC protocols are implemented in the MAC sub layer
which is the lower sub layer of the Data Link Layer
• The higher portion of the data link layer is often called Logical
Link Control (LLC)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 @Data Link Layer
• Broadcast Networks: All stations share a single communication channel
• Point-to-Point Networks: Pair of hosts (or routers) are directly connected
• Typically, Local Area Networks (LANs) are broadcast and Wide Area Networks
(WANs) are point-to-point

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IEEE 802 Standards
IEEE 802 is a family of standards for LANs which define an LLC and several MAC sublayers
 Ethernet
•Speed: 10Mbps -10 Gbps
•Standard: 802.3, Ethernet II (DIX)
•Most popular physical layers for Ethernet:
•10Base5 Thick Ethernet: 10 Mbps coax cable
•10Base2 Thin Ethernet: 10 Mbps coax cable
•10Base-T 10 Mbps Twisted Pair
•100Base-TX 100 Mbps over Category 5 twisted pair (uses 2 pairs)
•100Base-FX 100 Mbps over Fiber Optics
•1000BaseT 1Gbps over copper
•1000Base-SX 1Gbps over Single Mode Fiber Optics
•10GBASE-LR 10Gbps over Fiber Optics (for wide area links)
•10GBASE-T 20Gbps over Cat6 twisted pair

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

IEEE 802.2/802.3 Encapsulation
(RFC 1042)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Switched Networks

• Some data link technologies can

be used to build complete
networks with their own
addressing, routing, and
forwarding mechanisms. These
networks are often called
switched networks.
• At the IP layer, a switched
network may look like a point-to-
point link or like a broadcast link.

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Switched Networks
Data Link Layer Technologies:
– Switched Ethernet
– ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
– Frame Relay
– Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
• Some switched networks are intended for enterprise networks
(Switched Ethernet), Wide Area Networks (MPLS, Frame Relay) or
both (ATM)
• Some switched networks have a complete protocol suite.

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Ethernet

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Ethernet Header and Captured Packets

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Ethernet Types

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Conclusion
• In this chapter you learnt about:
• The Datalink Layer
• The Protocols associated in this layer
• The functionality of Point to Point Protocol
• The Switched network
• The Ethernet

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Address Resolution Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives
• By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

• Describe the need of ARP

• Describe the ARP Header

• Describe the Gratuitous ARP

• Describe the ARP Proxy

• Describe the ARP Poisoning

• Describe the ARP Storming

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad
ARP Theory

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Why ARP

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Why ARP?

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ARP Header
Hardware Address Type Protocol Address Type

Hardware Address Protocol Address Length Operation

Length

Source Hardware Address

Source Hardware cont. Source Protocol Address

Source Protocol Address cont. Target Hardware Address

Target Hardware Address cont.

Target Protocol Address

8 16 24 32

Hardware Address Type Protocol Address Length

• Ethernet ARP Parameters 4 for Ipv4
• IEEE 802 LAN
Protocol Address type Operation
2048 IPv4 (0x0800) • Request
• Reply
Hardware Address Length
6 for Ethernet/IEEE 802

* NO IP HEADER * NO TCP/UDP HEADER * NO ARP ROUTING *

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad
ARP Header with Packet Captured

Protocol type : 0x800 (IP) 0x0806 (ARP) 0x86DD (IPv6) 0x8137 (IPX)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ARP Requests and Responses

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ARP
• arp –a

• arp –s <ip address> <Hardware address>

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Gratuitous ARP

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ARP Proxy

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ARP Proxy

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Vulnerabilities
• ARP Spoofing
• ARP Flooding

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ARP Poisoning
• Broadcasting Communication
• Switch is alternative for the above
• What’s about monitoring???
• ARP Poisoning can be done in 3 ways
– Only host computer is spoofed
– Only Router or Gateway is spoofed
– Combination of the host and router spoofing

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Host Only Spoofed

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Router/Gateway Spoofed

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Both Host and Router

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ARP Spoofing/ ARP Poisoning

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Manual
CODE
C:\>arp

Displays and modifies the IP-to-Physical address translation tables used by

address resolution protocol (ARP).

ARP -s inet_addr eth_addr [if_addr]

ARP -d inet_addr [if_addr]
ARP -a [inet_addr] [-N if_addr]

C:\>arp -a

Interface: 10.209.36.134 --- 0x2

Internet Address Physical Address Type
10.209.36.129 00-01-30-2a-b4-00 dynamic

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Manual

CODE
C:\>arp -d *

C:\>arp -a
No ARP Entries Found

C:\>ping 10.209.36.149

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ARP Storming
• LAN switches uses forwarding Tables
• Content Addressable Memory Tables
• Limited Flooding
• Causes of Flooding/Storming
– Asymmetric Routing
– Spanning-Tree Protocol Topology Changes
– Forwarding Table Overflow

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Conclusion
• In this chapter you learnt about:
• The need of ARP
• The ARP Header
• The Gratuitous ARP
• The ARP Proxy
• The ARP Poisoning
• The ARP Storming
• The RARP

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Internet Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives:
• By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the IP layer
• Describe the Internet Protocol
• Describe the IP routing
• Describe the IP header

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Internet Protocol Theory
• Designed for use in interconnected systems of packet-
switched computer communication networks
• Provides for fragmentation and reassembly of long
datagrams
• End to End delivery of datagrams
• Routed protocol (local network protocol)
• Version 4 (What happened to 1/2/3???)
• Version 6 (What happened to version 5/7/8/9?)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

IP Routing

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP Routing

Destination Gateway Flags Interface

127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH Local

192.168.1.1 192.168.1.1 UG A

192.168.41.0 192.168.21.2 UG B

179.12.1.12 192.168.21.2 UG(0.0.0.0) B

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP Header
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

IP Header and Captured Packets

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP Version
Header Type of Service(TOS)/
Length Differential Service &
Version Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Header Length
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
Header
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
length
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ToS
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service
Service && Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Total Length
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Fragment
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment
Identification (FragmentID)
ID)(16 bits)
(16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset
(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Flags/ Fragment Offset
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R D MF Fragment

Fragment Offset
Offset
R DF
F MF (13(13
bits)
bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 TTL/Protocol
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits)
TTL (8 bits) Protocol (8 bits)
(8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Protocol Values
Value Protocol
0 HOPOPT, IPv6 Hop-by-Hop option
1 ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
4 IP in IP Encapsulation
6 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
9 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
17 UDP: User Datagram Protocol
43 IPv6 Routing Header
44 IPv6 Fragment Header

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Header Checksum
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)
Fragment Offset
Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF (13 bits)

Time To Live(TTL) Protocol

(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)
Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Source/Destination

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

IP Options

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP in IP Encapsulation
• Encapsulation of an inner IP header with an outer IP header
for tunneling configuration
• IP Routing for Wireless/Mobile Hosts
• Transport layer protocol
• RFC 1853, 2003

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Fragmentation Theory
• Different media allows for different-sized datagrams to be
transmitted and received
• Fragmentation allows a datagram that is too large to be
forwarded to the next LAN segment to be broken up into
smaller segments to be reassembled at the destination
• The fragmentation occurs at the router that cannot forward it
to the next interface
• Applications should use path MTU discovery to find the
smallest datagram size

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Fragmentation Theory
• Each fragment encapsulated in IP datagram
• Reassembled by the receiving host
• All fragments share a common ID
• All fragments must tell about
– Offset
– Length of data pay load
– About next followed fragment

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP Fields related to Fragmentation
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Fragment ID
• Each fragment has an identification number
• Taken from IP identification field
IP Version Header Type of Service(TOS)/
(4 bits) Length Differential Service & Total Length (16 bits)
(4 bits) ECN (8 bits)

Identification (Fragment ID) (16 bits) R DF MF Fragment Offset

(13 bits)
Time To Live(TTL) Protocol
(8 bits) (8 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits)

Source IP Address(32 bits)

Destination IP Address(32 bits)

Options

Data
© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad
Fragmentation Sample

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Fragmented Packet 1

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Fragmented Packet 2

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Fragmented Packet 3

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Internet Protocol Vulnerabilities
• Access and Bandwidth Controls
• Broadcast and Multicast
• Packet Addressing and Packet Options
• Packet Fragmentation
• Packet Manipulation
• Source and Destination Authentication
• Source Routing Options
• Stack and host finger printing
• IP is stateless
• Transparency

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 In brief
• Access and Bandwidth Controls
• Broadcast and Multicast
• Packet Addressing and Packet Options
• Packet Fragmentation

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Contd…
• Packet Manipulation
• Source and Destination Authentication
• Source Routing Options

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 IP Vulnerabilities
• Stack and host finger printing
• IP is stateless
• Transparency

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Internet Control Message Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives:
• By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the IP Layer
• Describe the need of ICMP
• Describe the structure and header of ICMP
• Describe the types of ICMP
• Describe the ICMP Attacks
• Describe the ICMP Tunneling

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ICMP Theory
• RFC 792 – ICMP
– Uses basic support of IP
– Actually, an integrated part of IP
– Must be implemented with IP module
• RFC 0791: IP Protocol
• RFC 1122: Requirements for Internet Hosts – Communication Layers
• RFC 1256: Requirements for Internet Hosts – Application and support
• RFC 1349: Type of Service in the Internet- Protocol Suite
• RFC 1812: Requirements for IPv4 Routers

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Why an ICMP?
• IP is not designed to be absolutely reliable
• Purpose of the ICMP is to provide feedback about problems
in the communication environment
• Not to make IP reliable
• There is no guarantee
• Typically report errors in the processing of datagrams
• Ping, Traceroute, Dynamic Route table updates, MTU
discovery, UDP Service refusal

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Problems may come through ICMP
Attacks
• Identify the services e.g. UDP
• Fragmentation problems
• Identify the running Operating System
• Altering the routing tables

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Structure of ICMP

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Structure of ICMP

Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ICMP Header

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ICMP Messages

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Sample ICMP Messages

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Destination Unreachable

CODE 0 : NW UNREACHABLE CODE 1: HOST UNREACHABLE CODE 2: PROTOCOL UNREACHABLE

CODE 3: PORT UNREACHABLE CODE 4: FG Needed, DF CODE 5: SOURCE ROUTE FAILED
CODE 6: DEST. NW UNKNOWN CODE 7: DEST. HOST Unknown CODE 8: SOURCE HOST ISOLATED
CODE 9: Dest. NW Prohibited CODE 10: Dest. HOST Prohibited CODE 11: DesT. NW Unreachable
CODE 12: Dest Host Unreachable CODE 13: Communication Prohibited
CODE 14: Host Precedence Violation CODE 15: Precedence Cut off in Effect

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Source Quench (Slow down/ Shut up)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ICMP Type 40, Security Failures

Reserved. 16 bits -- Cleared to zero

Type. 8 bits -Set to 40
Pointer. --16 bits
Code. 8 bits
ICM P Header Checksum. 16 bits

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ICMP Scan
• ICMP Scans used for active systems
• PING SCANS

Tho P ort Fields

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Sample ICMP: Traceroute

NAT rule:
1: map 192.168.1.1(Firewall) to 10.1.1.1

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ICMP Fragmentation

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ICMP Mapping
• Tireless mapper
• Efficient mapper
• Clever mapper
• Cerebral mapper

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ICMP DoS
• ICMP-Based Denial-of-Service
– Packet flooding
– ICMP packet manipulation

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Packet Flooding
• Flooding to a particular target / Network
• Combined with IP spoofing

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

ICMP Smurf Attack

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 ICMP Manipulation
• All ICMP types and codes can be
manipulated
• No controls against packet tampering
• No Source authentication
• Lends towards DoS attacks

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Conclusion
• In this chapter you learnt about:
• The IP Layer
• The need of ICMP
• The structure and header of ICMP
• The types of ICMP
• The ICMP Attacks
• The ICMP Tunnelling

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Transport Layer
Transmission Control
Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Introduction
• Learning Objectives:
• By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the Transport Layer
• Describe the Transmission Control Protocol
• Describe the TCP Header
• Describe the TCP Communication
• Describe the TCP Vulnerabilities

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 TCP

• Three way Handshake

• Routed Differently (Message
units /Segments)
• Full Duplex Communication
• Reliable & Connection
Oriented Protocol

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Key Characteristics
• Reliable connection setup and teardown
• Packet sequencing facilities
• Error checking and acknowledgments
• Retransmission of lost segments
• Segment integrity checking
• Flow control
• Multiplexing connections

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Port Number and Common TCP Ports
• A logical connection place
• Socket / Plug

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Port Numbers (cont..)
• Port numbers are from 0 to 65535
• The registered port numbers are in the range from 1024
through 49151
• Dynamic port numbers
• Well Known Ports (Ports 0 to 1024 are reserved)

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP Headers and Fields

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Sequence Number

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Acknowledgment (ACK) number

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Flags

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Window Size

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Checksum

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Sample TCP Packets

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP Headers Dissected

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP Control Fields and their Calculation

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Three-way Handshake

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Connection Closing

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Connection Aborting

• In case if either sides send RST flag set, then

the connection will be closed abnormally,
without Fin or Ack.

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad
TCP Communication Captured

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 TCP Vulnerabilities
• No Access Controls
• TCP Headers are manipulated
• TCP Packets can reveal OS details
• TCP states can be exploited
• Traffic is transparent

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 TCP Vulnerabilities
• TCP states can be exploited
• Traffic is transparent

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

TCP Denial of Service

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Syn Flood

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

 Conclusion
• In this chapter you learnt about:
• The Transport Layer
• The Transmission Control Protocol
• The TCP Header
• The TCP Communication
• The TCP Vulnerabilities

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad

Thank You

© 2022 C-DAC, Hyderabad