Urban and Slum

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[ACCREDITED WITH ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category-I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamilnadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
M.A. SOCIOLOGY,
IV SEMESTER
34943 A - URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

Author:
Dr.M.Velusamy,
Assistant Professor,
Directorate of Distance Education,
Alagappa University,
Karaikudi.
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
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or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the
Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.
SYLLABI – BOOK MAPPING TABLE
34943 A - URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Syllabi Mapping in
Book
BLOCK I: URBAN COMMUNITY: MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS, CITY -
MEANING, CLASSIFICATION, URBANIZATION & URBANISM
UNIT I Pages 1-5
Urban Community: meaning, characteristics, rural urban linkages
and contrast
UNIT II Pages 6-14
City - meaning, classification, trends in urbanization process
UNIT III Pages 15-25
Urbanization & Urbanism: meaning, theories of urbanization,
characteristics of urbanism
BLOCK II: SLUMS – DEFINITION, APPROACHES, URBAN
PROBLEMS AND URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
UNIT IV Pages 26-42
Slums – definition, approaches, theories and classification and
culture of slums
UNIT V Pages 43-60
Urban problems: housing, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency,
prostitution, and pollution.
UNIT VI Pages 61-68
Urban Community Development: definition, concept,
objectives and historical background
BLOCK III: APPROACHES, PRINCIPLES PROCESS AND METHODS OF URBAN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
UNIT VII Pages 69-83
Approaches, principles process and methods of urban community
development, welfare extension projects of central social welfare
board, urban development planning.
UNIT VIII Pages 84-93
Legislation Related To Urban Development: urban land ceiling
act, town and country planning act, nagarpalika act and Tamil
Nadu slum clearance and improvement act) community planning,
and community participation
UNIT IX Pages 94-105
Urban Development Administration: national, state and local
levels; structure and functions of urban development agencies
BLCOK IV: URBAN SERVICES AND URBAN DEFICIENCIES, ROLE OF
VOLUNTARY AGENCIES IN URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
UNIT X Pages 106-114
Urban services and urban deficiencies; metropolitan development
authorities, Housing and Urban Development Corporation
(HUDCO) and United Nations Centre for Human Settlement
(UNCHS); housing board.
UNIT XI Pages 115-118
Role of voluntary agencies in urban community development
UNIT XII Pages 119-128
Urban Development Programmes: five year plans and urban
development; Madras Urban Development Projects (MUDP) I & II
BLOCK V: TAMIL NADU URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT, TAMIL NADU
SLUM AREA ACT 1971
UNIT XIII Pages 129-135
Tamil Nadu Urban Development project (TNUDP); Urban Basic
Services Programmes (UBSP), Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), etc.
UNIT XIV Pages 136-156
Tamil Nadu Slum Area (clearance and improvement) Act 1971,
and problems in implementation of urban community development
programmes; role of development worker – application of social
work methods in urban development.
CONTENTS
BLOCK I: URBAN COMMUNITY: MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS,
CITY - MEANING, CLASSIFICATION, URBANIZATION &
URBANISM
UNIT- I URBAN COMMUNITY: MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS, 1-5
RURAL URBAN LINKAGES AND CONTRAST
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Urban Community
1.1.1 Meaning
1.1.2 Characteristics
1.1.3 Rural and Urban Linkages and Contrast
1.2 Let us Sum Up
1.3 Check Your Progress
1.4 Answer to Check Your Progress
1.5 Suggested Readings
UNIT- II CITY - MEANING, CLASSIFICATION, TRENDS IN 6-14
URBANIZATION PROCESS
2.0 Introduction
2.1 City
2.2 Meaning
2.3 Classifications
2.4 Trends in Urbanization Process
2.5 Let us Sum Up
UNIT-III URBANIZATION & URBANISM: MEANING, THEORIES 15-25
OF URBANIZATION, CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANISM
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Urbanization & Urbanism
3.1.1 Meaning
3.1.2 Theories of urbanization
3.1.3 Characteristics of Urbanism
3.2 Let us Sum Up
BLOCK II: SLUMS – DEFINITION, APPROACHES, URBAN
PROBLEMS AND URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
UNIT - IV SLUMS 26-42
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Slums
4.2 Definition
4.3 Approaches
4.4 Theories and classification
4.5 Culture of slums
4.5 Let us Sum Up
UNIT – V URBAN PROBLEMS 43-60
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Urban problems
5.2 Housing
5.3 Drug addiction,
5.4 Juvenile delinquency
5.5 Prostitution
5.6 Pollution
5.7 Lets Sum Up
UNIT- VI URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: 61-68
DEFINITION, CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Urban Community Development
6.3 Definition
6.4 Concept
6.5 Objectives
6.6 Historical background
6.7 Lets Sum Up
BLOCK III APPROACHES, PRINCIPLES PROCESS AND METHODS
OF URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
UNIT -VII APPROACHES 69-83
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Approaches
7.3 Principles
7.4 Process
7.5 Methods of urban community development,
7.6 Welfare extension projects of central social welfare board,
7.7 Urban development planning
7.8 Lets Sum Up
UNIT – VIII LEGISLATION RELATED TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT 84-93

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Legislation Related To Urban Development
8.2 Urban Land Ceiling Act
8.3 Town And Country Planning Act,
8.4 Nagarpalika Act
8.5 Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance And Improvement Act)
8.6 Community Planning, Community Participation
8.7 Lets Sum Up
UNIT – IX URBAN DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 94 -108
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Urban Development Administration
9.2 National
9.3 State
9.4 Local levels
9.5 Structure
9.6 Functions of Urban Development Agencies
9.7 Lets Sum Up
BLCOK IV: URBAN SERVICES AND URBAN DEFICIENCIES, ROLE OF
VOLUNTARY AGENCIES IN URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
UNIT – X URBAN SERVICES AND URBAN DEFICIENCIES 106-114
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Urban services and urban deficiencies
10.2 Metropolitan Development Authorities,
10.3 Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)
10.4 United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UNCHS)
10.5 Housing board
10.6 Lets Sum Up
UNIT-XI ROLE OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES IN URBAN 115-118
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Voluntary Agencies
11.2 Voluntary Agencies In Urban Community Development
11.3 Role of Voluntary Agencies In Urban Community Development
11. 4 Lets Sum Up
11. 5 Check Your Progress
UNIT – XII URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 119-133
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Urban Development Programmes
12.2 Five year plans and urban development;
12.3 Madras Urban Development Projects (MUDP) I & II
12 4 Lets Sum Up
BLOCK V: TAMIL NADU URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT,
TAMIL NADU SLUM AREA ACT 1971
UNIT – XIII TAMIL NADU URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 129-135
(TNUDP)
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Tamil Nadu Urban Development project (TNUDP)
13.2 Urban Basic Services Programmes (UBSP)
13.3 Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), etc
13.4 Lets Sum Up
UNIT- XIV TAMIL NADU SLUM AREA 136-156
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Tamil Nadu Slum Area (Clearance And Improvement) Act 1971
14.2 Problems in Implementation Of Urban Community Development
Programmes
14.3 Role Of Development Worker
14.4 Application Of Social Work Methods In Urban Development
14.5 Lets Sum Up
Model Question Paper 157
BLOCK I: URBAN COMMUNITY: Urban Community
NOTES
MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS, CITY -
MEANING, CLASSIFICATION,
URBANIZATION & URBANISM
UNIT I URBAN COMMUNITY:
MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS,
RURAL URBAN LINKAGES AND
CONTRAST
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Urban Community
1.1.1 Meaning
1.1.2 Characteristics
1.1.3 Rural and Urban Linkages and Contrast
1.2 Let us Sum Up
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The World is urbanizing very fast and more than 45 per cent of the World‘s
population today is residing in urban areas. According to UN estimation, the
Wold population is expected to increase by 72 percent by 2050, from 3.6
billion in 2011 to 6.3 billion in 2050.Customarily urbanization means
increasing population living in cities and suburbs cities of a country. In 19th
and 20th century, majority of the cities in the world are undergoing growth of
urban population. In India also urban population which was 0.37 percent in
1951 has risen to 27.81 percent in 2001 and 31.16 percent in 2011 and is
increasing day by day. According to Asian Development Bank, the national
increase and net migration are the major contributory factors to urban growth.
The share of world‘s population living in urban areas has increased from 39
percent in 1980 to 48 percent in 2000. However, urbanization without proper
planning has given rise to several problems such as housing, sanitation,
education, provision of safe drinking water, unemployment, etc. particularly
in underdeveloped countries. This unit on ―Urban Community : Meaning and
Characteristics ‖ will provide you information and knowledge regarding
Urban Community, its trends, impact and idea about sustainable urban
development. After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain meaning and Characteristics of Urban

1 Self-Instructional Material
Urban Community • Narrate various causes of urbanization
NOTES • Discuss Rural and Urban Linkages and Contrast
• Describe about Urban Community
1.1 URBAN COMMUNITY

Urban community is something which an individual thought as, an area with
high density of population, an area with the availability of basic requirements,
an area of good resources, the area has lots of opportunity of employment and
such an area which can be considered as life-giving for luxurious desires of
human or individual. The word urban community has many meanings, the
term ‗community‘, only, denotes two conditions: (1) Physical condition and
(2) Social condition.
1.1.1 MEANING
Urban and Urbane are both derived from the Latin word Urbanus meaning
"belonging to a city" and these were once synonymous in meaning. Urbane
was borrowed first, from the old French term urbain, and it preserves the
French pattern of stress. Subsequently, Urban was borrowed directly from
Latin word urbanus. Urbane conveys the meaning of being "specialized,
refined, polite or elegant". These desirable qualities were considered to be the
characteristic of urban rather than country folk. Urban refers to a city or town,
which is directly opposite to village or country. A resident of a village is
known as a folk and of a city is known as an Urbanite.
1.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS
Definition of urban area: In the Census of India 201 1, the definition of urban
area adopted is as follows: a) All statutory places with a municipality,
corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.; b) A
place satisfying the following criteria: Population is more than 5000. 75% of
the male population engaged in non-agricultural occupations. A density of
population of at least 400 per sq. km.
Keeping the above criterion of 'urban area' in mind, urbanisation, in general,

can be defined as the from a rural society to an urban society. It involves an
increase in the number of people in urban areas during a particular year or
period. It is the outcome of social, economic and political developments that
lead to urban concentration and growth of large cities, changes in land use and
transformation from rural to metropolitan pattern of organisation and
governance. It has been viewed as an important factor in the areas of economic
transformation, orchestrating the breakdown of the feudal order and talung
societies to higher levels of social formation. Urbanisation is intrinsically
connected and irrevocably enlaced with the development process, as an
essential strand in the contemporary economic system. At the same time, some
scholars argue that 'urbanisation is not merely the concomitant of
industrialisation but a concomitant of whole gamut of factors underlying the
Self-Instructional Material
2
process of economic growth and social change'. Urban Community
Urbanisation implies a cultural, social and psychological pmss whereby NOTES

people acquire the material and non-material culture, including
behavioural patterns, forms of organization, and ideas that originated in
or are distinctive of the city. Although the flow of cultural influences
takes place in both the directions -towards and away from the city -there
is substantial agreement that the cultural influences exerted by the city on
non-urban people are probably more pervasive than the reverse.
Urbanisation as a structural process of change is generally related to

industrialisation. Urbanisation results, due to: a) the concentration of
large-scale and small- scale industries, and commercial, financial and
administrative set-ups in the particular areas called townslcities; and b)
technological development in transport and communication, cultural and
recreational activities. In fact, the excess of urbanization over
industrialization that makes it possible to provide employment for all
persons coming to urban areas is what sometimes leads to over-
urbanisation. Nevertheless, it is not essential that an industrialised area
should necessarily grow into an urbanised area, though industrialisation
is an important factor that promotes urbanisation. Urbanisation is
otherwise called urban development.
Check Your Progress 1

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1. Write the meaning of Urban Community
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2. Define : Urban Area ?
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1.1.3 RURAL AND URBAN LINKAGES AND CONTRAST
Rural-urban linkages are both a cause and a consequence of socio-economic

development. Though there is a vast volume of literature on this subject, there
are quite a few gaps in our knowledge about the effects that rural-urban
linkages have on socio-economic development and the factors that affect such
linkages. This study seeks to explore the relationship between rural-urban
linkages and socio-economic development through a case study of two
villages in Gujarat, a relatively welldeveloped village from Anand district and
a relatively under-developed village from Kheda district. A sample of 50
Urban Community households was randomly selected from each of the two selected villages for
detailed study and analysis.
NOTES
Findings of the study revealed that most of the farmers in the developed
village grow commercial crops while in the under-developed village they still
continue to grow traditional crops. The average total income of the farmers in
the developed village was significantly higher than that of their counterparts in
the under-developed village. As regards expenditure, people in the developed
village spent more on almost all nonfood items as compared to their
counterparts in the under-developed village. And, in general, total employment
per household from agricultural and non-agricultural activities was more in the
developed village than in the under-developed village. From the regression
analysis done, it was observed that stronger rural urban linkages has facilitated
the use of agricultural inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides and this had a
positive bearing on the per capita income of the farming community.
Furthermore, the basic infrastructural facilities like roads, bank, and post
office together contributed significantly to the higher level of economic
growth and per capita income in the developed village. The tests of equality of
means revealed that there was a significant difference between the means of
most of the variables relating to the land owning category while landless
people in both the sample villages were not affected by the developmental
status of the village. The study supports the general observation that while
over time the rich are getting richer, the poor remain poor or even becoming
poorer in the country. Also, it was revealed that weak rural-urban linkages in
the underdeveloped area is the result of, inter alia, poor infrastructural
facilities and the opposite seems true for developed area.
1.2 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you studied the meaning and definition of urban social structure.
ou also learnt about main features of urban life as identified by scholars of
urban areas in developed societies. In the Indian setting, it was pointed out
that the basic institutions of family, marriage, kinship and caste continue to
form the important elements of urban social structure. Then you briefly
looked at the nature of politics in urban areas and finally at some of the urban
issues in India.
1.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write the meaning of Urban Community
2. Define the Urban Area
1.4 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Urban community is something which an individual thought as,
an area with high density of population, an area with the
availability of basic requirements, an area of good resources,
the area has lots of opportunity of employment and such an area
4
which can be considered as life-giving for luxurious desires of Urban Community
human or individual. The word urban community has many
meanings, the term ‗community‘, only, denotes two conditions: NOTES
(1) Physical condition and (2) Social condition.
2. Definition of urban area: In the Census of India 201 1, the

definition of urban area adopted is as follows: a) All statutory
places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
notified town area committee, etc.; b) A place satisfying the
following criteria: Population is more than 5000. 75% of the
male population engaged in non-agricultural occupations. A
density of population of at least 400 per sq. km.
1.5 SUGGESTED READINGS

Abul Fazl Allami, The Ain-i Akbari, trs. Jarrett, H.S. and Jadunath
Sarkar (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint).
Bano, Shadab, (1999) ‗Concubinage and Marriage in the Mughal

Dynasty and Aristocracy‘, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress,
60th Session, Calicut.
Bernier, Francois, (1916) Travels in the Mogul Empire, AD 1656-1668,

second edition revised by Vincent A. Smith (London : Oxford University
Press).
Blake, Stephen P., (1991) Shahajahanabad: The Sovereign City in

Mughal India 1639-1739 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Habib, Irfan, (2008) Medieval India: The Study of Civilization (New

Delhi: National Book Trust).
Hasan, Nurul S., (2005) ‗The Morphology of a Medieval Indian City: A

Case Study of Shahjahanabad‘, in Banga, Indu (ed.), The City in Indian
History (New Delhi:
Manohar).
Holton, R.J., (1986) Cities, Capitalism and Civilization (London: Allen

& Unwin).
Khan, Ali Muhammad, (1928) Mirat-i Ahmadi, trs. M.F., Lokhandawala,

Vol. I (Baroda: Oriental Institute).
Khan, Iqtidar Alam, (1976) ‗The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire‘,
Social Scientist, Vol. 5, No. 1, August.
Khan, Shah Nawaz, (1979) The Maathir-ul-Umara trs. H. Beveridge,

Vol. I (Patna: Janaki Prakashan).
City
NOTES
UNIT II CITY - MEANING,
CLASSIFICATION, TRENDS IN
URBANIZATION PROCESS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 City
2.2 Meaning
2.3 Classifications
2.4 Trends in Urbanization Process
2.5 Let us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Cities have challenged human imagination ever since they came into existence.
From the smallest to the largest, the earliest to the latest, cities have been the
greatest points of concentration of humans and their social relationships. We
wish to enquire about the Indian experience of urbanism. We shall begin with a
study of the origin of urban centres. 'This will be followed by brief descriptions
of cities in ancient, medieval and modern India. Urban centres emerged in
ancient lndia around 2500 BC.
The impressive ruins of cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro are a mute
testimony to this remarkable development. However, we have not been able to
decipher their script. So, our understanding of the structure of urbanism is
limited. We do not know whether the rulers of Harappa were traders, priests or
warriors. That is why we intend to take up the study of a city from the sixth
century BC usually referred to as the period of second urbanization.
For the study of city in ancient lndia we shall focus on Ujjain, a city located in
the state presently known as Madhya Pradesh. This will be followed by a case
study of Shahjahanabad i.e., old Delhi. For the modern period we shall study
the structure of the city of Kolkata, the modern capital of West Bengal. These
case studies are presented to show the similarities as well as the dissimilarities
in their structure.
2.1 CITY
Since the mid-nineteenth century, cities have been naturally associated with
modernity. Indeed, the main prisms through which the making of the ‗modern‘
has been viewed – whether it is industrial capitalism, bureaucratic rationality
or ‗governmentality‘ – have frequently focused on the city as a primary site.
It is a matter of considerable debate among historians as to whether

6
colonialism was instrumental in introducing ‗modernity‘ to the Indian City
subcontinent, as colonial authorities themselves often claimed. Was Indian
society imprisoned in ‗tradition‘ until the beginning of colonial rule? The term NOTES
‗modernity‘ may be said to refer not only to some material changes, i.e.
industrial or print capitalism, or systems of sewage and sanitation, but also to
new institutional spaces, such as museums, public libraries, and voluntary
associations, as well as to new sensibilities, of individualism and bureaucratic
rationality. The cities were among the earliest spaces within which these
changes and transformations were made most visible and this Unit considers
the colonial city from the perspective of whether or why it merits the term
‗modern‘. To begin with, let us consider the ways in which cities and
modernity are usually linked.for some 19th century observers like Friedrich
Engels and Alexis de Tocqueville, the ‗shock cities‘ of Britain‘s first industrial
revolution symbolised the emergence of a modern economic order geared to
the capitalist market and its attendant social consequences:the separation of the
home and the workplace, the segregation of classes and the abysmalliving
conditions of the poor.
By the turn of the twentieth century, there emerged other kinds of association
betweenmodernity and the city. The spectacular capital cities of Western
Europe such as London,Paris, Berlin, Vienna and Stockholm and New York
in the USA – stood forth as symbolsof urban modernity. Many of these cities
were reconstructed (e.g. ‗Paris‘, with urbanspace recreated ‗as a visual
spectacle, opening up the monumental vista whilesimultaneously rendering
the city a site of consumption, of window-shopping,promenading and
surveillance.‘ (Gunn, 2006: 123)
Urban modernity was, however, not merely reflected in the built form of the
city or its governance. The city also became a site for novel forms of urban
interaction and sociability made possible by the emergence and consolidation
of a new domain mediating between state and society: what is broadly
referred to as the ‗public sphere‘. Equally, the unprecedented density of
people, technologies, commodities, institutions and information within cities
generated new encounters and experiments, both individual and collective,
that were distinctively ‗modern‘. And, as the nineteenth-century French
romantic poet Charles Baudelaire was quick to grasp, many of the
fundamental aspirations and anxieties associated with modernity were most
intensely experienced in the city.
These forms and ideals of urban modernity came to be adopted in many parts
of the globe during the age of ‗imperial globalization‘ presided over by
Europeans. Cities across the colonial world took their spatial, technological
and social cues from the imperial West. However, as a growing body of
scholarship has begun to show, they also developed in ways that were not
prefigured by the experience of the metropolitan contexts.
2.2 MEANING
A city is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and
City densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose
members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have
NOTES extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use,
and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people,
government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different
parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service
distribution. This concentration also can have significant negative
consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution,
and stressing water supplies and other resources.
Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall,

but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanisation, roughly
half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound
consequences for global sustainability. Present-day cities usually form the
core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous
commuters traveling towards city centres for employment, entertainment, and
edification. However, in a world of intensifying globalisation, all cities are to
varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased
influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues,
such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.
Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status
and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals
such as Abu Dhabi, Beijing, Berlin, Cairo, London, Moscow, Paris, Rome,
Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington D.C. reflect their nation's identity. Some
historic capitals, such as Kyoto, maintain their reflection of cultural identity
even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another
example of capital status within a religion, Jerusalem, Mecca, and Varanasi
each hold significance. The cities of Faiyum, Damascus, and Argos are
among those laying claim to the longest continual inhabitation. In terms of
relative age, the oldest cities in the Americas are Cholula near Puebla, Florés
in Petén, and Acoma near Albuquerque, while the oldest capital cities in the
Americas are Mexico City, Santo Domingo, and San Juan.
2.3 CLASSIFICATIONS
There are very few sociological terms on whose definition experts agree. The
concept of the city is no exception. In defining the city we encounter
numerous problems which are known to all sociologists. Mumford (1948)
also mentions this fact in his article on City: Forms and Functions in
International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, he writes "Although the city as
a form of human settlement dates back to the beginnings of civilisation, it
long escaped scholarly scrutiny; and its very definition is still under debate.
Levi - Strauss's attack on the ambiguities of "totemism" would apply equally
to the term "city" but with less justification, since the city has undergone
many changes without losing its architectural and institutional continuity."
Everybody seems to know what a city is but no one has given a satisfactory
definition. Since English lacks a neat vocabulary to distinguish the succession
8
of urban forms from embryo to adult, their purely quantitative aspect is best City
rendered in German: Dorf, Kleinstadt, Mittelstadt , Grosstade, Millionenstadt.
In English, eopolis, polis, metropolis, megalopolis, and conurbation have NOTES
been proposed as equivalent series, with regional city and regional urban grid
as possible emergent forms (Mumford ibid. ).
Like many other sociological categories, the city is at1 abstraction, but the
elements of which it consists-residents, structures, means of transportation,
installations, and so on - are concrete entities of varying nature. What makes a
city is the functional integration of its elements into a whole (Bergel, 955).
Yet a city has not merely a single function but rather an assortment of many
functions and not all of them are present in every city. These may vary from
city to city and time to time. There are different ways to define city such as
legal, statistical, density, occupation, sociological and economical. Let us
discuss all of them in detail one by one.
Definition on Legal Basis
The city in many countries has been defined in legal terms. A place is legally
made a city by a declaration, called a charter, which is granted by a higher
authority. In India the State Government has the responsibility of sranting
municipal/civic status to a settlement or notifying it as a town. Such towns are
known as statutory towns. The procedure is very clear but the bases of
identification are not uniform across the states and extremely unsatisfactory.
It is an explanation ex post facto. A place is not a city because it has received
a charter; the grant of the charter is recognition that it has become a city. The
definition disregards the fact that many eastern cities have never had a charter
and that in the West the legal distinction between cities and rural places
evolved at a rather late date.
Statistical Basis
Another equally simple approach is provided through statistical indicators.

The U.S. Bureau of Census considers as cities all "incorporated places" of
2,500 or more inhabitants. This method meets the needs of statisticians but
offers little sociological insight. The arbitrariness of this kind of definition is
revealed by the fact that the United States census has had to alter its criterion
from 8,000 inhabitants to 4,000 and finally to the present figure. To meet
other difficulties, the census has had to include additional urban
developments, such as City and Metropolis "unincorporated towns or
townships or political subdivisions." -There are also substantial international
variations. Most European countries follow the example set by France in
1846, requiring a minimum population of 2,000. This figure was approved by
the International Bureau of Statistics in 1887. It has not been universally
accepted, however, since Korea, for example, still sets the minimum limits as
high as 44,000. In India the cut off point for non-statutory towns is According
to the statistical definition noted above, a place having certain number- of
persons will be known as a city. It is obvious that a place does not become a
city by merely reaching that figure. It is equally obvious that a place with that
City minimum number of persons and another one with over one million persons
must have something in common, besides having a certain number of
NOTES inhabitants if we have to justify our calling them both cities, as distinct from
rural settlements.
Basis of Density of Population
Another quantitative criterion for defining the city on is the basis of

populat.ion density. Like the definition based on the number of persons, the
definitions based on the density of population have also been questioned for
similar reasons. It is impossible to state at what density a settlement changes
from the rural to the urban type. Some villages are rather thickly settled while
some urban sections represent a residential vacuum. In Mumbai more than 55
per cent of slum population occupies only 6 per cent of residential areas. These
are the areas which are densely populated in Mumbat, where as many sections
of the may have a density of less , than 50 persons per acre. Same is the case in
New Delhi. 'The "City" of London has practically no inhabitants and the
borough of Richmond, which is a part of New York City, has a much Lower
density than the Neolithic European pile dwellings which possibly housed as
many as 1,300 persons on less than 30,000 square yards. The density of cities
varies from 10 (Australia and New Zealand) to 33 (Paris) per square hectare.
For these reasons attempts to arrive at an exact minimum figure of density

which signifies the urban character of a settlement are rarely made. Walter F.
Willcox tried to arrive at a numerical definition by investigating the density of
Tompkins County, New York. He proposes the following figures: density of
less than 100 per square mile constitutes "country," density; from 100 to 1000
constitutes "villages," and density above 1,000 "cities." His proposition was
only tentative since he had analysed only one American county. A Willcox
himself realized, conditions in other counties might be different. But if the
density varies from area to area while the cities maintain their character, the
validity of the measurement would collapse, since a yardstick must not vary.
Basis of Occupation
Not satisfied by the density criterion, Willcox added the criterion of

Occupational structure in defining an urban centre. According to his own
Trends in Urbanization Process definition, he regarded a district as rural only
if "presumably agriculture is the only occupation," while cities are places "in
which there is practically no agriculture." He remarked, "t+e fundamental
difference between country and city is the difference between agriculture and
the group of other occupations. "
City According to Indian Census
The census of India has defined urban /town by combining legal, population,
occupation and density, which is clear from the definition given below:
a) All places with municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified

town area committee, etc.
10
b) All other places which satisfied the following criteria; City
i) a minimum population of 5,000. NOTES
ii) At least 75 per of male working population in non-agricultural

pursuits; and (this criteria has been used in many other ways as
well. The confusion arises as in some census updates the criterion
is stated as (1) 75% of all working population (2) 75% of adult
male population. (3) Also some use "non primary" rather than
"non agriculture".)
iii) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

1. Write the meaning of City?
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Definition of City with Legal Basis ?
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2.4 TRENDS IN URBANIZATION PROCESS

Put against the level of urbanization in the world India‘s urbanization
level is still low, although urbanization has gained some speed in the
post-independence period. From the 1990 data we can see that 42.7 per
cent of world population was living in urban areas.
There was wide gap in the level of urbanization between the more
developed regions, which had 72.7 per cent of the population as urban
population, and the less developed regions, with only 33.9 per cent of
urban population. Among the continents Europe, Oceania and Latin
America had a very high level of urbanization with 73.1, 70.9 and 72.3
per cent of their population as urban population respectively. In contrast,
Africa with 34.5 per cent of its population as urban population and Asia
with only 29.9 per cent of its population as urban population were the
least urbanized among the continents. Again, among the Asian regions
Western Asia is more urbanized (with 58.2 per cent of itspopulation
living in urban areas) than Eastern Asia (29.4 per cent), Southeastern
Asia (29 per cent) and South Asia (27.8 per cent) (for details see Mitra,
1994: 48). Thus South Asia, of which India is a part, is one of the least
urbanized regions of the world.
City According to 1991 census only 25.72 per cent of India‘s population was
living in urban areas, which again is less than the South Asian standard.
NOTES
The annual growth rate of urban population in India has declined from 3.1 per
cent during 1981-91 to 2.7 per cent during 1991-2001. The decade 1971-81
had recoded the highest annual growth rate of 3.8 per cent but the last two
decades have recorded decelerating growth rates in India. The percentage of
urban population has gone up from 23.73 in 1981 to 25.72 in 1991 and finally
to 27.78 in 2001. The slow growth of urban population in India goes against
popular notions of ―urban explosion‖ and against the most expert predictions.
The Planning Commission (1983), the Expert Committee for Population
Projections for the Eighth Plan, and the UN Study of World Urbanization
Prospects (1995, 2001) had predicted 3 – 4.4 per cent annual growth of urban
population in the 1980s and 1990s. The UN projection of 3.2 per cent growth
during 2000-10 and 2.8 per cent during 2020-25 also seem to be unrealistic.
Keeping in view that the growth rate of total population is expected to be less
than 1 per cent according to UN projection it would require a very high rate
of rural-urban migration to meet the projected level of urbanization.
By way of explanation to the sluggish growth of urban population the

scholars argue that not only the natural growth rate of urban population has
declined but also the city bound migration of both male and female
population has decelerated over the years. A study in 1983 suggests that
contribution of rural-urban migration to urbanization declined over the
decades and stood at 22.6 percent in the 1980s. During 1971-81 the
percentage of intercensal migrants in urban areas declined from 18.5 to 16.9
and that of lifetime migrants (male) from 33.6 to 32.4. The share of lifetime
interstate migrants came down from 11.2 per cent to 10.0 per cent. The 1991
Census also recorded further decline in urban-bound migration rate. In the
1981-91 decade the decadal, lifetime and interstate migration rates were 11.7,
26.0 and 8.0 respectively. The female migration to the urban areas, which
takes place primarily due to social and cultural factors, also slowed down
during the decade. Amitabh Kundu has identified four major reasons for the
growth of urban population in India: (a) natural increase, (b) growth of new
towns outside agglomerations, (c) merging of towns and jurisdictional
changes in agglomerations, and (d) rural-urban migration.
Available data suggest that natural increase accounted for 61.3 per cent and
59.4 per cent of the total increase in urban population in 1971-81 and 1981-91
decades respectively.
The 1991-2001 decade too experienced a decline in natural growth rate of

urban population. The share of component (b) in the total addition to urban
population has declined from 9.4 per cent in the 1980s to 6.2 percent in the
1990s. This indicates that the rate of urban growth outside the existing
agglomerations and urbanized regions has slowed down over the decades.
The third component, i.e., extension of municipal boundaries, merging of old
towns or inclusion of new towns in the existing urban agglomerations, was
considered a minor contributor to the growth of urban population in the
12
1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The number of towns merged with existing City
neighboring towns was only 221 in 2001 and in 1991 the number was half of
this. However, the share of this factor to the growth of urban population went NOTES
up from 7.6 per cent in 1991 to 13.0 percent in 2001. The contribution of the
fourth factor has been estimated to be 21 per cent in 1990s, which was
marginally less than the figure for the previous decade. (Kundu, 2005: 105).
2.5 Let us Sum Up

Urbanization does not mean the growth of urban population and
concentration of production and commercial activities alone; it would also
mean a balanced development of infrastructure, civic amenities and
opportunities for all sections of the urbanites. It would mean access to
healthy environment, egalitarian development, democratic empowerment,
and decentralization of power and cultural uplift of the people. What would
ultimately matter is the quality of life that the urban centers ensure to their
citizens.
Judging the current trend it is projected that by 2015 around 40 per cent of
India‘s population would be living in urban areas and a large majority of this
population would inhabit the large cities. At present nearly 38 per cent of
total urban population is considered poor and about 35 per cent live in slums.
About 44 per cent of urban families manage with one room, between 70 and
80 lakh urban population are homeless; 52 per cent of urban population do
not have access to healthy sanitation; only about 24 per cent own sanitary
latrines; a large section of urban population does not have access to safe
drinking water; every year environmental pollution hands over untimely
death to about 40,000 urbanites. When there is an estimated need of twenty
thousand crore rupees to provide the minimum urban amenities to its people
the Indian Government is downsizing the budgetary allocation for urban
development. In 1951 the budgetary allocation for urban development was 8
per cent but in 2005 it has been reduced to 2.6 per cent (Bhattacharya, 2005:
56-83)

1. Write the meaning of City?
2. Define City with legal basis ?

1. A city is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and
densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose
members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have
extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use,
and communication.
2. The city in many countries has been defined in legal terms. A place is legally
City made a city by a declaration, called a charter, which is granted by a higher
authority. In India the State Government has the responsibility of sranting
NOTES municipal/civic status to a settlement or notifying it as a town. Such towns are
known as statutory towns. The procedure is very clear but the bases of
identification are not uniform across the states and extremely unsatisfactory.
It is an explanation ex post facto. A place is not a city because it has received
a charter; the grant of the charter is recognition that it has become a city. The
definition disregards the fact that many eastern cities have never had a charter
and that in the West the legal distinction between cities and rural places
evolved at a rather late date.

1. Bhowmik, Sharit K. 2000, Hawkers and the Urban Informal Sector: A
Study of Street Vendors in Seven Cities, Unpublished. Available at
www.streetnet.org
2. Davala, Sarath (ed.) 1995, Unprotected Labour in India, Delhi:

Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
3. Davala, Sarath (1993), Employment and Unionisation in Indian

Industry, Delhi: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
4. Dutt, Rudder (ed) 1996, Organising the Unorganised Workers, Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.
5. Government of India 2004, Ministry of Labor, Downloaded from

labour.nic.in/ss/INFORMALSECTORININDIA 14 August 2005.
6. Government of India 2004A, National Policy for Urban Street Vendors

Ministry of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation, can be downloaded
from muepa/nic.in
7. Government of India 2005, Economic Survey 2004-2005, Ministry of

Finance. Can be downloaded from nic.in/finance
8. Hart, J Keith 1973, "Informal Income Opportunities and Urban

Employment in Ghana", Journal of Modern African Studies, 11(1).
9. Jhabvala, Renana, Jeemol Unni and Ratna Sudarshan (eds) (2003),

Informal Economy Centrestage, Delhi: Sage Publications.
10. Kabeer, Naila 2001, Bangladesh Women Workers and Labour Market
Decisions: The Right to Choose, New Delhi: Vistaar Publications/ Sage.
11. Papola, T.S. (1994), ―Employment, Growth and Social Protection of

Labour in India.‖ in P.Sinha, C.S. Venkat Ratnam and G. Botterweck (Eds.),
Labour and Unions in a Period of Transition, Delhi: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
14
Urbanization & Urbanism
UNIT III : URBANIZATION & NOTES
URBANISM: MEANING, THEORIES OF
URBANIZATION, CHARACTERISTICS
OF URBANISM
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Urbanization & Urbanism
3.1.1 Meaning
3.1.2 Theories of urbanization
3.1.3 Characteristics of Urbanism
3.2 Let us Sum Up
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Urbanization, indeed, is the process of becoming urban, moving to cities,
changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to cities, such as trade,
manufacturing, industry and management, and corresponding changes of
behaviour patterns.
It is the process of expansion in the entire system of interrelationships by
which a population maintains itself in its habitat (Hawley, 1981). An increase
in the size of towns and cities leading to growth of urban population is the
most significant dimension of urbanization. The urban centers are essentially
non-agricultural in character. In ancient times there have been great many
cities such as Rome or Baghdad but ever since industrialization and
increasing industrial production and territory level production cities have
grown phenomenally and now urbanization is very much apart of our
contemporary life.
What exactly constitutes, urban and what is the process of urbanization will
be dealt with in the following sections. We will also talk about various
theories associated with urbanization. We will discuss the growth of cities
and some of the problems associated with urban centers as well.
3.1 URBANIZATION & URBANISM

What is an ‗urban area‘? The term is used in two senses – demographic and
sociological. Demographically, the focus is on the size and density of
population and nature of work of the majority of the adult males.
Sociologically, the focus is on heterogeneity, impersonality, interdependence
and the quality of life. Tonnies (1957) differentiated between gemeinschaft
Urbanization & Urbanism (rural) and gesellschaft (urban) communities in terms of social relationships
and values.
NOTES
The former is one in which social bonds are based on close personal ties of
kinship and friendship, and the emphasis is on tradition, consensus and
informality, while in the latter, impersonal and secondary relationships
predominate and the interaction of people is formal, contractual and
dependent on the special function or service they perform. Other sociologists
like Max Weber (1961) and George Simmel (1950) have stressed on dense
living conditions, rapidity of change and impersonal interaction in urban
settings.
In India, the demographic and economic indexes are important in defining
specific areas as town or city. The census definition of ‗town‘ remained more
or less the same for the period 1901-1951 but in 1961, a new definition was
adopted. Up to 1951, ‗town‘ included:
1) An inhabited locality with a total population of not less than 5,000 persons;
2) Every municipality, corporation and notified area of whatever size; and
3) All civil lines not included within municipal limits.
Thus, the primary criteria for deciding whether a particular place is a town or
not was the administrative set-up rather than the size of the population.
Because of this definition many of the towns in reality were nothing more
than over-grown villages.
In 1961 ‗town‘ was redefined and determined on the basis of a number of
empirical tests:
a) a minimum population of 5,000,
b) a density of not less than 1,000 per square mile,
c) three-fourths of the occupations of the working population should be
outside of agriculture, and
d) the place should have a few characteristics and amenities such as newly
founded industrial areas, large housing settlements, and places of tourist
importance and civic amenities. As a result of the new definition of ‗town‘
was a reduction in the total number of towns in India between 1951 and 1961.
The 1961 basis was adopted in the 1971, 1981 and 1991 censuses too for
defining towns.
Sociologists do not attach much importance to the size of population in the
definition of city because the minimum population standards vary greatly. A
city is an administratively defined unit of territory containing ―a relatively
large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals‖
(Wirth, 1938). Urban refers to a set of specialized, non-agricultural activities
that are characteristic of, but not exclusive to, city dwellers. A ruling class
with a capacity for taxation and capital accumulation and writing and its
application to predictive sciences, artistic expression, and trade for vital
16
materials are the kinds of specialized activities necessary to the definition of Urbanization & Urbanism
the emergence of a truly urban place (Childe, 1950).
NOTES
Urbanization
Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to
industrialization but it is not always the result of industrialization.
Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale and small
scale industrial and commercial, financial and administrative set up in
the cities; technological development in transport and communication,
cultural and recreational activities. The excess of urbanization over
industrialization that makes it possible to provide employment for all
persons coming to urban areas is, in fact, what sometimes leads to over
urbanization. In India, a peculiar phenomenon is seen: industrial growth
without a significant shift of population from agriculture to industry and
of growth of urban population without a significant rise in the ratio of the
urban to the total population. While in terms of ratio, there may not be a
great shift from rural to urban activities, but there is still a large
migration of population from rural areas to urban areas. This makes
urban areas choked, there is lack of infrastructural facilities to cope with
this rising populations.
Urbanism
Urbanism has been defined by various scholars as patterns of culture and
social interaction resulting from the concentration of large populations
into relatively small areas. It reflects an organization of society in terms
of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility,
interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and
impersonality in social relations (Theodorson, 1969).
Urbanism as way of life, Louis Wirth believes, may be empirically
approached from three interrelated perspectives:
• As a physical structure with a population base, technology and
ecological order;
• As a system of social organization with a structure and series
of institutions (secondary contacts, weakening of kinship ties
etc.);
• As a set of attitudes, ideas and constellation of personalities
(increased personal disorganization, suicide, crime, delinquency
and corruption).
3.1.1 MEANING
Urbanization implies a cultural and social psychological process whereby

people acquire the material and non-material culture, including behavioural
patterns, forms of organization, and ideas that originated in, or are distinctive
of the city. Although the flow of cultural influences is in both directions –
both toward and away from the city – there is substantial agreement that the
Urbanization & Urbanism cultural influences exerted by the city on non-urban people are probably more
pervasive than the reverse. Urbanization seen in this light has also resulted in
NOTES what Toynbee has called the ―Westernization‖ of the world.
The idea of urbanization may be made more precise and meaningful when
interpreted as aspects of diffusion and acculturation. Urbanization may be
manifest either as intra-society or inter-society diffusion, that is, urban culture
may spread to various parts of the same society or it may cross cultural or
national boundaries and spread to other societies. It involves both borrowing
and lending. On the other side of the diffusion coin is acculturation, the
process whereby, individuals acquire the material possessions, behavioral
patterns, social organization, bodies of knowledge, and meanings of groups
whose culture differs in certain respects from their own. Urbanization as seen
in this light is a complex process (Gist and Fava: 1933).
The history of urbanization in India reveals, broadly four processes of

urbanization at work throughout the historical period. These are:
a) the emergence of new social relationships among people in cities and

between people in cities and those in villages through a process of social
change;
b) the rise and fall of cities with changes in the political order;
c) the growth of cities based on new productive processes, which alter the
economic base of the city; and
d) the physical spread of cities with the inflow of migrants, who come in
search of a means of livelihood as well as a new way of life.

1. Write the meaning of Urbanisation ?
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2. Explain – Urbanism ?
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3.1.2 THEORIES OF URBANIZATION

___________________________________________________________
City forms the central point of urban sociology. Like many other sociological
categories, the city is an abstraction composed of concrete entities like
residences and shops and an assortment of many functions. A place is legally
made a city by a declaration by a competent authority. Sorokin and
18
Zimmerman enumerate eight characteristics in which the urban world differs Urbanization & Urbanism
from the rural world. These are (1) occupation (2) environment (3) size of
community (4) density of population (5) heterogeneity (6) social NOTES
differentiation and stratification (7) mobility and (8) system of
interactions.The study of cities was a subject that had already explored in the
second part of the 19th century in early classical sociology with its celebrated
dichotomies, such as Maine‘s (1931) distinction between status and contract
and Morgan‘s (1877) contrast between savagery, barbarism and civilization.
This aspect was further developed by Tonnies (1957), who contrasted
gemeinschaft and gesellschaft, and by Durkheim (1964), who distinguished
between ―mechanical and ―organic‖ solidarity. Tonnies and Durkheim
believed that the gemeinschaft type of social organization, or mechanical
solidarity, is fully developed in cities, particularly in modern cities.
In 1920-1940s a number of sociologist from the university of Chicago put

forward ideas which for many years were the chief basis for theory and
research on urban sociology. Two strands of the Chicago school that we are
going to examine are the ecological approach and the ‗urbanism as away of
life‘ approach developed by Wirth.
Louis Wirth – Urbanism as a Way of Life

Wirth was one of the pioneers of the study of urbanism and his was the first
systematic attempt to distinguish the concepts of urbanism and urbanization.
His social-psychological theory investigates the human behavior in an urban
environment. He indicated that size, density and heterogeneity – regarded as
the principal traits in defining cities – are conducive to specific behavioral
patterns and moral attitudes (Wirth, 1938). For him ―a city is a relatively
large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals‖.
Urbanism is that complex of traits that makes up the characteristic mode of

life in cities. Urbanism, as a way of life, may be approached empirically from
three interrelated perspectives:
(1) as a physical structure comprising a population base, a technology, and an

ecological order; (2) as a system of social organization involving a
characteristic social structure, a series of social institutions, and a typical
pattern of social relationships; and (3) as a set of attitudes and ideas, and a
constellation of personalities engaging in typical forms of collective
behaviour and subject to characteristic mechanisms of social control.
Louis Wirth shows two kinds of forces operating in urban society: the force
of segregation and the melting pot effect; which has many unifying aspects
like uniform system of administration etc. However, he concludes that urban
society is based on a means-to-end rationality, which is exploitative and
where the individual is isolated through anonymity. Wirth believed that the
density of life in cities produced neighbourhoods, which have the distinctive
characteristics of traditional communities.
Wirth‘s theory is important for it‘s recognition that urbanism is not just part
Urbanization & Urbanism of a society, but expresses and influences the wider social system. However,
Wirth‘s observations are based on American cities, which are generalized to
NOTES urban centers everywhere, where situations are different.
The Ecological Approach
In natural sciences the term ecology is used to understand the relationship

plants and animals have with their environment. The term is used in a similar
way to understand the process of urabanisation, by such scholars as Robert
Park, Ernest Burgess and Amos Hawley. The scholars of ecological approach
feel that cities do not grow randomly but grow along lines and in response to
features which are advantageous to it–along rivers, near natural resources, in
the intersection of trading rotes etc. They feel that cities become ordered in to
―natural areas‖, through a process of competition, invasion and succession.
Patterns of location, movement and relocation in cities follow similar
principles. These scholars view cities as a map of areas with distinct
characteristics.
Burgess sees them as concentric zones- Central Business District ( with

concentration of trade, retail, business and related activities are located), the
Transition Zone to the outer fringes which he calls the Commuter Zone-the
satellite towns and suburbs. Process of invasion and succession occur within
these segments.
Some of the principles of these theories can be applied to Indian situation

especially to growth‘s such as suburbs such as Gurgaon in outer fringes of
Delhi or the growth of suburbs in Bombay but largely the theory is based on
American cities which have distinct characteristics. The theory, also,
underempahsises the role of planning and design in cities.
Urbanism and Created Environment : Harvey and Castells More recent

theorist such as David Harvey and Manuell Castell‘s have stressed that
urbanism is not an autonomous process, but is part of a larger political and
economic processes and changes.
In modern urbanism , Harvey points out space is continually restructured .The

process is determined by large firms, who decide where they should open
their businesses, factories etc and by policies, controls and initiatives asserted
by governments which can change the landscape of a city.
Like Harvey, Castells stresses that spacial form of a city is very much related
to the larger process of the society. Castells further adds the dimension of the
struggles and conflicts of various groups who make up the cities. He gives the
example of gay community who have reorganized the structure of San
Francisco city. He believes that it is not only big corporations, businesses and
government which influence the shape a of a city but also the communities
and groups who live in cities.
Harvey and Castells analysis of uranbinasation and urabn situation adds an

important dimension – the political economy of a system. According to
20
Harvey and Castellls the special form of a city is very much influenced by the Urbanization & Urbanism
politico-economic considerations of corporations, business houses and
governments. NOTES
Indian Sociologists : Rao and Bose
M.S.A. Rao (1970), analysis urabinasation and urbanism keeping in mind the
larger social structures of Indian society. For him, urbanism is a
heterogeneous process and hence there can be many forms of urbanisms
giving rise to many types of urbanization. Rao states that the dichotomy
between cities and villages is incorrect as both have the same structural
features of caste and kinship and are parts of the same civilization. Moreover,
urbanization and westernization are not identical and should not be confused.
Urbanization does not lead to the breakdown of traditional structures of caste
and joint family. The traditional and modern structures coexist in the urban
milieu because of which various types of urbanisms exist – post-industrial,
preindustrial, western, non-western etc. Further, urbanization is seen in
relation to social change and no real social transformation is associated with
it. However, due to urbanization new forms of social organization and
association have emerged. Thus, for Rao, urbanization is a complex
multifaceted process comprising of ideological, cultural, historical,
demographic, comparative, traditional and sociological elements. Rao defines
a city as a center of urbanization and urban way of life. Urbanization is a two
way process. Urbanization in India is not a uniform process but occurs along
different axes - administrative, political, commercial, religious and
educational - giving rise to several types of urbanisms. These different axes
give rise to different types of contact which the city has with the villagers
leading to distinct patterns of urbanization.
He distinguishes three kinds of situations of social change in rural areas

resulting from urbanization: villages near an industrial town, villages with a
sizable number of emigrants working in towns and cities, and villages on the
metropolitan fringe. Rao believed that through the study of migration, one
could observe the similarities, dissimilarities and continuity between villages
and towns. Rao‘s sociological approach is the most complete approach to the
study of urbanization because he tries to examine them in all their different
facets and relate these facets to one another and to a sociological
understanding of urbanism and urbanization.
Ashish Bose‘s demographic classification emphasizes quantitative factors
like demography rather than qualitative factors in defining urbanization. For
him, urbanization, in the demographic sense, is an increase in the proportion
of the urban population (U) to the total population (T) over a period of time.
As long as U/T increases there is urbanization. The process of urbanization is
a continuing process which is not merely a concomitant of industrialization
but a concomitant of the whole gamut of factors underlying the process of
economic growth and social change.
Bose outlines the characteristic features of urbanization in India. He made

a decade-wise differentiation in terms of percentage of urbanization. Here
Urbanization & Urbanism urbanization is affected by trends in migration. He recognizes the push-back
and turn-over factors of migration. He considered four variables affecting
NOTES urban growth:
a) Proportion of new towns to total urban population;
b) Proportion of declassified towns to the total population;
c) Proportion of declining towns to the total population;
d) Proportion of rapidly growing towns to the total urban population.
Only when these are combined, it will be possible to analyze the process of
urbanization in India. Bose used the concepts of towns and cities
interchangeably.
3.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANISM
Various characteristics of urban growth or urbanization:
A. Economic Development
The level of urbanization is considered as an index of economic development.

Economic growth results in the shift in demand and therefore to a reallocation
of resources –land, labor, and capital- out of agriculture into manufacturing
and services.
B. Industrialization and Density
The relative importance of manufacturing and services the does not just
characterize an urban settlement but more importantly, by a high density of
population. Much of manufacturing is cheaper when produced on a large-
scale because of the economies of scale.
Also, there are ready availability of inputs like skilled labor, repair services
etc. from which profit is earned by the producer. People like to live near
places of work.
Economies of scale and cost of transportation cause concentration of

production and people in a specific location.
Industrialization leads to urbanization but not vice versa.
The bigger cities have one advantage. Most businesses are subject to
fluctuations. In big cities, one may switch from one employer to another in
case of need or any other reason since there is a wide choice. In that way, a
wage laborer is better off in migrating to a big city rather than a small city,
where (big city) he is likely to be more fully employed. All these factors
increase the density of population in the cities.
22
Primary production and urban growth: Primary production has to do with Urbanization & Urbanism
agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining. It is well-known that, particularly
since AD 1850, a large number of mining towns have emerged in India. The NOTES
entire coal region of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa has a number of, mining
towns; the chief among which are Jharia, Ranigani, Keonjhar and Asansol.
Unlike mining, fishing and forestry have not generated many urban places in
India.
Secondary activities and urban growth: The most conspicuous examples

of urbanization directly as a result of secondary activity are Durgapur,
Bhilai and Rourkela. Jamshedpur also had its beginnings as an industrial
township in 1912. There is no doubt that secondary urbanization has
made a strong impression on the Indian landscape.
Tertiary production and urbanization: From ancient times, tertiary

services have played a major role in the urbanization process. The
earliest cities of the world came into existence essentially in order to
provide tertiary services to their hinterland. It is often thought that the
earliest cities developed as parasites thriving on the surplus food
produced in the rural hinterland. The growth of tertiary activities in a city
contributes in a direct way to city growth. In every city, a part of the city
tertiary activities are meant for its own population, but a second and
perhaps more significant part exists for the benefits of the people in the
city‘s hinterland.
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted

actions of policymakers and communities that promote the standard of
living and economic health of a specific area. Economic development
can also be referred to as the quantitative and qualitative changes in the
economy. Such actions can involve multiple areas including
development of human capital, critical infrastructure, regional
competitiveness, environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health,
safety, literacy, and other initiatives.
Urbanization is an integral part of economic development. As an

economy develops, there is an increase in per capita income and also
demand for non-farm goods in the economy. These goods are not heavily
land dependent. These are cheaper if produced in the urban sector
because all provisions for production these goods are available here.
With the rise in urbanization, many events like rapid population growth
because of natural increase, migration from rural areas to urban areas,
classification of rural areas as towns because of the changing
demographic character of the rural regions pose a challenge.
Other challenges are the weak growth of formal employment resulting in

the growth of the urban informal sector, urban unemployment, and
underemployment. Another challenge is the inability of social and
physical infrastructure to grow at par with the urban population growth
Urbanization & Urbanism resulting in deterioration of the quality of urban life. These problems are
visible in most of the cities in India.
NOTES
Hence, the level of urbanization is regarded as an index of economic
development, as financial growth results in the shift in demand and
therefore to a reallocation of resources –land, labor and capital- out of
agriculture into manufacturing and services.
3.2 LET US SUM UP

As you can see urbanization is an on going phenomena which is very difficult
to capture through any single approach or analysis, especially in India. In this
unit we have tried to capture different aspects of urabnisation-the history to
present situation. the various approaches to study urbanisaion and the
problems and consequences of urbanization. And we find that it is a process
which is linked to many larger structures and process. As globalization process
is speeding up, connecting the world n unprecedented ways, there is a
suggestion that cities throughout the world will come to exhibit organizational
forms increasingly similar to one another as technology becomes more
accessible throughout the global system Some theorists suggests that
increasingly divergent forms of urban organization are likely to emerge due to
differences in the timing and pace of the urbanization process, differences in
the position of cities within the global system, and increasing effectiveness of
deliberate planning of the urbanization process by centralized governments
holding differing values and, therefore, pursuing a variety of goals for the
future .

1. Write the meaning of Urbanization?
2. Explain the Urbanism?

1. Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to
industrialization but it is not always the result of industrialization.
Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale and small scale
industrial and commercial, financial and administrative set up in the cities;
technological development in transport and communication, cultural and
recreational activities.
2. Urbanism has been defined by various scholars as patterns of culture
and social interaction resulting from the concentration of large populations
into relatively small areas. It reflects an organization of society in terms of a
complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility,
interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and
24
impersonality in social relations (Theodorson, 1969). Urbanization & Urbanism
3.5 SUGGESTED READINGS NOTES
1. Rao, M .S. A. (ed.), 1974. Urban Sociology in India, Orient

Longman, New Delhi.
2. Ramachandran, R., 1989. Urbanization and Urban Systems In

India, OUP, Delhi.
3. Mishra, R. P., 1998. Urbanization in India: Challenges and

Opportunities, Regency Publications, New Delhi.
4. Agarwal, R.N. and B. Goldar, (1995), ‗Economic Reforms and

Employment in India: Projections for the Year 2001-02‘, Indian
Journal of Labour Economics Vol 38, No. 4, pp 577-95.
5. Ahluwalia, I.J. (1991), ―Productivity and Growth in Indian

Manufacturing‖, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
6. Bhalotra, Sonia, R. (1998), ‗The Puzzle of Jobless Growth in

Indian Manufacturing‘, Oxford
7. Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol 60, No. 1, pp 5-32.
8. Bhattacharya, B.B. and A. Mitra (1993), ‗Employment and

Structural Adjustment: A look at 1991 Census Data‘, Economic
and Political Weekly, September 18, pp 1989-95.
9. Deshpande, L. (1992), ‗Economic Liberalisation and Labour in

India‘, Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol 35, No. 4.
10. Dutta Roy, S. (1998), ‗Lags in Employment Adjustment and

Inter-Industry Differentials: An
Slums
NOTES
BLOCK II: SLUMS – DEFINITION,
APPROACHES, URBAN PROBLEMS
AND URBAN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
UNIT IV : SLUMS – DEFINITION,
APPROACHES, THEORIES AND
CLASSIFICATION AND CULTURE OF
SLUMS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Slums
4.2 Definition
4.3 Approaches
4.4 Theories and classification
4.5 Culture of slums
4.5 Let us Sum Up
4.0 INTRODUCTION
It is a fact that slum is basically an area of the worst form of struggle for the
basic needs of life. The slum is the complex product of many products as it is
true of many other social phenomena but poverty is the foremost one. It is
interplay of objective economic facts and subjective group standards. Low-
income forces people to live in slums. This paper presents a sociological
analysis of the urban problems called slums, especially focusing on the
various aspects such as nature and characteristic of the slum. In the first
section this paper tries to examine the basic nature of the slum, which is not
just an area of substandard housing condition, but it refers to the actual living
conditions of the people in an urban area.
The characteristics of the slum has been presented under various subheadings
like housing condition, overcrowding and congestion, poor sanitation and
health, apathy and social isolation, deviant behaviour and the culture of the
slum, that is, a way of life. In brief, this paper also tries to understand various
functions of the slum, which met various needs and had served several useful
functions for certain social groups like poor and migrant workers etc. under
the section ‗A brief historical perspective on the slum,‘ this paper traces the
socio-historical analysis of slums starting from the slums of ancient Roman
cities, the Jewish ghetto, British slums of 19th century to the slums of U.S
26
before the World War-II. This paper also undertakes a systematic study of the Slums
socio-economic profile of Indian slums and also illustrates with a case study
like Dharavi of Mumbai. The final section deals with various theoretical NOTES
approaches related to the solution of slum problems. The most prominent
ones discussed here are the traditional welfarist approach, the developmental
approach, the Marxist or socialist approach and humanitarian approach.
The slums constitute the most important and persistent problem of urban life.
They are the chief sources of crime and delinquency, of illness and death
from diseases. Slums are of all shapes, types and forms. Mumbai has its
packed multistoried chawls, New York- its Harlem and its East side, Chicago-
its black belt, London- its east end. Families in Bangkok crowd together in
‗Pile villages‘ composed of poorly constructed wooden shacks, bamboo hubs
and straw hovels along the small lanes of Kolkata, Dacca and Lagos, which
stream with the high humidity and stink from open drains. Impoverished
shantytown or squatter shacks constructed from junks cover the hillside of
Rio de Janeiro, Lima, Hong Kong and other Asian, African and South
American cities. Even the most affluent nation in the world have slums. At
least one fifth of urban population of U.S lives in poor or sub standard
housing. Like U.S, other capitalist nations of the world have slums. These
nations have progressed on other fronts but the shelter problems have eluded
solutions. Even in socialist countries where massive urban renewal programs
have taken place and where private ownership of land does not exists, slums
do exist. The developing countries or the underdeveloped countries, which
have chosen the capitalist path of development, are often referred to as the
Third World, where the trends of urbanization since the Second World War
have been interesting, instructive and alarming.
Steaks of contrasts in all spheres of life characterize Third World. Some of
these contrasts assume the form of contradictions. For instances, in Mumbai
where perhaps some of the worst slums in the world can be found the skyline
is getting changed by an eruption of skyscrapers of the most modern
dimension, accommodating airline companies, five star hotels, officers of
multinationals and the affluent few of the metropolis. The slum offends the
eyes, nose and conscience but it exists all the same. We somehow learnt to
live complacently with such contradictions, which eloquently proclaim our
distorted sense of priorities. It would not be too sweeping to say that the slum
has become an inevitable and expanding feature of cities in developing
countries.
Shelterless people grab every patch of vacant spot to pitch a makeshift shack.
In Mumbai besides a few lakh who lives in slums and sleeps. In the streets,
one can see tiny, shaky dwellings made of tin sheets, mud, wood, and rags
even under the trees.
4.1 SLUMS
Slums may be characterized as areas of substandard housing conditions
within a city. A slum is always an area. The term housing conditions refers to
actual living conditions rather than mere physical appearance of the area. The
Slums substandard is to be taken not in an objective or technological but rather in a
relative social sense i.e. compared with the recognized standard at a given
NOTES time in a specific country. The cave dwelling of prehistoric people, the
dugouts etc. of pioneers are all substandard according to our notion, but they
do not create slum conditions. Slum word has a long and a negative
connotation. It has been almost an epithet, implying evil, strange and
something to be shunned and avoided. It is being apparently derived from
―slumber‖ as slum were once thought by majority to be unknown, back streets
presumed to be sleepy and quite. (The oxford universal dictionary.1995. New
York, Oxford University Press) There is a disagreement over whether people
make slums or slums make people. Are substandard housing conditions due
to social standards behavior of certain groups or vice- versa? The slum is a
complex product of many products as it is true of many other social
phenomena. But poverty is the foremost one, interplay of objective economic
facts and subjective group standard. Low-incomes forces people to live in
slums. Slum residents are negligent and do not mind dirt. They have neither
money nor time to their area clean or clean if themselves. Lack of basic
infrastructure, like drains, drinking water, electricity and location gives the
slums a very ungainly picture.
There are three main types of slums – (i) The first type is original slum. It is
an area which from the very beginning, consisted of unsuitable buildings,
these sections are beyond recovery and need to be razed. The example of this
type is the Mexican slum in Wichita. (ii) The second type of slumsconsists of
slums created by the departure of the middle class families to other sections
and subsequent deterioration of the area. The example of this type is South
End slum in Boston. (iii) The third type is the most unpleasant type of slum. It
is mainly a phenomenon of transition. Once the area around a main business
district has become blighted, physical and social deterioration spreads rapidly.
This kind of slum teams with accommodation for the destitute, home of
prostitution, beggars, homeless men, habitual criminals, chronic alcoholics
etc. This type of slum clearly requires defines rehabilitation.
4.2 DEFINITION
The definition of what constitutes a slum, like that which constitutes an urban
area more generally (Dorélien et al., 2013), differs by country (United
Nations, 2014), state (Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation,
2008) and even city (O‘Hare et al., 1998). Recent research has also indicated
that slums may be more heterogeneous than is often assumed (Goli et al.,
2011, Chandrasekhar and Montgomery, 2009, Agarwal and Taneja, 2005);
many poor people like pavement dwellers do not live in slums and are
therefore not ―counted‖ by the standard definitions (Agarwal, 2011).
The UN operationally defines a slum as ―one or a group of individuals living
under the same roof in an urban area, lacking in one or more of the following
five amenities‖: 1) Durable housing (a permanent structure providing
protection from extreme climatic conditions); 2) Sufficient living area (no
more than three people sharing a room); 3) Access to improved water (water
28
that is sufficient, affordable, and can be obtained without extreme effort); 4) Slums
Access to improved sanitation facilities (a private toilet, or a public one
shared with a reasonable number of people); and 5) Secure tenure (de facto or NOTES
de jure secure tenure status and protection against forced eviction) (UN-
HABITAT, 2006/7).
While this definition of what constitutes a slum was used by the UN to
evaluate whether target 7.D had been met, it is quite different than those
which are used by individual countries for their own policy and planning
purposes. Uganda, for example, in a document outlining a slum upgrading
strategy and action plan from 2008, defines slums as having one or more of
the following attributes: 1) Attracting a high density of low income earners
and/or unemployed persons with low levels of literacy, 2) An area with high
rates/levels of noise, crime, drug abuse, immorality (pornography and
prostitution) and alcoholism and high HIV/AIDS prevalence, or 3) An area
where houses are in environmentally fragile lands, e.g. wetlands (Ministry of
Lands, 2008).

1. Write the meaning of Slum ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.Definition of Slum
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4.3 APPROACHES
Slums vary from one type to another, but certain general patterns of slums are
universal. Although, the slum is generally characterized by inadequate
housing, deficient facilities, overcrowding and congestions involve much
more then these elements. Sociologically, it is a way of life, a sub culture with
a set of norms and values, which is reflected in poor sanitation and health
practices, deviant behavior and attributes of apathy and social isolations.
People who live in slums are isolated from the general power structure and
are regarded as inferiors. Slum dwellers in turn harbor, suspicions of the out
side world.
Some of the features of slums are:
1. Housing conditions
In terms of the physical conditions and housing standards it is important to
keep in mind the comparative nature of the definitions. A slum should be
judged physically according to the general living standards of a country. Slums
Slums have commonly been defined as those portions of cities in which housing is
crowded, neglected deteriorated and often obsolete. Many of the inadequate
NOTES housing conditions can be attributed to poorly arranged structures, inadequate
lighting and circulation, lack of sanitary facility, overcrowding and inadequate
maintenance.
2. Overcrowding and congestion
A slum may be an area which is overcrowded with buildings or a building
overcrowded with people or both. Density does not always result in
unfortunate social consequence, the issue is primarily one of overcrowding.
Congestion is again a judgment about the physical condition of the building in
terms of high density per block, acre or square mile. William. F. Whyte (1943)
in his well known sociological study, Street Corner Society situated in
Boston‘s north end, stressed upon the importance of overcrowding as a
criterion for measuring slum conditions. Some slum areas like in Delhi, have
40, 00,000 people per square mile.
3. Neighborhood facilities
A poor slum is invariably associated with poor facilities and community
services. Along with shabbiness and dilapidation, schools are of poor quality
and other public facilities are often insufficient. Streets and sidewalks often go
unrepaired and rubbish and garbage are infrequently collected adding to the
undesirable environment. Shortage of water, electricity and sanitary facility
are common in most of the slums.
4. Poor Sanitation and Health
Slums are generally been dirty and unclean places which is defined largely in
terms of the physical deterioration, stressing particularly unsanitary conditions
and lack of sufficient facilities like water and latrines. These factors have
resulted in high rates death and disease. These factors have always been
typical of slum areas where overcrowding and presence of rats and other pest
complicate the problem of health and sanitation. In slum areas of developing
countries, the rate of disease, chronic illness and infant mortality are
exceptionally high.
5. Deviant Behavior
A high incidence of deviant behavior- crime, juvenile delinquency,
prostitution, drunkenness, drug usage, mental disorder, suicide, ill legitimacy
and family maladjustments have long been associated with slum living. It is a
fact that vice may be found in slums but is by no means confined only to the
slums. Due to the lack of money and power often slum dwellers are prove to
be pressurized by the goons of upper classes to commit crime. It is a vicious
cycle for the sum dwellers.
6. The Culture of the Slum- a way of life
Slums differ widely with respect to the social organization of there Inhabitants.
They range from the slums in which the inhabitants are strangers to one
another, to the family slums in which there is a wide acquaintance between the
30
inhabitants. Slums
Slums inhabited by immigrant groups may have a firm social organization. NOTES
Culture might be defined as system of symbols or meanings for the normative
conduct of standards, having three distinct properties. It is transmittable, it is
learned and it is shared. The slum has a culture of its own and this culture is
the way of life. This way of life is passed from generation to generation with
its own rationale, structure ad defense mechanism, which provides the means
to continue in spite of difficulties and deprivation. It is the habits, customs and
behavior pattern people have learned and which they hold that move them to
act in a particular way. Although, these cultural patterns are typical of the
slum, form ethnic groups to ethnic groups, from own society to society to
another.
7. Apathy and Social Isolation
Every residential area within the modern city tends to be socially isolated from
others, partly by choice and partly by location. The slum is especially so, as it
is inhabited by the people of the lowest status. The chief link with rest of the
community is their identification with labour market, but there may be an
additional link through politics. A slum also has an image in the eyes of the
larger community. There is a societal reaction to slum dwellers. The non-slum
dweller often associates the physical appearance and difficult living conditions
of the slums with belief in the ―Natural inferiority‖ of those who live in slums.
This reaction has important consequences in the social isolation of slum
dwellers and their exclusion, from power and participation in urban society.
The slum dwellers often lack an effective means of communication with the
outside world. Because of apathy, lack of experience in communicating with
outsiders and their own powerlessness to make their voice heard. William. F.
Whyte (1943) stated that although the north end slum studied in his work on
street corner society was a mysterious, dangerous and depressing place to an
outsider, it provided an organized and familiar environment for those who
lived in it.
4.4 THEORIES AND CLASSIFICATION

The predominantly rural and agricultural nature of Indian society can no
longer be called ―A nation of villages‖. Four fifths of India‘s population
presently resides in its half million villages. Today several cities of India are
huge metropolitan areas and these cities have become centers of modern
technology and the hope of future progress. Among the nations of the world,
India is being increasingly judged by the stature and condition of its great
cities, where lie the core of its commercial and industrial power and the
strength of its transportation, distribution and communication system. The
cities of India have played an important role in breaking away from tradition-
bound social practices and from the cities most of the modernization processes
in the country radiate. Political and social reform movements have largely
originated in the cities and have then spread out.
A concomitant of urbanization in India has been in the continuous growth of
slum population, as most internal migration has been concentrated in the
Slums slums. Slums have long history in India. The physical and social conditions of
today in India slums are generally considered the worst. Although India is a
NOTES large heterogeneous country who‘s diversity often makes generalization
difficult. Slum conditions can still be characterized in general terms. The
streets, lanes and open drains in typical slum areas are filthy. The Indian slum,
however, is far more complex than the mere aggregate of these appalling
physical condition; it is a way of life. Rates of diseases, chronic illness and
infant mortality remain high and there is little knowledge of health and
sanitation, nutrition or
childcare. Illiteracy is exceedingly high and cultural and recreation activities
are almost entirely lacking except those provided by such commercial
enterprises as the cinema and gambling. Most slum dwellers are apathetic and
suffer a great sense of futility. They have little community pride or even
consensus, and they often blame the local authorities for their plight. They
have become antagonistic towards them, seldom co-operating with municipal
personnel in efforts to improve their immediate areas or the city as a whole.
A. R. Desai and S. Devadas Pillai (1990), in their work ―Slums and
urbanization‖ draw their attention to another significant feature of
development postulates adopted by state, which has vitally affected the pattern
of urbanization and type of urban living that is being created in the country.
Our Constitution has laid down the right to property, which is basic and
fundamental, but not the right to work or right to adequate housing, education
and employment. The Constitution also proclaims certain freedom and rights
to citizens viz. right to move throughout the country, right to life and security
and freedom to search for earning and prerequisites needed for that search
within legal limits but at the same time Constitution does not ensure the right o
have resources for securing livelihood, source of earning, of adequate facilities
for stay and other things essential, for mobile jobs for citizens to ensure a
better purchasing power to live adequately.
The peculiar dilemma created by contradictory prescription by the
Constitution, as well as the path of development, persuaded by rulers legally
sanctified by the Constitution, have generated economic development. A small
class of property owners is developing at the top, while at the lower levels vast
growing section of property less citizens fending for their income for selling
their skills and labour is emerging at an exponential rate. This pattern of class
differentiation, income and asset concentration on the one hand and
pauperization of a considerable section of the population driven to
unemployment and underemployed state forced to resort to begging, garbage
gathering and various types of legally non permitted are means of petty trades.
This class configuration, emerging as a direct result of government policies is
creating a weird strante pattern of urbanization and urban living. On the one
hand, there exists an urban sector of rich with posh localities, residential areas
glittering shopping malls, luxurious hotels, high style recreation centers as
well as sophisticated educational and official complexes for a small minority
of wealthy citizens. And on the other hand, urban areas it generates a majority
of urban poor living in slums and involves a constant job hunting and income
32
finding activities lacking adequate purchasing power. They cannot afford to Slums
secure shelter, amenities, facilities and services even for basic decent
existence. NOTES
Slums have been in existence since the time of cities and their presence has
long been documented in the literature (e.g., Booth, 1903). The word ‗slum‘
has mainly been used to describe people living under substandard conditions
and squalor. For example, Cities Alliance (2006) describes slums as ‗neglected
parts of cities where housing and living conditions are appallingly poor‘. Often
the terms ‗slum‘ and ‗informal settlements‘ are used interchangeably in the
literature (UN Habitat, 2012). However, some would argue that there is a
distinct difference between slum and informal settlement (e.g., Hurskainen,
2004; Rashid, 2009). (Readers interested in this debate are referred to Gilbert
(2007) for a more thorough discussion). This paper adopts the view that slums
and informal settlements are one in the same and, therefore, can be treated as
one. Usually, as argued by UN-Habitat (2003), most characteristics of these
environments, whether slum or informal settlement, are not found in isolation,
leading to multiple levels of deprivation for slum dwellers. Whether slums and
informal settlements are viewed separately or as a single entity, they represent
disadvantaged communities continuing to have large impact on the physical
and economic landscapes, as will be discussed below.
The vast majority of the slums are located in less developed countries, and
most of the growth in slum populations is expected to occur in such countries.
However, just as the term ‗slum‘ can have multiple connotations, so does the
term ‗developing country‘. For the purpose of this paper, we adopt the United
Nation‘s definitions of ‗less developed country‘ and ‗developing country‘ for a
country where the majority of the population makes significantly less income
and has weaker social indicators than the population in highly industrialized
countries (UN-OHRLLS, 2016). Furthermore, in such countries there is lack
of basic public services. Although alternative terms have been used to describe
less developed countries (e.g., ‗emergent nations‘), much of the literature on
slums that is reviewed here has used the terms ‗less developed‘ and
‗developing country‘ to refer to areas most impacted by slums.
The impact of slums
The growth of slums is expected to have major consequences on both humans
and the environment, which are inextricably linked. On the one hand, the
conditions that exist in slums such as living under physical threat from natural
and manmade disasters and improper housing have direct impacts on their
residents (Napier, 2007). This is mainly due to the low capacity of slums
dwellers to recover from disasters, such as floods and earthquakes, compared
with more formal communities (Ajibade & McBean, 2014; Ebert, Kerle, &
Stein, 2009). On the other hand, slum residents themselves can impact their
environment due to lack of basic services, which results in contaminated soil
and polluted air and waterways. This results in a perpetuated cycle of decline
for both slum dwellers and the environment (Ali & Sulaiman, 2006), with the
possibility of impacts extending to communities beyond the slums (e.g.,
flooding). The growth and expansion of slums can therefore threaten
Slums sustainable urban development at local, national and regional scales (Patel,
2012).
NOTES
Growth and expansion of slums can also impact the national and regional
economy, both negatively and positively. For example, the negative aspect of
slums relates to the fact that they are often burdened with high transaction
costs, including increases in transportation expenditures because of inadequate
infrastructure, and disease burden on urban dwellers because of the large
number of people living in slums (Fox, 2008). In addition, ambiguous property
and tenancy rights can reduce the efficiency of urban land and housing
markets, and may discourage investment or reduce participation in urban
labour markets (Marx, Stoker, & Suri, 2013a). This may potentially impact a
country or a region‘s overall economic outlook in the global economy, making
it less competitive in the worldwide arena (Gambo, Idowu, & Anyakora,
2012).
Less often mentioned in the literature is the economic good provided by slum
dwellers. Slum dwellers subsidize the middle classes and the business world
by providing a comparatively cheap source of labour (Brugmann, 2010;
Malecki & Ewers, 2007). Furthermore, it has been argued that their low
economic standing and general lack of education forces them to accept low-
paying jobs that may not be readily accepted by middle- and upper-class
people (Pawar & Mane, 2013). Slum dwellers often find jobs in the informal
sector, which is usually linked very closely to the needs of surrounding formal
communities (Opeyemi, Olabode, Olalekan, & Omolola, 2012). In some cases,
this informal economy has positively impacted the country‘s gross domestic
product (GDP). Slums in Dharavi, India, for example, employ as many as 70%
of its residents (Gruber et al., 2005) with current economic output estimates of
US$700 million annually (Chege & Mwisukha, 2013). Other places such as
Delhi, Bangalore and Kolkata, all in India, also depend heavily on the informal
sector for supporting much of their day-to-day manufacturing activities
(Benjamin, 2004). Some researchers (e.g., Brugmann, 2013; Saglio-
Yatzimirsky, 2013) suggest that if such economic benefits were to be
considered alone, places such as Dharavi would no longer be considered a
slum.
Lastly, the poor conditions that exist in slums and daily struggles that slum
dwellers face continues to be recognized as a global and ethical challenge.
Many governments, regional and international non-government organizations
(NGOs) have put in place legislation or systems recognizing the need to
protect and improve the lives of slum dwellers (e.g., the Rajiv Awas Yojana
programme in India; MHUPA, 2013). Likewise, Target 7D of the United
Nations Millennium Development Goals (UN MDG) aims to improve
significantly the lives of 100 million slum dwellers worldwide by 2020
(United Nations, 2015a). This target was further advanced with Goal 1 of the
UN‘s Sustainable Development Goals, the MDG‘s successor. Goal 1 aims to
reduce at least by half the population of all people living in poverty in all its
dimensions according to national definitions by 2030 (United Nations, 2015b).
Failure to take part in such global initiatives may have negative impacts on
34
countries that depend on others for financial and political support. These Slums
impacts highlight the critical need for managing slum populations worldwide.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to understand the factors that have led to NOTES
the emergence and persistence of slums over time. We would argue that such
issues must be dealt with for any future intervention to be successful.
Factors influencing the growth of slums
Many factors have been linked to the growth of slums. This section highlights
several of these factors, specifically those relating to locational choice factors,
rural-to-urban migration, poor urban governance and ill-designed policies.
Those factors chosen for discussion have been identified as those most often
discussed by others for the growth and persistence of slums based on an
extensive review of the literature.
Locational choice factors
The emergence of slums has been linked to a number of socio-cultural,
economic and physical factors. For example, Lall, Lundberg, and Shalizi
(2008) examined the residential locational decisions made by slum dwellers in
Pune, India, and found that locational decisions were made around theories
relating to socio-cultural and economic factors such as commuting costs (e.g.,
Alonso, 1964), access to local public goods (e.g., Tiebout, 1956) and
individual preferences for community or neighbourhood composition (e.g.,
Schelling, 1978). In addition to these classical models, they found that the
locational choices made by slum dwellers was also guided by housing quality
and neighbourhood amenities. Similar findings have been reported in other
studies (e.g., Abramo, 2009; Takeuchi, Cropper, & Bento, 2006). Social ties
related to common culture, language and similar income-generating activities
have also been found associated with the locational choices of new immigrants
(e.g., Barnhardt, Field, & Pande, 2014; Kombe, 2005). It has also been found
that people born within or in close proximity to slums tend to remain in them
or move to them (UN-Habitat, 2003), while some slum dwellers are of the
belief that places outside of slums are out of their reach (e.g., Ahmed,
Brookins, & Ali, 2011). This suggests that any efforts to address the issue of
slums must also consider their surroundings and their social structures.
With respect to physical factors impacting the location of slum dwellers, the
availability of land has been highly cited in the literature. It has been shown
that slum dwellers typically inhabit marginal locations such as riverbanks,
steep slopes or dumping grounds (e.g., Sietchiping, 2004). This is mainly due
to the low purchasing power of slum dwellers in formal land markets when
compared with high-income groups (Ajibade & McBean, 2014; Praharaj,
2013). Slums in South America, for example, Rio de Janiero in Brazil and
Lima in Peru, are notoriously known for building on steep slopes (Fernandes
et al., 2004). Such locations are usually unsafe, posing a risk to human life
because of the occurrence of natural disasters such as landslides. Furthermore,
slums are also found both within and on the outskirts of cities (UN-Habitat,
2003). These unique physical characteristics of slums and the complex
interplay with the various socio-economic factors pertaining to their growth
Slums and persistence represent a challenging task that has yet to be holistically
addressed.
NOTES
Rural-to-urban migration
Within the literature, rural-to-urban migration not only has been the driver for
the growth of cities, but also it has been identified as one of the primary
drivers for the growth of slums. In less developed countries the current rapid
and immense net movement of the rural population to urban spaces has
intensified (Malecki & Ewers, 2007; Srivastava & Singh, 1996). This is due to
several factors: those pertaining to the pulling of rural people to cities and
push factors driving population away from rural areas. Often cited in the
literature with respect to pull factors include the relative perception of better
economic opportunities (e.g., Glaeser, 2011) and provision of basic services
such as education and healthcare within cities (e.g., Khan, Kraemer, &
Kraemer, 2014), or the freedom from restrictive social or cultural norms often
found in rural areas (e.g., Opeyemi et al., 2012; Ullah, 2004). Push factors
include rural poverty (e.g., Khan et al., 2014), excess agricultural labour
supply (e.g., Oberai, 1993), environmental hardships (e.g., Ishtiaque &
Mahmud, 2011), threat from natural disasters or conflict and war (e.g., Black,
Bennett, Thomas, & Beddington, 2011). While such events have pushed rural
dwellers to urban areas, there has been a lack of economic growth in many of
these countries and when combined has been touted for the growth and
persistence of slums, especially in African countries (Fox, 2012). Whether a
pull or a push factor, the net result of rural-to-urban migration is
overwhelming to the urban centres in less developed countries, which are not
equipped to support the additional population, especially when combined with
the socio-economic factors discussed above. Faced with nowhere else to go,
people turn to slums to meet their most basic housing needs (Vasudevan,
2015).
Poor urban governance
Other factors relating to the upward growth of slums in many less developed
countries is the use of rigid and often outdated urban planning regulations,
which are typically bypassed by slum dwellers to meet their housing needs.
This is a reflection of poor urban governance (Chiodelli & Moroni, 2014).
Many local and national governments are also unable to enforce planning
regulations due to lack of resources (Tsenkova, Potsiou, & Badyina, 2009). In
Cote d‘Ivoire, for example, high infrastructure cost and rigid building
standards have led to a slow pace of development, which resulted in
unaffordable housing for many large segments of the population (Mayo &
Angel, 1993). In Nigeria, official fees involved in the registration process to
acquire land can be as much as 27% of the property value (World Bank, 2005),
presenting a challenge for slum dwellers with limited finances. These
circumstances ultimately lead to high rates of insecurity of tenure and provide
conducive conditions that continue to drive the growth of slums due to poorly
functioning land markets.
Another issue in many less developed countries is the failure of governments
36
to incorporate slum dwellers as part of the overall planning process (Cities Slums
Alliance, 2014). This is often due to the inability of many governments to keep
abreast with urbanization because of the lack of resources and corrupt NOTES
governments (Fekade, 2000). Some governments also refuse to provide urban
services to slum dwellers in fear that this will only escalate the issue of slums
(Opeyemi et al., 2012), or lead to more established property rights, which
many governments are unwilling to provide (Fox, 2014). As discussed by
Werlin (1999), without more established property rights for slum dwellers,
governments lack the ability to force slum residents into paying for public
services and improving their homes. It is also the case that some governments
simply lack the political will to address these issues (e.g., Rashid, 2009).
Overall, one could argue that not enough attention has been given to the plight
of slum dwellers on the part of government, further enabling the continued
growth of slums.
Ill-designed policies
Closely related to poor urban governance are the inappropriate policies
developed by local and national governments, and regional led organizations
to curb the growth of slums. During the 1950s and 1960s, a time when
urbanization was viewed as a positive, with large labour forces needed to fuel
economic growth in cities (Fox, 2014), macro-policy intervention with respect
to slums was largely ignored, leading to the widespread growth of slums. To
tackle this issue, a sites and services approach was introduced in the 1970s.
This policy provided infrastructure at new sites (e.g., roads and electricity) and
slum dwellers were relocated to these sites (Fekade, 2000). Existing slums
were demolished and slum dwellers were expected to pay for the newly
developed serviced land as well as all home construction costs (Linden, 1986).
With limited finances, and the added challenge of competing with the greater
demand by higher income groups for the same available land, slums continued
to grow (Arimah, 2001).
The failure of the sites and services approach led to a new wave of thinking
during the 1980s, in which slums were upgraded with improved communal
infrastructure and services. This avoided the unnecessary demolition of
settlements (Gilbert, 2014) while lowering costs in many instances (e.g.,
Werlin, 1999). However, the slum-upgrading approach has been criticized at
four major levels: failed financial commitment, negative socio-economic
impacts, non-replicability of best practices and insecurity of tenure (Fekade,
2000). Subsequently, an enabling approach through security of tenure was
introduced in the 1990s. Legal occupational status was given to slum dwellers
in the hope that they would be more willing improve their own circumstances
(de Soto, 2002). This approach relied heavily on the assumption that most
slum dwellers owned the dwelling in which they lived. However, this was not
the case, as most slum dwellers did not do so (e.g., Gulyani, Talukdar, & Jack,
2010; Marx, Stoker, & Suri, 2013b), and this remains the plight of many slum
dwellers today. Further, some would argue (e.g., Desai & Loftus, 2013) that
security of land tenure adds an additional burden on slum dwellers since
landlords are more likely to increase rental prices and evict those slum
Slums dwellers unable to pay. Moreover, as de Souza (2001) argues, perceptions of
security of tenure may vary widely from household to household. Specifically,
NOTES their study showed that slum dwellers were more willing to invest in
improving their housing conditions irrespective of land tenure status. Such
findings further challenge the notion that security of land tenure alone would
be enough to motivate slum dwellers to improve their own living conditions.
The most recent approach, at least from a macro-policy viewpoint, to reduce
the growth of slums is the Cities Without Slums action plan, introduced during
the 2000s. This approach forms part of the MDG to improve the lives of 100
million slum dwellers by 2020 (United Nations, 2015a). Central to this idea is
the understanding that both poverty and slums are interrelated, with any
attempt to fix one having also to consider the other (Arimah, 2001). However,
several issues have been identified with the Cities Without Slums action plan.
These include little attention being given to other important poverty-related
variables (e.g., political instability and natural disasters) and the non-
comparability of metrics because of issues with data in many countries and the
unique characteristics of slums (Saith, 2006). Furthermore, as no metrics are
available for monitoring newly emerging slums, it has been suggested that the
goal of improving the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020 is far
too modest to generate a meaningful reduction in slums globally (Sietchiping,
2004). Finally, the key terms used for measuring the improvement of slums
(e.g., ‗access‘, ‗improved‘ and ‗sufficient‘) are far too abstract for capturing
and monitoring change rigorously (Cohen, 2014).
As this section has discussed, the continued failure of implemented slum
policies has, in reality, facilitated the propagation of slums. One could argue
that this is due to the inability of governments to understand fully the needs of
slum dwellers and incorporate their needs when developing appropriate
policies (Fekade, 2000). In addition, the locational decisions of slum dwellers,
rural-to-urban migration and poor urban governance in general are all
interrelated factors that have contributed to the growth of slums. Taken
holistically, these various factors are all important for designing more
appropriate slum policies. Failure to do so will only lead to the continued
growth and persistence of slums. However, to grapple fully with the problems
discussed above, we would argue that one needs also to understand the various
operational challenges encountered when trying to address the issue of slums,
which we turn to next.
Classification of Slums
The case studies show that many cities do make distinctions between types of
slums. In general, there is a clear separation between slums proper, on the one
hand, and shanties or spontaneous housing and urban development, on the
other. This distinction is often made on the basis of combinations of physical
location and legality status of the built structure, urban zoning, land invasion
and informal construction.
The term ‗slum‘, or its equivalent local term, often refers to inner-city
residential areas that were laid out and built several decades ago in line with
38
the then prevailing urban planning, zoning and construction standards, but Slums
which, over time, have progressively become physically dilapidated and
overcrowded to the point where they became the near exclusive residential NOTES
zone for lowest income groups.
The term ‗informal settlement‘ often refers to illegal or semi-legal
urbanization processes, or unsanctioned subdivisions of land at the (then)
urban periphery where land invasion took place – often by squatters, who
erected housing units usually without formal permission of the land owner and
often with materials and building standards not in line with the criteria of the
local building code. This type of slum is usually referred to as a shanty, or
squatter settlement. Depending upon the local conditions, many local
authorities recognize derivatives of this form of informal shelter as separate
types of slums, such as informal settlements on vacant urban lots or on
precarious urban sites along canals, on road reserves or adjacent to landfill
areas.
Several of the cities without a formal slum definition nevertheless apply terms
or concepts that denote different types of slum housing depending upon the
construction type, location, legality status, etc. This is notably the case for
Beirut, Colombo, Havana, Los Angeles, Lusaka, Mexico City, Moscow and
Naples.
4.5 CULTURE OF SLUMS

The predominantly rural and agricultural nature of Indian society can no
longer be called ―A nation of villages‖. Four fifths of India‘s population
presently resides in its half million villages. Today several cities of India are
huge metropolitan areas and these cities have become centers of modern
technology and the hope of future progress. Among the nations of the world,
India is being increasingly judged by the stature and condition of its great
cities, where lie the core of its commercial and industrial power and the
strength of its transportation, distribution and communication system. The
cities of India have played an important role in breaking away from tradition-
bound social practices and from the cities most of the modernization processes
in the country radiate. Political and social reform movements have largely
originated in the cities and have then spread out.
A concomitant of urbanization in India has been in the continuous growth of

slum population, as most internal migration has been concentrated in the
slums. Slums have long history in India. The physical and social conditions of
today in India slums are generally considered the worst. Although India is a
large heterogeneous country who‘s diversity often makes generalization
difficult. Slum conditions can still be characterized in general terms. The
streets, lanes and open drains in typical slum areas are filthy. The Indian slum,
however, is far more complex than the mere aggregate of these appalling
physical condition; it is a way of life. Rates of diseases, chronic illness and
infant mortality remain high and there is little knowledge of health and
sanitation, nutrition or childcare. Illiteracy is exceedingly high and cultural
and recreation activities are almost entirely lacking except those provided by
Slums such commercial enterprises as the cinema and gambling. Most slum dwellers
are apathetic and suffer a great sense of futility. They have little community
NOTES pride or even consensus, and they often blame the local authorities for their
plight. They have become antagonistic towards them, seldom co-operating
with municipal personnel in efforts to improve their immediate areas or the
city as a whole.
A. R. Desai and S. Devadas Pillai (1990), in their work ―Slums and

urbanization‖ draw their attention to another significant feature of
development postulates adopted by state, which has vitally affected the pattern
of urbanization and type of urban living that is being created in the country.
Our Constitution has laid down the right to property, which is basic and
fundamental, but not the right to work or right to adequate housing, education
and employment. The Constitution also proclaims certain freedom and rights
to citizens viz. right to move throughout the country, right to life and security
and freedom to search for earning and prerequisites needed for that search
within legal limits but at the same time Constitution does not ensure the right o
have resources for securing livelihood, source of earning, of adequate facilities
for stay and other things essential, for mobile jobs for citizens to ensure a
better purchasing power to live adequately.
The peculiar dilemma created by contradictory prescription by the

Constitution, as well as the path of development, persuaded by rulers legally
sanctified by the Constitution, have generated economic development. A small
class of property owners is developing at the top, while at the lower levels vast
growing section of property less citizens fending for their income for selling
their skills and labour is emerging at an exponential rate. This pattern of class
differentiation, income and asset concentration on the one hand and
pauperization of a considerable section of the population driven to
unemployment and underemployed state forced to resort to begging, garbage
gathering and various types of legally non permitted are means of petty trades.
This class configuration, emerging as a direct result of government

policies is creating a weird strange pattern of urbanization and urban living.
On the one hand, there exists an urban sector of rich with posh localities,
residential areas glittering shopping malls, luxurious hotels, high style
recreation centers as well as sophisticated educational and official complexes
for a small minority of wealthy citizens. And on the other hand, urban areas it
generates a majority of urban poor living in slums and involves a constant job
hunting and income finding activities lacking adequate purchasing power.
They cannot afford to secure shelter, amenities, facilities and services even for
basic decent existence.
4.6 LET US SUM UP

India is urbanising. This transition, which will see India‘s urban population
reach a figure close to 600 million by 2031, is not simply a shift of
demographics. It places cities and towns at the centre of India‘s development
trajectory. In the coming decades, the urban sector will play a critical role in
40
the structural transformation of the Indian economy and in sustaining the high Slums
rates of economic growth. Ensuring high quality public services for all in the
cities and towns of India is an end in itself, but it will also facilitate the full NOTES
realisation of India‘s economic potential. India‘s economic growth momentum
cannot be sustained if urbanisation is not actively facilitated. Nor can poverty
be addressed if the needs of the urban poor are isolated from the broader
challenges of managing urbanisation. Cities will have to become the engines
of national development. India cannot afford to get its urban strategy wrong,
but it cannot get it right without bringing about a fundamental shift in the
mindset which separates rural from the urban.

1. Write the meaning od Slums ?
2. Define the Slums in India ?

1. Slums may be characterized as areas of substandard housing conditions
within a city. A slum is always an area. The term housing conditions
refers to actual living conditions rather than mere physical appearance
of the area. The substandard is to be taken not in an objective or
technological but rather in a relative social sense i.e. compared with the
recognized standard at a given time in a specific country
2. The definition of what constitutes a slum, like that which constitutes an
urban area more generally (Dorélien et al., 2013), differs by country
(United Nations, 2014), state (Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
Alleviation, 2008) and even city (O‘Hare et al., 1998). Recent research
has also indicated that slums may be more heterogeneous than is often
assumed (Goli et al., 2011, Chandrasekhar and Montgomery, 2009,
Agarwal and Taneja, 2005); many poor people like pavement dwellers
do not live in slums and are therefore not ―counted‖ by the standard
definitions (Agarwal, 2011).

1. Desai. A. R and S. Devadas Pillai. Eds. (1990). Slums and
Urbanisation. Bombay.Popular Prakashan.
2. Clinard. Marshal. B. (1966). Slums and Community

Development-Experiments in self-help. London and Newyork.
The free Press. Macmillian Ltd.
3. A.R.Desai and S. D. Pillai. (1972). A Profile of an Indian Slum.

University of Bombay.
4. Sharma, Kalpana. (2000). Re-discovering Dharavi-Stories from

Slums Asia‘s Largest Slum. Delhi. Penguin Books.
NOTES 5. Verma, Gita Dewan. (2002). Slumming India: A chronicle of
slums and their saviours. Delhi. Penguin Books.
6. Dhadave M. S. (1989). Sociology of Slum. New Delhi. Archives

Books.
7. Bose, Ashish. (1985). ―Urbanization and Slums, Important

Strategies for the future‖. in Prodipto Roy and Shagon Dasgupta.
(Eds). Urbanization and Slums. Delhi. Har Anand Publication.
8. Whyte, William.f(1943) ―Street Corner Society‖ Chicago,

university of Chicago press.
42
Urban problems
UNIT V URBAN PROBLEMS:
NOTES
HOUSING, DRUG ADDICTION,
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY,
PROSTITUTION, AND POLLUTION.
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Urban problems
5.2 Housing
5.3 Drug addiction,
5.4 Juvenile delinquency
5.5 Prostitution
5.6 Pollution
5.7 Lets Sum Up
5.0 Introduction
This study presents a sociological analysis of poverty, specifically focusing on
urban poverty the theoretical framework emphasises the main approaches,
which define poverty-the cultural perspective and the situational perspective.
The study not only tries to understand simply the human reality of what it
means to be poor, but also the central paradox of modern India, half a century
of democracy, economic growth and constitutional commitment to social
justice has not lessened the acute, mass poverty of the country. The first
section tries to examine the socio-historical analysis of poverty studies and
research of poverty in India. The early studies of poverty in Britain and also in
US focus largely on urban poverty. On the other hand in India much of the
research on poverty in the period since independence was driven in by the
concern for growth and development. Income and expenditure were
considered to be better measured of poverty which relied on data provided by
National Sample Survey (NSS). But several issues pertaining to urban poverty
in India still lie unanswered. Therefore this study tries to expand its framework
beyond the analysis of calorie consumption and include dimensions of well
being other than nutritional intake like housing, health, education, impact of
globalization, access to basic amenities etc. and it also tries to analyze the
label of facilities across different regions. This unit also undertakes a
systematic study of globalization and poverty as well as the changing policy
perspective on poverty. The recent focus on poverty has shown that in
individual countries poverty is caused by
(i) Paucity of resources or by failure of economic development
(ii) Failure of state
(iii) Transition from state control economy to market
Urban problems based economy.
NOTES
This paper attempts to first define poverty, identify poor geographical area and
tries to carry out systematic investigation with an open mind to understand the
phenomena of poverty and adjudge the strategies employed to combat it,
which will help building a new theoretical perspective.
5.1 URBAN PROBLEMS

Most of the counties including India is experiencing rapid urbanization. The
rn unplanned urbanization particularly in developing countries has culminated
several problems. This rapid urbanization envisages that within the next two to
three decades, there will be need for increased demand for basic infiastructure,
housing and living facilities in major urban centres. The demand for clean
water sanitation, solid waste disposal, sewage for liquid waste, health and
transport facilities will enhance manifold.
5.2 HOUSING
Housing - Housing provision for the growing urban population will be the
biggest challenge before the government. The growing cost of houses
comparison to the income of the urban middle class, has made it impossible
for majority of lower income groups and are residmg in congested
accommodation and many of those are devoid of proper ventilation, lighting,
water supply, sewage system, etc. For instance in Delhi, the current estimate is
of a shortage of 3,00,000 dwelling units the coming decades. The United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) introduced the concept of
"Housing Poverty" which includes "Individuals and households who lack safe,
secure and healthy shelter, with basic infrastructure such as piped water and
adequate provision for sanitation, drainage and the removal of household
waste".
Housing sector is a major contributor to GDP of a country. As per the Central
Statistical Organisation (CSO) estimates, housing sector‘s contribution to GDP
for the period 2003-04 is 4.5 per cent. Real estate is one of the fastest-growing
sectors in India, with the housing sector growing at 34 per cent annually,
according
to the data from National Housing Bank (NHB). It is estimated that 80 per cent
of the country‘s real estate market accounts for residential property.
In urban India, the share of rental housing is low compared to developed
countries, where it is between 40 and 50 percent. The share of rental housing
in urban areas is 30 percent, according to NSS 65th Round, 2008-09. In most
cities in India, over 30 percent of the population lives in slum like conditions.
India‘s urbanization is only around 30 per cent, while in other countries, it is
much higher. According to McKinsey Report 2010, 70 per cent of all jobs in
the next 20 years will originate in urban areas. Seeing the above facts, it can be
concluded that while it is very important to make investments in urban areas in
order to ensure better productivity, housing is an area which will need utmost
44
attention in the times to come. Housing is an integral part of town planning. Urban problems
Residential land use constitutes approximately
around 30 to 40 per cent of the total land use of the city, depending on various NOTES
conditions. Amongst all the land uses in the city master plan, residential land
use usually is the largest portion.
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain housing concept, types and classification
 Discuss factors influencing housing pattern and housing shortage
 Describe affordable and inclusive housing
 Analyse housing policies and plans
HOUSING: CONCEPT AND TYPES
The Census of India provides various definitions of terms used commonly in

the
housing sector. Some of the key terms used in Census 2001 and their
definitions
are given here below:
a) Census House: A ‗census house‘ is either a building or part of it used or
recognised as a separate unit because of having an independent main entrance
from the road or common courtyard or staircase, etc. It may be occupied,
vacant or used for either residential or non-residential purposes. If a building
has a number of flats or blocks, which are independent units having separate
entrances of their own from the road or a common staircase of a common
courtyard leading to a main gate these will be considered as separate census
houses.
b) Household: A ‗household‘ is usually a group of persons who normally live
together and take their meals from a common kitchen unless the exigencies of
work prevent any of them from doing so. The persons in a household may be
related or unrelated or a mix of both. However, if a group of unrelated
persons live in a Census house but do not take their meals from the common
kitchen, then they will not collectively constitute a household. Each such
person should be treated as a separate household. The important link in
finding out whether it is a household or not is a common kitchen. There may
be one member households, two member households or multi-member
households. In a few situations, it may be difficult to apply the definition of
household strictly as given above. For example, a person living alone in a
census house, whether cooking or not cooking meals will have to be treated
as a household. Similarly, if husband and wife or a group of related persons
are living together in a census house but not cooking their meals it will also
constitute a normal
household.
c) Institutional Household: A group of unrelated persons who live in an
institution and take their meals from a common kitchen is called an
Urban problems ‗Institutional Household‘. Examples of Institutional Households are boarding
houses, messes, hostels, hotels, rescue homes, observation homes, beggars‘
NOTES homes, jails, ashrams, old age homes, children homes, orphanages, etc
d) Permanent House: Houses with wall and roof made of permanent
materials. Wall can be of G. I., Metal, Asbestos sheets, Burnt bricks, Stone or
Concrete. Roof can be made up of Tiles, Slate, G. I., Metal, Asbestos sheets,
Brick, Stone or Concrete.
e) Semi Permanent House: Either wall or roof is made of permanent material
(and the other having been made of temporary material).
f) Temporary House: Houses with wall and roof made of temporary material.
Wall can be made of grass, thatch, bamboo etc., plastic, polythene, mud,
unbaked brick or wood. Roof can be made of grass, thatch, bamboo, wood,
mud, plastic or polythene.
g) Serviceable Temporary: Wall is made of mud, unbaked bricks or wood.
h) Non-Serviceable Temporary: Wall is made of grass, thatch, bamboo etc.,
plastic or polythene.
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSING PATTERN
Factors influencing housing pattern are as follows:
Social, Economic and Political Factors
Housing has many social, economic and political dimensions. Indian society
comprises of great diversities. India is a federal union of states comprising
twenty nine states and seven union territories. The states and territories are
further subdivided into districts and so on. The patterns of social
organisations vary across the country. There had always been a distinct
imprint on the nature of housing settlement structure in the past. Housing
design is often dictated by social requirements. Lots of literatures have
emerged in the country on the way housing design is done. Traditional spatial
patterns and settlement structure are governed
by social requirements. Both at the settlement level as well as within the
dwelling unit, space is organised in conformity with the social considerations.
In various cities of India, the location of neighbourhoods is made up of same
castes and professions. Similarly, caste grouping also takes place such as
‗Agraharam‘ or Agrahara is a neighbourhood, which comprises of Brahmin
quarter of a heterogeneous village or to any village inhabited by Brahmins in
South India.
The rural areas as well the social patterns of various communities, such as
landlords and tenants, workers and so on defines housing patterns and social
status, which is reflected in housing form. Economic factors also govern
housing patterns. It is obvious that the rich people have huge mansions, while
the middle income families have more modest homes and those at the bottom
46
of the pyramid struggle to live in small spaces. Further, to the national Urban problems
economy as a whole, housing is a major contributor. Investments in housing
have many tangible and intangible benefits. The housing industry has many NOTES
forward and backward linkages and there are as many as 260 industries which
are involved in the process.
Therefore, housing contributes greatly to the economy in terms of employment
generation and income generation. A large number of skilled, semi skilled, rural
and women workers gain employment through house construction. Rural folk
also get supplementary income by participating in construction activities. It also
contributes to national income and the GDP. The Income Tax Department
levies Capital Gains Tax on long term capital gains on sale of property- be it
residential or any other. Every year, the Union Finance Minister presents a
national budget in which various duties and levies as well as concessions are
announced. The entire housing finance industry which is a multi-crore business
is an outcome of the housing activity. Renting out of housing benefits, house
owner is also thereby a contributor to the micro economy. On the fiscal side,
housing contributes substantially to the finances of the urban local bodies by
way of ‗house tax‘ or ‗property tax‘. Housing has serious political connotations.
Housing being a basic need, it is high on political agenda and forms a key
element of political rhetoric. Political parties across the country want to win the
support of the industry by giving incentives and sympathy of the public,
especially the low income and the poor, by regularizing squatting and
unauthorized land colonization.
Influence of Climate, Materials and Technology
Housing form, technology and materials used for construction vary across the
country. It depends on physical factors, such as climate (including temperature,
humidity and rainfall) and availability of natural resources. In the coastal areas,
the climate is moderate and there is less of difference between the summers and
winters. Humidity is high and therefore, there is a need for wind flow in order
to attain thermal comfort. As there are incessant rains, so the traditional house
form here has emerged with spacious houses with central courtyard, large
windows for free passage of air and high gable roofs to withstand the rains.
Further, use of locally available stone, brick and timber is common. The
availability of clay has also ensured that burnt clay tiles are put to use. On the
contrary, in the arid climate of Rajasthan, where the summers are sweltering
and the winters are chilling, rains are also scanty, in this continental climate,
thick walls with small openings, shaded courts and narrow lanes to get as much
shade as possible and flat roofs are popular.
However, in the hilly areas it‘s quite different as it is very cold and sunshine is
always desirable, locally available stones are used, as against brick. There are
no courtyards as there is paucity of space on the hill slopes. Timber and tiled
roofs are common. Construction is often light in order to take care of
earthquakes which are quite common here. ‗Icra walling‘ and use of bamboo is
popular. One can see that traditional housing has always been in tune with
nature.
Urban problems
5.3 DRUG ADDICTION
NOTES
Any substance (usually chemical) which influences our bodies or emotions
when consumed may be called a drug, i.e. it is a chemical substance, that, when
put into your body can change the way the body works and the mind thinks.
These substances may be medicinal i.e. prescribed by a doctor for reducing
minor ailments or problems, e.g. lack of sleep, headache, tension, etc. but are
also
i) used without medical advice,
ii) used for an excessively long period of time,
iii) used for reason other than medical ones.
The use of such drugs is usually legal.
Some drugs may be no medicinal in nature. Their use is illegal e.g. heroin.
Another group of drugs are those that are legal, but are harmful for the person
if consumed in excess, regularly, e.g. alcohol. There are other substances like
cigarettes, coffee, tea etc. which can be termed as socially accepted legal
drugs. But these are not seen as harmful. Some drugs like alcohol, brown
sugar, etc. are dangerous and addictive. It is these drugs that will be discussed
in the next subsection.
Drug Use and Abuse
Using drugs to cure or prevent an illness or improve one‘s health may be

called drug ‗use‘. Using drugs (medicinal/non-medicinal) in quantity,
strength, frequency or manner that damages the physical or mental
functioning of an individual, is termed as drug abuse. This means that even
taking medicines in excess or too often or too long or for the wrong reasons
or in the wrong combination implies drug ‗abuse‘.
Addiction, Tolerance and Dependence
Such ‗abuse‘ leads to addiction, i.e. inability to lead a regular life in the
absence of the drug/alcohol. It causes tolerance and dependence, and
withdrawal symptoms may occur in its absence. Explained simply, tolerance
means the need for more quantity and more frequent use of the drug to
produce the same effect as before. Dependence can be both physical and
psychological. Physical means that the body cannot function without taking
the drug. Psychological dependence means constantly thinking about the drug
and its use, continuously trying to get it and being emotionally and mentally
unable to lead one‘s regular life without it. Some drugs like cannabis produce
only psychological dependence while others like opium and heroin, produce
both physical and psychological dependence.
If the drug consumption is suddenly stopped after one became a dependent on
it, withdrawal symptoms occur. These range from mild discomfort to severe
48
vomiting and convulsions, depending on the drug being used. All drug addicts Urban problems
may not experience the severe withdrawal symptoms shown in TV serials and
films. The severity of these symptoms varies with. NOTES
i) The type of drug
ii) The amount regularly consumed
iii) The duration of taking the drug and the treatment provided in special
medical units, where such withdrawal is usually
managed.
Helping the person through ‗withdrawal‘ from drugs (usually medially

supervised) so that the person‘s body gradually gets released from the
clutches of the addiction, is known as detoxification.
It is important to note that withdrawal symptoms make it, especially
difficult to give up drugs as they are very unpleasant. The user is thus
afraid to quit drugs, even if he/she knows the harmful effects of drugs on
his/here life.

1 Write the meaning of Housing ?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Explain the concept of Drug Addiction ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
______________________________________________________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
___________________________________________________________
FACTS ABOUT NARCOTIC DRUGS
A drug is a substance that affects feelings, thinking or behaviour, initially due

to chemical reactions in the brain. Alcohol is also a drug in that sense. Drugs
are consumed by eating, smoking, inhaling, sniffing, drinking or by injections.
Excluding alcohol, drugs an be classified as follow:
i) Stimulants–Drugs that increase the activity of the brain.
ii) Depressants–Drugs that slow down the activity of the brain.
iii) Hallucinogens–Drugs that change the way we see, hear and feel.
iv) Cannabis–Drugs like Ganja, Hashish and Bhang produced from the
hempplant.
v) Opiates or drugs obtained from opium or artificially produced substitutes
which have opium like effects
Urban problems
NOTES
Stimulants
Stimulants are popularly known as ‗uppers‘, pep pills or ‗speed‘ as they give a
feeling of excitement and elation. Amphetamines are the most common ones
in this category. They are used often by students and sportsmen to increase
alertness temporarily and give instant extra energy to study, or participate in
sport for long periods. The body can consume and tolerate large amount of its
intake. Stimulants are usually swallowed. Cocaine is the most dangerous
stimulant. Prepared from the coca plant in South America, Cocaine is snorted,
i.e. inhaled through the nose. ‗Crack‖ is another form of cocaine and heroin
that is becoming increasingly popular in the West. Though cocaine is
physically not addicting, it is highly additive psychologically. Some of its
effects include anxiety, depression and fainting. Long-term effects include
weight loss, feeling of being persecuted, loss of sleep and restlessness.
Depressants
Depressants are popularly known as ‗downers‘. Tranquilizers and sedatives fall

in this category as they make us relaxed and calm. Usually they come in the
form of tablets like Mandrax, Valium and Librium. Alcohol, which also falls in
this category is dangerously combined with tablets; this combination can lead
to death. Another type of depressant pill contains chemical called barbiturates
which are often found in sleeping pills. These are stronger than tranquilisers
and produce dependence. An over-dose to these can lead to death while sudden
withdrawal of the drug can be dangerous, if unsupervised medically.
Hallucinogens
These drugs are often all ―psychedelic drugs‖. They cause one to see and hear
things in a highly detailed but different way. The type of company has a great
deal of influence on the effects experienced. Intense emotions can be
experienced, sensations can be heightened, and lack of awareness of time, place
and identity can occur. LSD (Lysergic Aids Diethylamide) or ‗Aid‘ is the best
known of these drugs, the effect of which (called ‗trip‘) can last for several
days. A tiny amount of it is adequate to give a feeling of being ‗high‘. Mixed
with ‗speed‘, it can result in a ‗bad trip‘. Also, taken without proper guidance
from others, it has been known to lead even to death. In India, ‗datura‘ a plant,
is known to have even a stronger effect than LSD, sometimes leading to mental
instability. Datura can be smoked as dried leaves, eaten or drunk as an extract
of the stems, roots and seeds
Cannabis
Ganja, hashish (charas), and bhang are all known as cannabis drugs as they are
produced from different parts of the hemp or cannabis plant. These drugs are
the most widely used in the world. Ganja (known also as grass, pot, joint, weed,
50
marijuana, reefer and dope, etc.) is smoked with cigarettes while charas is Urban problems
prepared in black ‗golis‘ and is put into cigarettes for smoking or eaten with
food. Bhang is usually smoked or drunk and even eaten in a paste form. The NOTES
immediate effects of smoking cannabis are a sense of relaxation, and a
tendency to feel and see more sharply. It increases the current emotion and
lowers inhibition. More strikingly it may hang one‘s sense of time and
movement. It may damage one‘s ability to perform tasks that require
concentration, quick action and coordination. It may produce psychological
dependence. Its major danger, however, is that its consumption leads to taking
of stronger or ‗hard‘ drugs, after some time.
Opiates
There are three major types of opiate, viz. opium itself, heroin and morphine,
all of which come from the poppy plant. Opiates can be natural or produced in
the laboratory. Opium itself is commonly taken by villagers in India and does
not always cause social problems, if rarely consumed. However, for many, it
becomes an addiction, leading to mental and physical dependence. Morphine
which is used as a pain-killer is highly addictive. Heroin, however, is the most
devastating laboratory product of morphine, and the most commonly used.
Heroin is several times stronger than morphine, both in its effect and in the
addition that is caused. Pure heroin is expensive. Therefore, its unrefined form
viz. ‗brown sugar‘, ‗smack‘ or ‗gard‘ had become very popular. Its initial price
is cheap, making it easily available to the poor. It can be injected or smoked,
but is usually ―chased‖. i.e. it is placed on a spoon or silver foil and the smoke
that comes out when the foils is heated from below, is taken in through the
mouth. A highly addicting drug—both physically and psychologically—it is
the most abused drug in India these days. In addition to the above, there are
other artificially produced opiates known as ‘methadone‘ and ‗pethidine‘, the
former being used in the West to replace the more addictive substance i.e.
heroin for addicts.
5.4 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

A crime is termed ―juvenile delinquency‖ when committed by a young person
under a certain age. The age of the juvenile delinquent is not consistently set
around the world. In India, this age limit is set at 16 years for boys and 18
years for girls. The other aspect in case of young persons is that there are
certain behaviour which would not be considered criminal in nature if
committed by adults, but they will be taken note of as crime if committed by
youth. For example, a person below the age of 16 years who:
i) is uncontrollable by his parents or guardians by reason of being wayward
or by being habitually disobedient.
ii) Habitually plays truant from school
iii) Lives without ostensible means of subsistence
iv) Habitually behaves in such a way as to endanger the morale or health of
Urban problems himself/herself.
NOTES
All these types of juvenile delinquents can be dealt with by the police and
courts. Ever since society was organized and the codes of conduct were
formulated, there have always been individuals who have violated these codes.
Always, and everywhere, some juveniles and many adults have flouted the
patterns of permitted behaviour. The increase in such behaviour has reached
alarming proportions. These unlawful activities have become intolerable in
many part of the world. In comparison, we in India may be considered
somewhat fortunate. However, in absolute terms the loss of life, property, and
the pain inflicted is reaching quite serious dimensions.
These days, on an average, one person is murdered every seventeen minutes.
Twenty seven females are raped every day. A riot takes place every five
minutes and forty-seven persons are kidnapped or abducted every day. A
robbery or docoity is committed every sixteen minutes and three hundred and
fifty three houses are broken into and burgled every day. And one theft takes
place every minute and a half. The value of property stolen annually is in the
range of three hundred and thirty five crores of rupees of which only about 1/3
is recovered by the police. When we consider Indian Penal Code offences (like
murder, rape, kidnapping, abduction, riot, robbery, burglary, theft, cheating,
etc.), little more than twenty three lakh persons were arrested by the police
during 1989. Additionally, there were about forty lakh persons arrested for
offences under the Local and Special Laws like Prohibition Act, Gambling
Act, Excise Act, Indian Railways Act, Immoral Traffic Prevention Act,
Narcotics Act, etc. Out of these total arrests of sixty three lakh persons,
juveniles accounted for about thirty six thousand —24,777 boys and 11,615
girls.
5.5 PROSTITUTION
Prostitution is not an unknown phenomenon. It has been of ancient origin and

has been thriving in various forms with social sanctions. Prostitution is one of
the branches of the sex industry. Estimates place the annual revenue generated
from the global prostitution industry to be over $100 billion. Associated with
crimes and torture, it has become a taunting human rights problem today. In
2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development reported the presence of
2.8 million sex workers in India, with 35.47 percent of them entering the trade
before the age of 18 years. The number of prostitutes has also doubled in the
last decade. Though China has more prostitutes than India, fewer of them are
forced into prostitution against their will. For Kathleen Barry (1994), a
sociologist and feminist, ‗a prostitute is a woman reduced to her sexual utility‘.
She attaches three qualities to female sexual slavery; being trapped, having no
freedom, and experiencing violence and exploitation. Barry also explains how
for women who have only sex to sell and with no other means to sell,
prostitution is an alternative.
Trafficking
52
Urban problems
Trafficking has become the third highest income earner after the illegal arms
trade and drug trafficking. Kristof and Wudunn define trafficking, technically, NOTES
as taking someone (by force or deception) across an international border. They
quote that the U.S. State department has estimated that between 600,000 and
800,000 people are trafficked across international borders each year and 80%
of them are women and girls, mostly for sexual exploitation. According to
them, trafficking has increased because of three reasons. Firstly, when
Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe, the power vacuum was filled by
criminal gangs. As a result, capitalism not only created markets for rice and
potatoes but also for flesh trade. Poverty and international tourist industry
make millions of women and girl children cross national boundaries for
commercial sex where female bodies and labour are bought and sold.
Secondly, globalisation has increased the number of such sex slaves. Thirdly,
because of the fear of AIDS, customers prefer young girls so that they will be
less likely to be infected and also because of the myth that AIDS can be cured
by sex with virgin girls (Kristof and Wudunn, 2009, pp.10-12).
According to the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish trafficking in
persons, especially women and children, trafficking is:
―…the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring of recipt of persons, by
means of threat or use of force or coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of
deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of giving
or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having
control over another person for the purposes of exploitation. Exploitation shall
include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices
similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs‖ (cited in Social
Development Notes, 2009, p.1).
Trafficking of women and children is under the control of insidious Mafia
groups in collision with local police. Statistics show that the number of girl
children trafficked is on the increase every year. Every day, one million
children are affected in Asia alone while two million are trafficked every year
across borders. Sex tourism has become a booming industry. Thailand‘s
economy thrives on sex tourism. Almost 49% of the tourists come for sex with
children and come mostly from East Asia, the United States of America, and
Europe.
Prostitution by Choice or Force
Feminists like Kathleen Barry, Catharine MacKinnon and Laura Lederer hold
that prostitution is not a conscious and calculated choice of women.
Dr.V.Mohini Giri, who was the Chairperson of the National Commission for
Women, India, in her analysis on the Indian situation states that there are four
distinct ways why women enter into the flesh trade:
I) Girls are kidnapped, induced, allured and sold (in many cases by parents
themselves). Nearly 80-85 percent comes into prostitution through this
Urban problems pathway.
NOTES
II) About 10 percent are off-springs of the prostitutes- unwed or wedded. In
such cases, even though the mothers do not like their daughters to follow them
in their profession, the powerful nexus of Gharwalis (brothel keepers), pimps,
and pahalwans (musclemen) decide otherwise.
III) Then there is caste/community specific prostitution. Going from
generation after generation, this is the type of child-prostitution which is
practiced in specific areas in some communities under the gaze of the family
itself.
IV) And finally we have special types – the profession with links in some of
the religious customs. Instances are Devadasis in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha and Maharastra, Bhavanis in Goa, Kudikars in West Coast, Johins in
Andhra Pradesh, Thevaradiyar in Tamil Nadu, Basavis in Karnataka and
Muralis, Jogateens and aradhinis in Maharashtra (refer Giri, 2001).
Liberal feminism which advocates individual‘s free will conceives prostitution
as a contract in a private business transaction. On the other hand, radical
feminism views a prostitute as a human being who has been reduced to a piece
of merchandise. The liberal contends that a woman is free to enter into
contracts. However, the radical feminist does not believe that a prostitute‘s
desire to enter into such a ―contract‖ is done of her own free will. Even if
prostitution has been an independent decision, it is generally the result of
extreme poverty and lack of opportunity, or of serious underlying problems,
such as drug addiction, past trauma (especially child sexual abuse) and other
unfortunate circumstances. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn ( 2009, p.
5) quote one 2008 study on Indian brothels and say that out of India and
Nepali prostitutes who started as teenagers, about half said they had been
coerced into the brothels; women who began working in their twenties were
more likely to have made the choice themselves, often
Commodified Bodies to feed their children. Those who start out enslaved often
accept their fate eventually and sell sex willingly, because they know nothing
else and are too stigmatized to hold other jobs.
Most suggest that valid consent to prostitution is impossible or at least
unlikely. It is found out that impoverished women, women at low level of
education, women from the most disadvantaged racial and ethnic minorities
are overrepresented in prostitution all over the world. ―If prostitution is a free
choice, why are the women with the fewest choices the ones most often found
doing it?‖ asks Catherine MacKinnon (1987). Most prostitutes are in a very
difficult period of their lives and most want to leave this occupation.
MacKinnon (1987) argues that ‗in prostitution, women have sex with men they
would never otherwise have sex with. The money thus acts as a form of force,
not as a measure of consent. It acts like physical force does in rape‘. For
radical feminists, this is because prostitution is always a coercive sexual
practice.
Decriminalisation
If prostitution is an economic exchange in the flesh trade, it calls for

54
decriminalisation, legalisation, and normalisation of prostitution. Since the Urban problems
mid-1970s, sex workers across the world have organized, demanding the
decriminalisation of prostitution. Sex worker activists argue that sex workers NOTES
should have the same basic human rights, labour rights as other working
people, equal legal protection, improved working condition and the right to
travel and receive social benefits as the pension. But, Kristof and WuDunn
(2009) do not subscribe to the legalize-and-regulate model as it simply has not
worked very well in countries where prostitution is often coerced. They
advocate a law enforcement strategy that pushes for fundamental change in
police attitudes and regular police inspections to check for underage girls or
anyone being held against their will. In 1985, feminists and sex workers
developed the ―World Charter for Prostitutes states that that prostitutes should
be guaranteed ―all human rights and civil liberties,‖ including the
freedom of speech, travel, immigration, work, marriage, and motherhood, and
the right to unemployment insurance, health insurance and housing‖ (cited in
Ditmore, 2006, p.625).
Behind all these discussions lingers a sad truth, as professed by a prostitute to
Kate Millett, ―It is not sex the prostitute is really made to sell: it is
degradation. And the buyer is not buying sexuality but power over another
human being …‖ (Millett, 1971, p. 88). In fact, the self-denigration and
shame that millions of girls and women suffer in the brothels cannot be
restored by any formal law.
Legal Status of Prostitution
In India, prostitution (exchanging sex for money) is legal, but related

activities such as soliciting sex, operating brothels and pimping are illegal. A
sex worker can be punished for soliciting or seducing in public, while clients
can be punished for sexual activity in proximity to a public place.
The primary law dealing with the status of sex workers is the 1956 law,
referred to as ‗The Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act‘ (SITA). According to
this law, prostitutes can practice their trade privately but cannot legally
solicit customers in public. Organized prostitution (brothels, prostitution
rings, pimping, etc) is illegal. Unlike the case of other professions, sex
workers are not protected under normal labour laws. In practice SITA is not
commonly used. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) which predates the SITA is
often used to charge sex workers with vague crimes such as ―public
indecency‖ or being a ―public nuisance‖ without explicitly defining what
these consist of.
Recently, the old law has been amended as ‗The Immoral Traffic (Prevention)
Act‘ or PITA. Attempts to amend this to criminalize clients have been
opposed by the Health Ministry. The main points of the PITA deal with
defining and punishing sex workers, clients, pimps and babus, and brothel
keepers, procuring and trafficking. Prostitution and its legal status is still a
contentious issue in India.
Urban problems To reduce the destructive impacts of sexual objectification and
commodification of women‘s bodies, one cannot depend on laws alone. Much
NOTES can be done by women and men, hand-in-hand in solidarity and by informed
and gender-sensitized individuals. Transformation should occur at all levels
to build a healthy on man-woman relationship: individual, social, economic,
political in collaboration with community, social bodies, governmental and
non-governmental institutions.
Think about what we can do in writing, arts, reporting, media production,
training, science and technology, school curriculum, socio-cultural practices,
legal status, policies and rights, collective movements, and in our personal
relationships and ideologies, to bring about positive changes in the
representations of women‘s bodies.
5.6 POLLUTION
According to the Environmental Protection Act of 1986 "Pollutants are the

harmful solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such concentration in the
environment which tend to be injurious for the whole living biota". The
relatively benign products of human activity will be regarded as pollutants,
ifthey precipitate negative effects later on. For example, the nitrogen oxides
produced by industry is treated as pollutant although they themselves are not
harmful. Because in presence of sunlight it is converted to smog, which has
adverse affects on the human well-being. Again whether something is a
pollutant or not depends on the context. For example presence of carbon
dioxide is essential in the atmosphere for the survival ofthe biota. But carbon
dioxide elnissions are sometimes referred to as pollution, because it's increased
level in the atmosphere brings harmful changes in the Earth's climate.
Sources of Pollutants
Pollutants may originate from both the natural processes (such as forest fires,
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami etc.) or through anthropogenic
activities (such as industrialization, transportatio~~ etc.). But the pollutants
from anthropogenic activities are more damaging because they are released in
the periphery of human settlements. So generally the environmental
contaminants that are resulted from the human activities are referred to as
pollutants. Some sources of pollutants, such as nuclear power plants or oil
tankers, can release very severe pollution when accidents occur. Some of the
more common pollutants are: chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals like lead
(in lead paint and until recently in gasoline), cadmium (in rechargeable
batteries), chromium, zinc, arsenic and benzene.
Classification of Pollutants
Pollutants can be classified in a number of ways: For example, a) On the basis

of their forms they exist in the environment after their release:
i) Primary Pollutants: Those pollutants, which are directly released into the
56
ambient environment from their sources are called primary pollutants. Urban problems
Examples are sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen etc. They are emitted into the
environment due to burning of fossil fuel and remain in the same form for a NOTES
longer period of time.
ii) Secondary Pollutants: These pollutants are not directly released into the
environment from any operating source. Instead they are transformed from
primary pollutants due to their reaction with the environmental components.
For example sulfates, nitrates, ozone, smog, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) etc.
Sulfates are formed from the oxidation of sulfur dioxide, which is a primary
pollutant.
b) From ecosystem point of view they are divided as:
i) Biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which may be broken down by
microorganisms to harmless constituents and are reused in the biogeochemical
cycle, are called biodegradable. These include domestic wastes, organic matter
of plant and animal origin, faecal matter, blood, urine etc. Technology and
Environmental Education
ii) Non-biodegradable Pollutants: These include pollutants, which are not
broken by the micro-organisms. They may undergo a change of form or
chemical combination. These include heavy metals, phenolic compounds and
D.D:T. etc. These pollutants are very injurious to the biotic community
even in a very minute quantity.
c) On the basis nf the range of their effect they are again divided into:
i) Local pollutants: These are pollutants whose concentrations exceed the
prescribed limit within a small area or volume of air, soil or water. Their
residence time is low. For example, coal burning produces smoke, which
insufficient concentrations can be health hazard in the vicinity of the source
only. But after sometime it will be diluted or absorbed by sinks.
ii) Global pollutants: These are pollutants whose concentration levels have
cumulatively built-up in the environment over years and their concentrations
are steadily rising. The increased concentration ofcarbon dioxide and chloro
flouro carbons, which have global impact in the form of global temperature
increase and ozone layer depletion respectively fall under this category.
Awareness of all kinds df pollutants is necessary for conscious citizen who
seek to limit the human impact on the environment.
Types of Pollution
Pollution is classified in two ways either according to the environment (air,

water, soil, noise, thermal etc.) in which it occurs or according to the
pollutants by which they are caused.
a) Classification based on environment: They can be categorized as:
i) Air pollution
ii) Water pollution
iii) Soil pollutio~l
Urban problems b) Classification according to the pollutants: The pollution caused by human
activities may be ofa number oftypes. For example, radioactive pollution,
NOTES sewage pollution, pesticide pollution, noise pollution, thermal pollution,
plastic pollution, marine pollution, smoke pollution, smog pollution, chemical
pollution, industrial pollution, metal toxicity pollution, drug pollution,
biological pollution, silt pollution, soap and detergent pollution, oil pollution
etc. To make the environmental pollution study easier it will be useful to study
different types of pollutions sphere wise.

1.Write the meaning of Juvenile Delinquency ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
2.Write the Types of Pollution ?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
5.7 LETS SUM UP
Urbanization is taking place at a rapid pace in the cities of developing

countries mainly due to rural-urban migration. Rural-urban migration is the
movement of people fiom the countryside to the cities. This has resulted in
rapid urban growth and the proportion of people living in towns and cities has
been increasing. The rural-urban migration is caused as a result of push and
pull factors. The major push factors are natural disasters, poor living
conditions, agricultural change, unemployment, war and conflict, etc. Some
of the major pull factors are employment, higher incomes, better healthcare
and education, attraction to urban facilities and way of life and protection
fiom conflict, etc. This rapid urbanization results in problems like pollution,
lack of clean drinking water, employment opportunities, traffic problems,
poverty, substance abuse, garbage disposal and sewage problems.
However, the growth of urban population in developing countries is
rapidly changing the demographic profile and at the same time this pattern is
also is fraught with enormous tension and tremendously complex problems.
However, urbanization would be a blessing only when urban problems would
be solved through economic efficiency and vast growth of productive forces.
1. Write the meaning of Housing

2. Explain the Concept of Drug Addiction
3. Write the meaning of Juvenile Delinquency ?
4. Write types of Pollution ?
58
Urban problems
5.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS NOTES
1. Housing - Housing provision for the growing urban population will be the
biggest challenge before the government. The growing cost of houses
comparison to the income of the urban middle class, has made it impossible
for majority of lower income groups and are residmg in congested
accommodation and many of those are devoid of proper ventilation, lighting,
water supply, sewage system, etc.
2. Any substance (usually chemical) which influences our bodies or
emotions when consumed may be called a drug, i.e. it is a chemical
substance, that, when put into your body can change the way the body works
and the mind thinks. These substances may be medicinal i.e. prescribed by a
doctor for reducing minor ailments or problems, e.g. lack of sleep, headache,
tension, etc. but are also
ii) used for an excessively long period of time,
i) used without medical advice,
iii) used for reason other than medical ones.
The use of such drugs is usually legal.
3. A crime is termed ―juvenile delinquency‖ when committed by a young
person under a certain age. The age of the juvenile delinquent is not
consistently set around the world. In India, this age limit is set at 16 years for
boys and 18 years for girls. The other aspect in case of young persons is that
there are certain behaviour which would not be considered criminal in nature
if committed by adults, but they will be taken note of as crime if committed
by youth. For example, a person below the age of 16 years who:
i) is uncontrollable by his parents or guardians by reason of being wayward
or by being habitually disobedient.
ii) Habitually plays truant from school
iii) Lives without ostensible means of subsistence
iv) Habitually behaves in such a way as to endanger the morale or health of
himself/herself.
4. Pollution is classified in two ways either according to the environment
(air, water, soil, noise, thermal etc.) in which it occurs or according to the
pollutants by which they are caused.
a) Classification based on environment: They can be categorized as:
i) Air pollution
ii) Water pollution
iii) Soil pollutio~l
Urban problems
NOTES
1. Ahuja, Ram, 1969, Female Offenders in India, Meerut,

Meenakshi Prakashan.
2. Baldev, Raj, 1975, Violence and Crime in India: A

Quantitative Study, Delhi: Macmillan.
3. ―Child mortality estimates of India,‖ Occasional Papers,

Demography Division, Office of the Registrar General, New
Delhi.
4. David H., 1963, ―Violent public protest in India: 1900-

1960,‖ The Indian Urban Paradoxes Journal of Political Science
24. 1969.
5. Dreze, Jean and Reetika Khera Bhatnagar, R. R., 1990,

Crimes in India: Problems and Policy, New Delhi: Ashish
Publishing House.
6. Dreze, Jean and P. V. Srinivasan, 1996, ―Poverty in

India: Regional estimates, 1987-8,‖ Discussion Paper No. 70,
Development Economics Research Programme, London School
of Economics.
7. Dreze, Jean and Haris Gazdar, 1997, ―Uttar Pradesh:

The burden of inertia,‖in J. Dreze and A. K. Sen (eds.), Indian
Development: Selected Regional Perspectives. Oxford and New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
8. Fajnzylber, P., D. Lederman, and N. Loayza, 1998,

What Causes Violent Crime? Mimeo, World Bank, Washington,
DC.
60
UNIT VI URBAN COMMUNITY Urban Community
NOTES
DEVELOPMENT: DEFINITION,
CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Urban Community Development
6.3 Definition
6.4 Concept
6.5 Objectives
6.6 Historical background
6.7 Lets Sum Up
6.1 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed the issues and challenges related to urban development in
the preceding Unit. But, the urban development issues and challenges can be
effectively
Addressed only through propzr policies and programmes of urban
development. In
India, the Ministry of Urban Development is responsible for formulating
policies,
supporting and monitoring programmes and coordinating the activities of
various Central Ministries, State Governments and other nodal authorities in
so far as they relate to urban development in the country. Hence, in the present
Unit we attempt to present to you a broad picture of the policies and
programmes of urban development and their relevance to addressing of the
issues and challenges of urban development in India
6.2 URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

A profound change is taking place in public understanding of how society is
governed. Whilst governments are responsible for running the country and are
held accountable for how they do it, there is a growing appreciation that
responsibility and power are much more widely distributed and that another
function of government is to support, negotiate and reconcile that dispersal of
power. Modern developments are too complex, fast-moving and diverse to be
micromanaged from the centre.et things have to be held together by common
aims and transparent structures. Government remains the essential,
Urban Community accountable focal point of power but its job is changing to some degree from
delivery to enabling.
NOTES
Of course, no government wants to – or could – simply let go of the power it
has, or can avoid being held accountable for its actions and the delivery of
public services. So the shift to an enabling role requires a complex,
paradoxical, partial transfer of power and responsibility. Inevitably this can
face resistance and tensions. Community development helps people and public
institutions to respond positively to this transformation by creating additional
avenues for participation and releasing new energies from below. It can also
assist more traditional forms of government to
Adapt to change and disperse power by stages.
Social work itself is an urban phenomenon. The earliest experience in urban
community development (UCD) is lying in several facts.
- Solving social problems like beggary, prostitution, juvenile delinquency.
- Provision of housing facilities like constructing colonies for industrial
workers establishing city improvement trusts, cooperative housing societies.
- Undertaking slum clearance programmes.
- Organizing welfare & recreational services like social education child
welfare, nutrition programmes, welfare programmes for destitutes, aged &
widows etc.
6.3 DEFINITION
Urban Community Development – Definitions
1. Urban community development aims to organize and stimulate community

leadership to handle problems on a mutual aid and self help basis
2. Urban community development means the working together of two factors
the collective initiative of families living in the same neighborhood and
support of their effort through services rendered to them by a higher level of
government – (un)
3. Urban community development means integrating the organized popular
effort and governmental services for the improvement of conditions in the
urban neighborhood (un)
4. Urban community development is a strategy of intervention to combat urban
problems through citizen‘s participation B.Chatterjee
5. Urban community development is one the strategy of intervention to solve
some of the problems of the city in general and of the depressed areas in
particular.
6. Urban community development is a process by which the city dwellers can
become more competent to live with and gain some control over local aspects
of a frustrating and fast changing world.
7. Urban community development aims to arouse and organize among urban
dwellers recognition of the need for self help, a wider participation in civic
affairs and the more effective use of civic amenities.
8. Urban community development seeks to involve the people and to create in
62
them an urge to change and improve their conditions of living by their own Urban Community
efforts and resources supplemented by utilizing all the opportunities and
assistance that are offered by governmental and other voluntary agencies. NOTES
6.4 CONCEPT
After independence (1947) – problems in the partition of the country – need to

rehabilitate large number of displaced persons – this transformed the ―problem
solving‖ ―welfare oriented‖ approach to ―development oriented‖ approach-
Establishment of new township like Nilckheri, Faridabad – Providing
opportunities for economic improvement.
The Rural Urban Relationship Committee (RURC) After careful observation of
earlier projects and experiments, a Rural – Urban Relationship Committee was
set up by the Ministry of Health, Government of India to plan and initiate
Urban
Community development projects on a nation-wide scale specifying the role of
local bodies while implementing them.
The committee observed that there was lack of awareness and interest among
urban poor and suggested the need to motivate change and encourage people to
exercise their own initiative in planning and carrying out improvement projects
based on their felt needs. Technical and welfare resources would then be
directed to these communities to support them in their effort.
The establishment of the Rural – Urban Relationship Committee (1963) paved
the way for the extensive application of community development method to
solve the problems of urban life.
The terms of reference of this committee was:

1. Determination of criteria for the demarcation of urban and rural areas
2. Making recommendations regarding the relationship between the urban local
bodies and the panchayat raj institutions.
3. Defining the structure and functions of the urban local bodies.
4. Making recommendations about the lines on which urban community
development work may be undertaken in municipal areas.
5. Making recommendations for the more efficient and effective functioning
of urban local bodies in general.
The committee submitted an interim report on the programme of urban

community development to facilitate the implementation of urban community
development in the Third Five Year Plan itself. The Third five-year plan (1965-
70) drew pointed attention to the social and economic consequences of the
rapid growth of urban population. The plan laid particular emphasis on the need
and potentialities of UCD for bringing about social and economic changes in
urban communities and create conditions for a better life for its citizens.
Need for (or concept of) urban community development Studies reveal that ―In
mid 1960s one out of five people lived in cities‖. Statistics reveals that one out
of three persons live in cities now and the projected figure in 2020 is one out
Urban Community two persons will be leading city life. *House densification* has witnessed a
geometric progression since 1975. In 2008 the World‘s total urban population
NOTES surpassed the rural population and by 2030 the urban population will account
for about 48% of total population.
6.5 OBJECTIVES
Objectives of Urban Community Development
Objectives of the Urban Community Development as mentioned in HUCD

Project:
1. Creating a sense of social coherence on a neighborhood basic through

corporate civic action and promoting sense of national integration.
2. Developing a sense of belonging to the urban community through increased
participation of people in community affairs and creating a way of thinking
which concentrates first on solving problems with their own initiative,
organization, self help and mutual aid.
3. Bringing about a change in attitudes by creating civic consciousness and by
motivating people to improve their conditions of life particularly those
affecting social and physical environment.
4. Developing local initiative and identifying and training of local leaders and
5. Ensuring fuller utilization of technical and welfare services by helping the
community to locate what help can be had from the municipality or other
organizations and how to get it; and what assistance and guidance can be
obtained from governmental and higher authorities and how to approach them
In simple terms the objective of u c d is to promote the growth of community
life and to promote the growth of community life and to encourage the
development of citizens‘ participation in programmed of self help and civic
improvement
Elements of Community Development
(1) Participation of the people

(2) Local initiative
(3) Technical & other support to reinforce initiative, self help and mutual help
6.6 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Today urbanisation refers to population shift from rural to urban areas. In the
historical context, urbanisation also referred to the process by which the rural
world spawned a new kind of settlement called the city. The study of urban
history is an attempt to study both processes. Urban and rural do not refer to
separate and distinct processes. Once the city was invented, ‗rural‘ simply
represented a form of specialisation. Cities cannot be understood without their
rural hinterland and rural peasantry cannot be understood without discovering
64
its links with the city. So, the study of urban history automatically becomes the Urban Community
study of change in legal-institutional, demographic and cultural processes.
Urban history is an enquiry into the economic, political, social and spatial NOTES
systems that created this form of settlement. A city needs to be placed in its
regional, national and trans-national context.
The experience of community development has so far been limited to rural
areas. There is, however, a growin g realisation of the need for urban
community development. The pattern and content of such programmes for
urban areas have not yet been worked out although a beginning In this
direction has been made, notably in Delhi, where the Municipal Corporation
has set up a separate department of Urban Community Development wit h the
assistance of the Ford Foundation.
Rural community development ideally encompasses the entire village
community , even if in reality it results In greater benefits to the economically
better off section of the population. It is an integrated programme of
development covering all aspects of the farmers' life but mainly emphasizing
the economic. The programme is implemented through stimulation of local
effort and State assistance. It involves introduction of improved practices in
the field of production which yield tangible economic gains to the individual
peasant, stimulation of collective effort to meet both economic and non-
economic needs of the whole community and educational programmes for
social and cultural betterment. Successive reports of the Programme
Evaluation Organization have shown that people have responded mainly to the
economic aspects of the programme. Efforts to involve people in planning and
execution of programmes for their o wn benefit have included strengthening of
village panchayats by makin g them integral parts of the system of local self-
government.
Urban Conditions
Thus in rural areas work has been with h entire village communities and the
programmes have aimed to cover all aspects of village life. Villages moreover
are characterized, relatively speaking, by homogeneity, both social and
economic, and by common bonds and traditions, which have to some extent
created in the people a sense of belonging and loyalty to the village. In spite of
this the tas k of the rura l development worker has not been an easy one.
The situation in urban areas is substantially different. The city is not a
community . It is characterized by heterogenous population, by competing
groups, by wide disparities In income, by formal , impersonal relationships
and by relatively high spatial and class mobility. When we thin k of urban
communit y development we thin k of lower income groups, particularl y the
residents of .slum areas who live in sub-human conditions. It is thought that
the communit y development approach would be able to make an effective
contribution to the improvement of the livin g conditions of these people. The
lower income group, however, can be considered a communit y only in a
Marxist sense It is true that people in slum areas may be clustered together, if
not organized on the basis of religion or caste. Neither of these bonds,
Urban Community however, are sufficient from the point of view of community development
which is concerned mainly with neighborhood communities residing in the
NOTES same locality and having, therefore, some common interests and concerns
arising out of residence in the same area or neighborhood. Provision of Civic
Amenities In urban community development, therefore. Community is an
entity that we can take for granted much less than in rural areas. It has to be
cultivated and nurtured. The urban community development worker may have
to begin from the very beginning. He may have to draw boundaries and create
a community. The content of the urban community development programme
will also be different from rural community development programmes. Rural
community development, as has been stated earlier, Includes programmes for
economic betterment. Development of agriculture and rura l industries is an
important aspect of community development. The diversity and nature of the
urban community makes development programmes of economic welfare very
difficult.

1. Write the meaning of Urban Community Development ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Elements of Community Development ?
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__________________________________________________________
The scope of urban community development is consequently very much
_
restricted and it cannot possibly offer a total programme of development It
concerns itself mainly with seeking community interest and cooperation in the
provision of civic amenities and services and in enriching the social and
cultural life of the community. Probably the only possibility of bringing
economic benefit to the community is through the provision of part-time jobs
that could be undertaken by women with little or no training in their spare time
at home, and the organization of consumers' cooperatives. It is not easy to find
suitable jobs that women can do at home. A consumers' cooperative if run
properly may be of some benefit to the members in the long run.
6.7 LETS SUM UP

The relative neglect of the Indian city by historians in the past has been
reversed by the outpouring of scholarly accounts over the last ten years. As
you continue through the Units of this course, you will see the varied set of
thematic concerns and conceptual approaches which make Indian urban
history among the most vibrant fields of study today.
Urban history has learnt from a variety of disciplines. Beginning its career as a
minor description of memoirs about cities, it turned into a major discipline that
provided insights into major historical transformations. It draws upon
66
disciplines of geography, sociology, economics, history and literature. But as a Urban Community
discipline, its boundaries are blurred, with ongoing negotiations along its
changing peripheries. What makes urban studies a challenging field is that it is NOTES
not simply interdisciplinary but that its boundaries dissolve and joint efforts
begin to look for new and unexpected answers. It remains committed to
understanding the intersection of global and the local. Issues of environment
and sustainability have become important in the current discussions on
urbanism. The fact that urban studies relate to different streams of thought
makes it a vibrant intellectual enterprise. Historians of urbanism continue to
transcend boundaries created by disciplines. They continue to explore real and
imagined spaces with their flow of people and invention of spaces. New York
and Mohenjodaro might share very little in the experiential or imagined
worlds, however, the patterns of control and the ability to
invent new occupations make them cities.
1. Write the meaning of Urban Community Development?

2. Explain the elements of Community Development ?
1. Urban community development aims to organize and stimulate

community leadership to handle problems on a mutual aid and self
help basis. Urban community development means the working
together of two factors the collective initiative of families living in
the same neighborhood and support of their effort through services
rendered to them by a higher level of government. Urban community
development means integrating the organized popular effort and
governmental services for the improvement of conditions in the
urban
2. Elements of Community Development: (1) Participation of the
people
(2) Local initiative ; (3) Technical & other support to reinforce
initiative, self help and mutual help

1. Adams R. McC., (1966) The Evolution of Urban Society: Early
Mesopotamia and PrehispanicMexico (Chicago: Aldine).
2. Braudel, Fernand, (1989) The Identity of France (London:
Fontana Press).
3. Cohen, R., (1979) ‗State Origins: A Reappraisal‘ in Claessen,
H.J.M. and Peter Skalnik (eds.) The Early State (Hague: Mouton).
Urban Community 4. Finley, M., (1977) ‗The ancient city: from Fustel de Coulanges
to Max Weber and Beyond‘ Comparative Studies in Society and
NOTES History, Vol. 19.
5. Fischer, Claude S. 1975 Towards a subcultural theory of
urbanism, Reprinted in J.J.
6. Macionis and N. Benokraitis (ed.) 1989 Seeing Ourselves
(pp367-373). Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
7. Hayden, Dolores, (1996) The Power of Place: Urban
Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
8. Jacobsen T, Adams RMcC., (1958) ‗Salt and silt in ancient
Mesopotamian agriculture‘,Science, Vol. 128, pp. 1251-58.
9. Fried, Morton, (1967) The Evolution of Political Society (New
York: Random House).
10. Martindale, D., (1958) ‗The Theory of the City‘ in Weber,
Max, The City, Translated and edited by Martindale (New York: Don
and Neuwirth, G. Free Press).
68
BLOCK III: APPROACHES, Approaches
NOTES
PRINCIPLES PROCESS AND METHODS
OF URBAN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
UNIT VII : APPROACHES, PRINCIPLES
PROCESS AND METHODS OF URBAN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT,
WELFARE EXTENSION PROJECTS OF
CENTRAL SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD,
URBAN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING.
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Approaches
7.3 Principles
7.4 Process
7.5 Methods of urban community development,
7.6 Welfare extension projects of central social welfare board,
7.7 Urban development planning
7.8 Lets Sum Up
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Urban area is the most dynamic sector which requires the use of
multidisciplinary approaches for their planning and management. The
magnitude and dynamics of urban areas are major challenges for those
responsible for their planning and management. Formulating and implementing
effective planning and management approaches are a major challenge for both
developed as well as developing countries. In this unit, you will be learning
more about urban planning and planning processes.
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain meaning, need and importance of urban planning
• Describe various types of planning required for urban development
• Narrate the thrust of urban planning in different five year plans in India.
Approaches
7.2 APPROACHES
NOTES
Due to the complex nature of the problem, there is need to approach it from
several directions. First, we are concerned with the relationship between the
city and civilization, with the fact that the modern literate man is integrally
wound up with urbanism and all that it implies. The task here is twofold: (1)
meaningfully to identify the city and (2) to trace the origins of modern city
life back to their antecedents. Cities have been seen in the wider context of the
history of civilization by many scholars such as G. Botero, A.F. Weber,
Spengler, Toynbee, Geddes, Ghurye, Mumford and Wirth. While Botero and
Weber sought more specific causes and conditions for the growth of cities in
different civilizations, Spengler and Toynbee generally considered world
history in terms of city history. Geddes viewed the city as a mirror of
civilization. Mumford and Ghurye have elaborated this idea in different
historical contexts. Wirth also maintained that the history of civilization
should be written in terms of the history of cities and that the city was the
symbol of civilization.
While these ideas remained general, more specific insights into
urbanism and urbanisation in the context of civilization were provided by the
set of - concepts worked out by Redfield and his colleagues. They developed a
different perspective in the study of cities, by constructing a typology of city
and working out its organisational and functional aspects. Distinguishing
between orthogenetic and heterogenetic process, they argued that primary
organisation consists in the transformation of the Little Tradition into the
Great Tradition, and that secondary urbanisation introduced the elements of
freedom from tradition.
Second, the physical mechanism as a preconditioning force requires
deliberation. This is the ecology of urbanism, a concern with the city as a
physical object composed of streets, buildings, facilities for communication
and transportation, and a complex of technical devices through which an area
is transformed into a human community. This ecological dimension, a
necessary approach, embraces those physical, spatial, and material aspects of
urban life distinguishable from will, consensus, and deliberate action of a
social psychological nature. The key question here is: Why do certain 14
human types, groups, races, professions, and physical utilities tend to move to
certain areas in the city, and how does the configuration of settlement enter
into social life? In case of Indian cities, especially in old cities like Delhi, Agra
and Amritsar. The inner parts of the cities can be divided into Mohallas or
traditional neighbourhoods which are exclkt5ively inhabited by a particular
occupational or caste qroup. All Indian cities have this pattern. The new or
more recent parts of cities may be called as colonial and post colonial parts of
the city. Usually these parts of the city are on the other side of the railway line,
these are entirely different from old ones, here, people are grouped on the
basis of income rather than caste or occupation. They are grouped on the basis
of plot size also. The socio-economic status of an area can be determined on
the basis of more . number of bigger plots in that area and wider roads and
available infrastructure. A poor residential area can be easily distinguished
70
from such richlposh residential areas due to its appearance and available ' Approaches
infrastructure.
Third is the form of social organisation. This perspective deals with the basic NOTES
forms of urban life that have evolved as a direct result of urbanisation.
Sociology as a discipline has probably made its largest contribution to this
dimension of the urbanisation process. The social organisation of the modern
urban community can be said to include a huge and complex network of
individuals, groups, bureaucratic structures, and social institutions, which is
further differentiated into a complex division of labour. The unit of analysis
can be ranked from the smallest and most simple to the largest and most
elaborate, as follows: The Individuals: The urban individuals can best be
described in terms of patterns of personality organisation and individual life
styles that are believed to have evolved in response to the conditions of urban
life. Much of the early writings on the urban individual was based on the idea
that the city produces distinct personality and behavioural characteristics that
set urbanites apart from their rural counterparts. But recent writing on urban
personality and life style has been more dynamic and has described
mechanism for coping with or adjusting to the urban complex, or the
techniques of urban survival (Lofland, 1973). The concern with the individual
also brings into focus many socio-cultural dimensions, such as the positive or
negative attitudes, values, beliefs, perceptions and symbolic attachments that
have come to be associated with urban life.
7.3 PRINCIPLES
We value innovation and entrepreneurship in seeking new ways to respond to

the challenges of distressed communities. We are dedicated to a set of
principles that:
1. Promote active and representative citizen participation so that
community members can meaningfully influence decisions that affect their
situation.
2. Engage community members in problem diagnosis so that those
affected may adequately understand the causes of their situation.
3. Help community members understand the economic, social, political,
environmental, and psychological impact associated with alternative
solutions to the problem.
4. Assist community members in designing and implementing a plan to
solve agreed upon problems by emphasizing shared leadership and active
citizen participation.
5. Seek alternatives to any effort that is likely to adversely affect the
disadvantaged segments of a community.
6. Actively work to increase leadership capacity, skills, confidence, and
aspirations in the community development process.
7.4 PROCESS
The basis for integrating energy aspects in planning processes is a thorough

understanding of the existing urban planning process in a given city. Such a
Approaches process should include all phases (see graphic below), steps, stakeholders and
their related activities/responsibilities as well as instruments and tools used in
NOTES planning urban development projects.
In most cases the main planning instrument of a city such as the zoning plan or
land use plan needs to be adapted when new projects are being developed.
However, it is important to not only show the final, official steps when
adapting the zoning plan. The process map should depict all phases including
the early planning steps, feasibility and master plans, the permitting process
and final implementation. It should also show some decision points or paths
during this process for instance criteria for special procedural steps or
competitions. It might also be helpful to develop two process maps: one for the
procedure of new development areas and one for transformation areas.
The principal phases of an urban planning process are:
1. Preparatory / exploration phase

2. Feasibility / planning phase
3. Formal planning / zoning phase
4. Design and implementation phase
5. Operational phase
The following figure shows an example of a ―typical‖ simplified urban
planning process for a new development area.
How to create a planning process scheme
Overview of recommended steps to create a planning process scheme:
Step 1: Form a working group with departments involved in the

planning process
Step 2: Develop and draft the different steps of the planning process via
workshop and interviews
Step 3: Provide a first scheme of this process and discuss it in the

working group
Step 4: Analyse how energy is already integrated in the existing

process
Step 5: Finalise the scheme and use it in discussions with politicians

(and external stakeholders) as well as at the strategic level. Integrate
feedback
Step 6: Analyse how energy should be integrated in the process
Step 7: Use and discuss the upgraded scheme (also find a common
understanding with utilities and grid operators)
72
Approaches
Step 8: Link this scheme to decision trees for the energy supply
solutions for an area NOTES
7.5 METHODS OF URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Urban and regional development can be broadly divided into ―Urban
Development‖ and ―Regional Development.‖ The areas covered by and the
issues inherent in each differ, and therefore the approaches to development
also naturally differ. Because ―regional development‖ covers wide areas where
several cities and rural areas have organically combined, it needs to tackle
integrated problems such as regional disparities, depopulation problems, and
regional economic stagnation. Therefore, the various structures within the
region (the structure of spaces, industry structure, social structure, etc.) must
be properly understood, and the resolution of development issues must be
addressed from a more macro perspective.
On the other hand, although various issues are also involved in ―urban
development,‖ compared to ―regional development,‖ it covers relatively
limited areas, namely cities, and a more concrete set of problems such as
infrastructure improvements and the upgrading of residential environments.
The approach required here is one that utilizes the know-how of each
individual sector.Given the basic realization as discussed above that different
approaches have been taken for the ―urban development‖ and ―regional
development,‖ this report will take these two issues as respective development
objectives. With consideration given to the size of the range covered by each
of these development categories, we first deal with ―regional development,‖
and then follow with a discussion of ―urban development.‖

1. Write the Principles of Principles of Planning Process ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.Central Social Welfare Board ?
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7.6 WELFARE EXTENSION PROJECTS OF CENTRAL

SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD
Central Social Welfare Board
The Central Social Welfare Board was established in 1953 by a Resolution of

Govt. of India to carry out welfare activities for promoting voluntarism,
providing technical and financial assistance to the voluntary organisations for
the general welfare of family, women and children. This was the first effort
Approaches on the part of the Govt. of India to set up an organization, which would work
on the principle of voluntarism as a non-governmental organization. The
NOTES objective of setting up Central Social Welfare Board was to work as a link
between the government and the people.
Dr.Durgabai Deshmukh was the founder Chairperson of the Central Social

Welfare Board. Earlier she was in charge of "Social Services" in the Planning
Commission and she was instrumental in planning the welfare programmes
for the First Five Year Plan. Under the guidance of Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh,
various welfare schemes were introduced by the Central Social Welfare
Board.
The Central Social Welfare Board obtained its legal status in 1969. It was
registered nder section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956
The State Social Welfare Boards were set up in 1954 in all States and Union
Territories. The objective for setting up of the State Social Welfare Boards
was to coordinate welfare and developmental activities undertaken by the
various Departments of the State Govts. to promote voluntary social welfare
agencies for the extension of welfare services across the country, specifically
in uncovered areas. The major schemes being implemented by the Central
Social Welfare Board were providing comprehensive services in an
integrated manner to the community.
Many projects and schemes have been implemented by the Central Social
Welfare Board like Grant in Aid, Welfare Extension Projects, Mahila
Mandals , Socio Economic Programme, Dairy Scheme, Condensed Course
of Education Programme for adolescent girls and women, Vocational
Training Programme, Awareness Generation Programme, National Creche
Scheme, Short Stay Home Programme, Integrated Scheme for Women's
Empowerment for North Eastern States, Innovative Projects and Family
Counselling Centre Programme.
74
Approaches
NOTES
The scheme of Family Counselling Centre was introduced by the CSWB in

1983. The scheme provides counselling, referral and rehabilitative services to
women and children who are the victims of atrocities, family maladjustments
and social ostracism and crisis intervention and trauma counselling in case of
natural/ manmade disasters. Working on the concept of people‘s participation,
FCCs work in close collaboration with the Local Administration, Police,
Courts, Free Legal Aid Cells, Medical and Psychiatric Institutions,
Vocational Training Centres and Short Stay Homes.
Over six decades of its incredible journey in the field of welfare, development
and empowerment of women and children, CSWB has made remarkable
contribution for the weaker and marginalized sections of the society. To meet
the changing social pattern, CSWB is introspecting itself and exploring new
possibilities so that appropriate plan of action can be formulated. Optimal
utilisation of ICT facilities will be taken so that effective and transparent
services are made available to the stakeholders.
State Social Welfare Board
The Central Social Welfare Board was established in 1953 by a Resolution of

Govt. of India to carry out welfare activities for promoting voluntarism,
providing technical and financial assistance to the voluntary organisations for
Approaches the general welfare of family, women and children. This was the first effort
on the part of the Govt. of India to set up an organization, which would work
NOTES on the principle of voluntarism as a non-governmental organization. The
objective of setting up Central Social Welfare Board was to work as a link
between the government and the people.
Dr.Durgabai Deshmukh was the founder Chairperson of the Central Social

Welfare Board. Earlier she was in charge of "Social Services" in the Planning
Commission and she was instrumental in planning the welfare programmes
for the First Five Year Plan. Under the guidance of Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh,
various welfare schemes were introduced by the Central Social Welfare
Board. The Central Social Welfare Board obtained its legal status in 1969. It
was registered under section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956
STATE SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD

the state social welfare boards were set up in 1954 in all states and union
territories. the objective for setting up of the state social welfare boards was
to coordinate welfare and developmental activities undertaken by the various
departments of the state govts. to promote voluntary social welfare agencies
for the extension of welfare services across the country, specifically in
uncovered areas. the major schemes being implemented by the central social
welfare board were providing comprehensive services in an integrated
manner to the community.
many projects and schemes have been implemented by the central social
welfare board like grant in aid, welfare extension projects, mahila mandals ,
socio economic programme, dairy scheme, condensed course of education
programme for adolescent girls and women, vocational training programme,
awareness generation programme, national creche scheme, short stay home
programme, integrated scheme for women's empowerment for north eastern
states, innovative projects and family counselling centre programme.
The scheme of family counselling centre was introduced by the cswb in 1983.
the scheme provides counselling, referral and rehabilitative services to women
and children who are the victims of atrocities, family maladjustments and
social ostracism and crisis intervention and trauma counselling in case of
natural/ manmade disasters. working on the concept of people‘s participation,
fccs work in close collaboration with the local administration, police, courts,
free legal aid cells, medical and psychiatric institutions, vocational training
centres and short stay homes. over six decades of its incredible journey in the
field of welfare, development and empowerment of women and children, cswb
has made remarkable contribution for the weaker and marginalized sections of
the society. to meet the changing social pattern, cswb is introspecting itself and
exploring new possibilities so that appropriate plan of action can be
formulated. optimal utilisation of ict facilities will be taken so that effective
and transparent services are made available to the stakeholders.
76
7.7 URBAN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING Approaches
Urban Planning is a large-scale concept concerned with planning and NOTES

development at all levels ( architectural, infrastructural, ecological,
economic, and even political ).
During this process many problems & obstacles come up but luckily the same
as ny other kind of problems, there are solutions and precautions which we
will discuss in detail.
Urban Planning Definition
According to Wikipedia, Urban Planning is a technical and political process

concerned with the development and use of land, protection and use of the
environment, public welfare, and the design of the urban environment,
including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas,
such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks.
On the other hand, English Lexicon describes Urban Planning as a branch of

architecture dealing with the design and organization of urban space and
activities besides determining and drawing up plans for the future physical
arrangement.
Here in IEREK, we believe that Urban Planning must be accompanied by
sustainability concept which enables us to carry out the urban development
process in the right way to keep up the sustainable environment for future
generations.
Urban Planning Problems
The basic concern of city-town planning is the internal form, structure,

function, and appearance of urban areas.
Physical aspects such as buildings, roads, land use, etc., play an important role
in urban planning, at the same time social, economic and technological forces
should also be considered while planning so that a healthy environment is
created in the city/town.Apart from this problem, some factors also complicate
the task of planning as follows:
a) Urban Sprawl
Urban Sprawl refers to the migration of a population from populated towns

and cities to low-density residential development over more and more rural
land which results in:
Increase in Public Expenditure: They can actually play a part in the increases
of public costs because these changes in infrastructures and building must
actually be paid for by someone- and it is usually the taxpayers.
Approaches Increased Traffic: Populations will begin to use their cars more often, which
means that there is more traffic on the roads.
NOTES
Environmental Issues: When you think about going out to develop these lands
you will have to worry about the wildlife that lives in these lands. You will be
displacing them, and it can really cause a ripple in the environment.
b) Individual Control or Small Parcels of Land
Private ownership of small parcels of urban land sometimes interferes with the
effective control of the space pattern of the city like the following:
If a private owner enjoys unrestricted right to use his/her land as he wishes, he
may build a shop or a factory in the residential area, thus decreasing the value
of the nearby residences.
If in a continuous residential area where two houses walls are shared, the
problem arises in such areas when one house owner is willing to renovate the
house and another is not in case of deterioration. They may develop conflict,
which may turn out to be a problem in the future.
If a private builder wants to undertake a project developing or reconstructing

the building on the same land, he/she may face two problems, one is he/she
may have to pay more money to the existing house owner and the second is
he/she has to face the problems created by a neighbor. Both such events are
detrimental for the urban development.
c) Unique Environmental Site
Every city/town occupies a unique environmental site, hills, valleys, rivers,

waterfronts, or any other physical features make one city/town look different
from another as following:
Different sections of the city have unequal value as building sites as the
underlying soil and rock formations affect the soundness of the foundations,
characteristics of subsoil drainage, etc. All these make differences in the cost
of underground construction. At the same time, the rough terrain has different
advantages and disadvantages for different kinds of buildings.
Topography affects the routes of transportation. If a heavy rail line has to be
constructed, it needs a level route, but if the city/town does not possess this
feature, then transportation is affected.
Breaks in transportation like from waterway to land-way or from the roadway
to railway prove advantageous for certain manufacturing and commercial
activities.
Some parts of the city provide better amenities than others. The amenities can
be in the form of a better view and access to the market.
d) Housing Affordability
Affordable housing is housing deemed affordable to those with a median

78
household income. Housing choice is a response to an extremely complex set Approaches
of economic, social, and psychological impulses as follows:
Housing expenditures: Housing affordability can be measured by the NOTES
changing relationships between house prices and rents and between house
prices and incomes. There has been an increase among policymakers in
affordable housing as the price of housing has increased dramatically creating
a crisis in affordable housing.
Economy: Lack of affordable housing places a particular burden on local
economies. As well, individual consumers are faced with mortgage arrears
and excessive debt and therefore cut back on consumption. A combination of
high housing costs and high debt levels contributes to a reduction in savings.
Transportation: Lack of affordable housing can make low-cost labor more
scarce, and increase demands on transportation systems (as workers travel
longer distances between jobs and affordable housing).
Urban Planning Solutions
As we mentioned before Urban Planning must be accompanied by the

sustainability concept. Here where we should stand and understand that the
city is more than the sum of its parts. It is a whole living thing that is
constantly changing, evolving and morphing into an ever more ECO-Friendly
and welcoming entity which can be achieved through innovative sustainable
solutions such as following:
Sustainable and Affordable Housing
Census population doubles which require more housing spaces, yet our goal to
meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable Housing means ―housing which contributes to community

building, to social justice, and to economic viability at a local level‖ (Morgan
and Talbot, 2001, p. 321).
Morgan and Talbot argue that sustainability should be the main principle
to design housing and one of the important dimensions of the housing
quality.
Also, Development of Sustainable Housing refers to not only the development
of building but also the layout of the housing areas since Quality of Dwelling
life is not just simply concerned with having a roof over one‘s head and a
sufficient amount of living space, but also with social and psychological
satisfaction.
Affordable Housing has become a commonly used term for summarizing the
nature of the housing difficulty in many nations. He identifies six elements of
measuring housing expenditure to an income ratio to measure housing
Approaches affordability.
NOTES
Here is ―Alejandro Aravena‖ comes with an innovative solution for Housing
Affordability through his architectural philosophy.
b) Zero-Carbon Cities
Components of Zero Carbon Building

Info-graphic shows Components of Zero Carbon Building
There is a need for Zero-Carbon Cities which are urban areas powered by
renewable \energy techniques and technologies. A zero-carbon city runs
entirely on renewable energy; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect
not cause harm to the planet. Most cities throughout the world produce energy
by burning coal, oil, and gas, unintentionally emitting carbon. Almost every
activity human does involve burning one of these fossil fuels. To become a
zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse
gases must cease. The aim of a zero-carbon city is reducing carbon emissions
from buildings, reducing waste, transport, materials and food emissions by
50% globally. It can be achieved by the following steps:
Reducing energy-use wherever possible in the buildings and transportation
sector.
Increase Renewable Energy Resources by Adding as much renewable energy
as possible.
Offsetting any CO2 emitted through purchasing carbon credits. Developing
distributed power and water systems. Increasing photosynthetic spaces as a part
of the green infrastructure. Improving Eco-Efficiency. Developing cities without
slums.
c) Green Roofs
Green Roofs (roofs with a vegetated surface and substrate) provide ecosystem
services in urban areas, including improved storm-water management, better
regulation of building temperatures, reduced urban heat-island effects, and
increased urban wildlife habitat.
Just imagine if this technology was applied to every building within your city, it
comes with unlimited benefits as following:
Storm Water Management and Water Retention since Green roofs can help with
controlling the stormwater runoff which is a major problem in many cities. They
have the ability to retain water at a rate of 50-90% depending on the design of
the roofs.
Improvement of Micro-climate as rainwater evaporates, it humidifies the air
above it, making the air cooler. This reduces the ambient temperature of the air
above rooftops, improving the micro-climate. Since the rooftop becomes cooler,
the efficiency of the building‘s AC units is improved.
80
Dust and Toxic Particles Binder where air pollution is a common phenomenon Approaches
in all major cities. Green roofs can play a vital role in filtering the air pollutants,
improving the quality of air. When the air flows, the foliar surface of green roof NOTES
reduces the speed of air flowing above it. This filters 10-20% of dust particles
from the air, thus, helping to purify the air.
Protection from Noise Pollution as green roofs can be of great advantage when it
comes to noise pollution. Urban areas are mostly subjected to sources of loud
sounds and noises particularly because of buildings being located under flight
paths, adjacent to nightclubs, markets, malls, and fairs and so on.
d) Sustainable Transportation
Transport has a major impact on the spatial and economic development of cities
and regions. The attractiveness of particular locations depends in part on the
relative accessibility, and this in turn depends on the quality and quantity of the
transport infrastructure.
The concept of sustainable transportation promotes a balance between
transportation‘s economic and social benefits and the need to protect the
environment.
In further articulating this idea, the Center for Sustainable Transportation has
defined a sustainable transportation system as one that:
Allows individuals and societies to meet their access needs safely and in a
manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and
between generations.
Is affordable operates efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, and
supports a vibrant economy.
Limits emissions and waste within the planet‘s ability to absorb them
minimizes consumption of non-renewable resources, limits consumption of
renewable resources to the sustainable yield level reuses and recycles its
components, and minimizes the use of land and the production of noise.
Depending on modern-technology we can convert current polluting
transportation into an environmentally friendly one.
7.8 LETS SUM UP
India is urbanising. This transition, which will see India‘s urban population
reach
a figure close to 600 million by 2031, is not simply a shift of demographics. It
places cities and towns at the centre of India‘s development trajectory. In the
coming decades, the urban sector will play a critical role in the structural
transformation of the Indian economy and in sustaining the high rates of
economic growth. Ensuring high quality public services for all in the cities and
towns of India is an end in itself, but it will also facilitate the full realisation
Approaches of India‘s economic potential. India‘s economic growth momentum cannot be
sustained if urbanisation is not actively facilitated. Nor can poverty be
NOTES addressed if the needs of the urban poor are isolated from the broader
challenges of managing urbanisation. Cities will have to become the engines
of national development. India cannot afford to get its urban strategy wrong,
but it cannot get it right without bringing about a fundamental shift in the
mindset which separates rural from the urban.

1. Write the principles of Urban Planning Process ?
2. Central Social Welfare Board – Explain ?
1. The principal phases of an urban planning process are:
 Preparatory / exploration phase

 Feasibility / planning phase
 Formal planning / zoning phase
 Design and implementation phase
 Operational phase
2. The Central Social Welfare Board was established in 1953 by a
Resolution of Govt. of India to carry out welfare activities for promoting
voluntarism, providing technical and financial assistance to the voluntary
organisations for the general welfare of family, women and children.
This was the first effort on the part of the Govt. of India to set up an
organization, which would work on the principle of voluntarism as a
non-governmental organization. The objective of setting up Central
Social Welfare Board was to work as a link between the government and
the people.
Dr.Durgabai Deshmukh was the founder Chairperson of the Central
Social Welfare Board. Earlier she was in charge of "Social Services" in
the Planning Commission and she was instrumental in planning the
welfare programmes for the First Five Year Plan. Under the guidance of
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, various welfare schemes were introduced by
the Central Social Welfare Board.
1. Allen, Adriana 2001,―Environmental planning and management

of the peri-urban interface (PUI): perspectives on an emerging field‖,
Development Planning Unit, University College London, 9–10
November 2001.
82
2. MacGregor, Sherilyn 1995, ―Planning change: not an end but a Approaches
beginning‖ in Eichler, Margrit (editor), Change of Plans: Towards a
Non-sexist Sustainable City, Garamond Press, Toronto, pages 151– NOTES
167.
3. Healey, Patsy 1997, Collaborative Planning Shaping Places in
Fragmented Societies, MacMillan, London.
4. Tacoli, Cecilia 1998, ―Rural–urban interactions; a guide to the
literature‖, Environment and Urbanization Vol 10, No 1, pages 147–
166.
5. Iaquinta, David L and AxelW Drescher 2001, ―More than the
spatial fringe: an application of the peri-urban typology to planning
and management of natural resources‖, Development Planning Unit,
University College London, 9–10,November 2001.
6. Durand-Lasserve, Alain 1998, ―Rural–urban linkages:
managing diversity. Governance as a matrix for land management in
the metropolitan fringes‖, international workshop on Rural–Urban
Linkages,Curitiba, Brazil, March 1998.
7. Alam, S. M. 1965, Hyderabad-Secunderabad (Twin Cities): A
Study in Urban Geography, Allkd Publishers, Mumbai.
Legislation Related to Urban
Development UNIT VIII LEGISLATION RELATED
NOTES TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT: URBAN
LAND CEILING ACT, TOWN AND
COUNTRY PLANNING ACT,
NAGARPALIKA ACT AND TAMIL NADU
SLUM CLEARANCE AND
IMPROVEMENT ACT) COMMUNITY
PLANNING, AND COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Legislation Related To Urban Development
8.2 Urban Land Ceiling Act
8.3 Town And Country Planning Act,
8.4 Nagarpalika Act
8.5 Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance And Improvement Act)
8.6 Community Planning, Community Participation
8.7 Lets Sum Up
8.0 INTRODUCTION
The World is urbanizing very fast and more than 45 per cent of the World‘s
population today are residing in urban areas. According to UN estimation, the
Wold population is expected to increase by 72 percent by 2050, from 3.6 billion
in 2011 to 6.3 billion in 2050.Customarily urbanization means increasing
population living in cities and suburbs cities of a country. In 19th and 20th
century, majority of the cities in the world are undergoing growth of urban
population. In India also urban population which was 0.37 percent in 1951 has
risen to 27.81 percent in 2001 and 31.16 percent in 2011 and is increasing day
by day. According to Asian Development Bank, the national increase and net
migration are the major contributory factors to urban growth. The share of
world‘s population living in urban areas has increased from 39 percent in 1980
to 48 percent in 2000. However, urbanization without proper planning has
given rise to several problems such as housing, sanitation, education, provision
of safe drinking water, unemployment, etc. particularly in underdeveloped
countries. This unit on ―Urban Development: An Overview‖ will provide you
information and knowledge regarding urbanization, its trends, impact and idea
Self-Instructional Material about sustainable urban development. After reading this unit, you will be able
84
to: Legislation Related to Urban
• Explain meaning and trend of urbanization Development
• Narrate various causes of urbanization

NOTES
• Discuss urbanization and urban problems
• Describe about sustainable urban development
8.1 LEGISLATION RELATED TO URBAN

DEVELOPMENT
Urban development policies and programmes have been vogue in

independent in India as can be seen through the Five Year Plans. In this
section we will discuss these policies and programmes in holistic manner and,
thus, attempt to present you an overview of the same. Since the First Five
Year Plan the Government of India has been laying focus, among other
things, on the issues of urban development including poverty alleviation. The
first three five-year plans focused on housing up-gradation and slum
clearance programmes. During fourth to seventh Five Year Plans the focus
was on urban community development and environmental improvement of
slums. From eighth plan onwords urban poverty began to get attention and a
series of programmes relating to basic services and livelihoods and
employment-generation were launched (http://urbanindia.nic.inlmoud.htm). A
three pronged strategy of 'inclusive growth7 is being followed at present to
address the various problems of urban poverty and slums. It includes
provision of housing and
services through Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM),
institutional reforms as given in 74th Constitutional Amendment Act and
through
programmes like National Urban Sanitation Policy, National Urban Transport
Policy, Policy for Urban Street Vendors and Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar
Yojana (SJSRY), Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and
Medium Towns (UDSSMT) and Integrated Housing and Slum Development
Programme (IHSDP), among others. The important policies and programmes
of urban development implemented in India include the following.
 Urban Community Development Programme, 1958.
 Constitution (Seventy-Fourth) Amendment Act, 1992.
 Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), 1997.
 National Policy for Urban Street Vendors, 2004.
 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), 2005.
 Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium
Towns (UIDSSMT), 2005. ,
 Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP),
2005.
 National Urban Transport Policy, 2006.
 Capacity-Building for Urban Development Project for India, 2006. Self-Instructional Material
85
Legislation Related to Urban  National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2008.
Development
These policies and programmes are discussed, in brief, below.
NOTES
8.2 URBAN LAND CEILING ACT
The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act was enacted in India in 1976
with a view to curbing land price increases and promoting low-income housing
through socialisation of urban land. This paper critically examines the stated
objectives of the Act and the major achievements after its implementation, and
finds that the Act has so far not lived up to its expectations. The paper begins
with an introductory background for the evolution of the Act and highlights its
major provisions. A careful examination of the limitations in the
implementation of this Act and its major implications as per experience is then
presented. The paper concludes with the necessity for a thorough reappraisal of
major policy instruments, search for alternative strategies and consideration of
the realities of the existing situation in the country for possible improvement.
The Urban Land (Ceiling And Regulation) Act, 1976
1. Short title, application and commencement.—
(1) This Act may be called the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976.
(2) It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories and it
shall also -apply to such other State which adopts this Act by resolution passed
in that behalf under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution.
(3) It shall come into force in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tripura, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal and in the Union territories at once and in any other
State which adopts this Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution,
on the date of such adoption; and, save as otherwise provided in this, Act, any
reference in this Act to the commencement of this Act shall, in relation to any
State or Union territory, mean the date on which this Act comes into force in
such State or Union territory.
8.3 TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING ACT
Town and Country Planning Act, 1047, has been called a skeleton Act; but it is
a singularly robust-looking skeleton. Its 120 ample sections and eleven
formidable schedules dwarf the more modest New Towns Act, its companion in
the new planning code. Nevertheless, so extensive are the powers of delegated
legislation conferred by the Act that it may be some years before its full
implications become clear.
Before the war only a small proportion of local authorities had planning
schemes in actual operation. Whilst this was due partly to the phenomenal
prolixity of the procedure necessary for putting any local scheme into
operation under the 1982 Act, there were also more serious obstacles. The
Self-Instructional Material bogey of compensation frightened many authorities into adopting a timid
86
approach towards planning. They also tended to think in parochial terms; in the Legislation Related to Urban
words of the Explanatory Memorandum to the 1047 Bill, ' the tendency was for Development
each authority to plan thcir arca in isolation from their neighbours '. Nor were
they obliged to prepare any scheme whatever ; and if they did take positive NOTES
action,. their powers were insufficient to ensure satisfactory development, as
distinct from preventing bad development. Further, the system was
fundamentally rigid; once a planning scheme obtained the force of law, the
rocedure for amendment was too complicated. In recent years the idea .that
physical planning should be conceived as a national, rather than a local,
responsibility, has gained ground. The establishment of a Ministry of Town
and Country Planning in 1043 was followed in the same year and in 1944 by
statutes which brought this goal nearer to fulfilment. But the main weaknesses
persisted. The 1947 Act seeks to cure them by
solving the financial problems of local authorities and ht the same time erecting
a new structure of planning machinery to ensure that planning will be centrally
co-ordinated and also effectively executed.
8.4 NAGARPALIKA ACT
Constitution (Seventy Forth Amendment) Act, 1992 has introduced a new Part
IXA in the Constitution, which deals with Municipalities in an article 243 P to
243 ZG. This amendment, also known as Nagarpalika Act, came into force on
1st June 1993. It has given constitutional status to the municipalities and
brought them under the justifiable part of the constitution. States were put
under constitutional obligation to adopt municipalities as per system enshrined
in the constitution.

1. Write the meaning of land ceiling Act ?
------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Definition of Slum
------------------------------------------------------------------------
________________________________________________
Definition of Metropolitan area

Metropolitan area in the country is an area where population is above 10 Lakh.
(Article 243P)
Three Kinds of Municipalities
Article 243Q provides for establishment of 3 kinds of Municipalities of every
state.
Nagar Panchayat: A Nagar Panchayat is for those areas which are
transitional areas i.e. transiting from Rural Area to Urban areas. ―Governor‖
will by public notice, will define these three areas based upon the population, Self-Instructional Material
87
Legislation Related to Urban density of population, revenue generated for local administration, % of
Development
employment in Non-agricultural activities and other factors. Further, a
NOTES
Governor may also if, he fits it necessary, based upon the industrial
establishments, can specify the Industrial Townships by public notice.
Municipal Council: A Municipal council is for smaller urban area
Municipal Corporation: A municipal Corporation for Larger urban Areas
Composition of Municipalities
All the members of a Municipality are to be directly elected by the people of
the Municipal area and for the purpose of making the electorate; the municipal
area will be divided into territorial constituencies known as Wards.
Besides the seats filled by direct elections, some seats may be filled by
nomination of persons having special knowledge and experience in municipal
administration.
Persons so nominated shall not have the right to vote in the meetings of the
municipality.
The Legislature of a State may, by law, also provide for the representation in a
municipality of members of the House of the People and the members of the
Legislative Assembly of the State representing constituencies which comprise
wholly or partly the Municipal area and also the Members of the Council of
States and the members of the Legislative Council of the State registered as
electors within the municipal area.
The manner of election of Chairpersons of municipalities has been left to be
specified by the State Legislature. {Article 243R}
Ward Committees
There shall be constituted the ward committees consisting of one or more wards
within the territorial area of all the municipalities with a population of 3 Lakhs
or more. { Article 243S}
Reservation of Seats:
Rreservation of the seats for the Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in every
municipality corporation has to be provided in proportion to their population to
the total population in the municipal area.
The proportion of seats to be reserved for SC/ST to the total number of seats
has to be same as the proportion of the population of SC/ST in the municipal
area.
The reservation has to be made for only those seats that are to be filled by the
direct elections. (This means no reservation for nominated seats)
This article also provides that not less than one-third of the total number of
seats reserved for SC/ST shall be reserved for women belonging to SC/ST.
(Mandatory provision)
In respect of women, the seats shall be reserved to the extent of not less than
one-third of the total number of seats. This includes seats reserved for women
belonging to SC/ST. These reservations will apply for direct elections only.
(Mandatory provision)
There are no bar on State Legislatures from making provisions for reservation
of seats in any municipality or office of Chairperson in the municipalities in
favor of backward class of citizens. (Optional Provision). {Article 243S}
88
Duration of Municipalities Legislation Related to Urban
Duration of the municipality has been fixed at 5 years from the date appointed Development
for its first meeting. Elections to constitute a municipality are required to be

NOTES
completed before the expiration of the duration of the municipality. If the
municipality is dissolved before the expiry of 5 years, the elections for
constituting a new municipality are required to be completed within a period
of 6 months from the date of its dissolution. {Article 243U}
Disqualifications of the members
A member is disqualified to be chosen as a member of municipality if he / she
is disqualified under any law to be elected as MLA. The minimum age to be
qualified as a member is 21 years.
Powers, authorities and responsibilities
As per Article 243 W, all municipalities would be empowered with such
powers and responsibilities as may be necessary to enable them to function as
effective institutions of self-government.
The State Legislature may, by law, specify what powers and responsibilities
would be given to the municipalities in respect of preparation of plans for
economic development and social justice and for implementation of schemes as
may be entrusted to them.
8.5 TAMIL NADU SLUM CLEARANCE AND

IMPROVEMENT ACT
An Act to provide for the improvement and clearance of slums in the State of
Tamil Nadu.
Whereas the number of slums in certain areas in the State of Tamil Nadu is on
the increase and the slums are likely to become a source of danger to public
health and sanitation of the said area.
And Whereas under the existing law, it has not been possible effectively to
arrest the growth of slums, to eliminate congestion and to provide for certain
basic needs such as streets, water -supply and drainage in slums and to clear
slums which are unfit for human habitation.
And Whereas to obviate this difficulty, it is expedient to provide for the
removal of unhygenic and insanitary conditions prevailing in slums, for better
accommodation and improved living conditions for slum dwellers, for the
promotion of public health generally and for the acquisition of land for the
purpose of improving or developing slum areas, re - developing slum clearance
areas and rehabilitating slum dwellers:
And Whereas it is Directive principle of State Policy embodied in the
constitution that the State should regard the improvement of public health as
among its primary duties. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Tamil
Nadu in the Twenty -second year of the Republic of India as follows:
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement. - This Act may be called Tamil Nadu
Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1971.
2. It extends to the whole of Tamil Nadu. Self-Instructional Material
89
Legislation Related to Urban 3. It should come into force on such date as the Government may, by
Development
notification, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different areas
NOTES
and for different provisions of this Act:
Provided that any reference in any such provision to the commencement
of this Act shall be construed as a reference to the coming into force of
that provision.
8.6 COMMUNITY PLANNING, COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION
Participatory planning is an urban or rural planning paradigm that emphasizes

involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of
urban planning or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural. It is
often considered as part of community development. A participatory approach
is needed in gender planning which leads to the development of the whole
nation. Gender planning prioritizes the needs and conditions in which women
live and work as a site for change. It involves a critical analysis of the gaps
between women‘s and men's access to economic, social, political and cultural
resources. This analysis enables the development of policy initiatives to
correct the imbalances – including cases where men are not benefiting equally
from the development planning approaches currently in use. Gender planning
should not be seen as a separate, parallel process to mainstream development
planning but should transform mainstream planning to address the needs of
women and poor people generally through an economically, socially and
environmentally sustainable process.
Community planning
Community planning is a practice that is engaged in by numerous disciplines:
community work, urban planning, macro social work, architecture, urban
geography, community psychology, environmental psychology, community
psychiatry.
A study of the practice of community planning in the various disciplines leads
to the conclusion that despite their similar means, and the fact that they are
influenced by the same social processes, almost no dialogue exists among the
various professions engaged in community planning. The diversified activity,
rather than contributing to an enrichment of this occupation, has led to a
dispersal of the knowledge, has made
it difficult to create a significant mass, and has interfered with efficient
learning of lessons from experience.
In the domain of urban planning, since the early eighties it has been rare to
find explicit reference to community planning, except where the issue is to
shake free of it (Hague, 1982). In the United States in the sixties, community
planning represented a reform in planning methods, but the political and
professional expectations this aroused were frustrated. The planning was
supposed to consider local needs and to involve the public, but large projects
of urban renewal and war against poverty, which used community planning
Self-Instructional Material methods, failed. Furthermore, politicians did not achieve social quiet and a
90
more efficient problem solving process by means of community planning Legislation Related to Urban
(Needleman & Needleman, 1974). The Republican administration, from the Development
time of Reagan on, curtailed public resources and dealt a fatal blow to the
social legitimation of investing in the weak (Boyte et al., 1986, Phillips, 1990). NOTES
However, despite the absence of community planning from the mainstream of
planning in the United States in recent years, the documentation of the practice
of planning indicates that during all these years there has been significant – if
also modest in resources and extent – community planning activity (Rubin &
Rubin, 1992; Feldman & Stall, 1994). In Israel the situation is different,
mainly because the largest community planning project ever conducted – the
Urban Renewal Project for the rehabilitation of poor neighborhoods – has had
much more impressive results than in the United
States. In Israel, however, community planning is almost never related to as a
defined field of practice, and was never thought of this way in the past either.
Traditionally, community workers and city planners who have participated
together in this project define themselves as being engaged in community
planning.
Community Participation
it is envisaged that without community participation, it is next to impossible to
achieve these goals. The most valuable resource for health and development of
people is the "People themselves". In the context, it becomes all the more
important because we have the second largest human potential resource in the
world. Harnessing this enormous resource of manpower for health and
development is the biggest challenge indeed.
The purpose of all development activities is to increase the capacity of people
to solve their own problems, the objectives of RCH or MCH services also are
to involve individuals, families and community in understanding of their
health problems and strive themselves to solve these problems. As a matter of
fact, the present approach is that goals of ―Health for All‖ in the revised
National Health Policy and that of the National Population Policy can only be
reached through a fully democratic process; it must be a programme of
―Health by the People, of the People and for the People‖. The change or shift
on policy as enunciated in RCH rogrammes is decentralization of planning,
implementation and delivery of health services for mother and children. The
Target Free Approach (TFA) (as of now named as Community Needs
Assessment Approach) lays down emphasis on CNAA wherein the people
identify their own needs, work out resources, determine priorities, plan agenda
& programme of services, implement and monitor and finally, evaluate their
own efforts / success. The subcentre action plan, PHC plans and CHC action
plan under RCH programme envisages community participation and client
satisfaction.
The community is at the centre-stage of the show and it is the ―Heart‖ of the
health system. Understanding of community and preparing them to face
responsibility for their own health and development is the cornerstone of all
programmes. Take a good look at your community; respect your peoples‘
traditions, ideas and culture. Help them build on the knowledge and skills they
already have. Self-Instructional Material
91
Legislation Related to Urban  Go to people
Development
 Love them
NOTES  Learn from them.
 Serve them.
 Begin with what they know.
 Build on what they have.
The first requirement is to understand the community you serve. Our concern
should be for all the people. Go to your people, visit their homes, fields,
gathering places, schools, market place. Learn how have they organized
themselves, what are their attitudes, beliefs and practices and what resources
they have to meet their felt needs.
8.7 LETS SUM UP
In this unit, you have learnt the concept and definition of community and
community participation. The pattern of community participation in health,
nutrition and development programme in general and more specifically in
RCH/MCH programme have been discussed in detail with view to learn the
extent to which the community could take up the responsibilities in these
areas under the Target Free Approach, now named as Community Needs
Assessment Approach (CNAA). We have tried to delineate the policy issues
and operational aspects where the community can take direct responsibility
by organizing self help groups for RCH services to realize the goal of NPP,
2000; how the process of community consultation has been built up in the
preparation of the subcentre action plan and implementation thereof.
Examples of successfull programmes where community participation was
forthcoming have been enlisted and the various reasons of success
stories have been delineated for better understanding. Factors which
promote/retard the community participation have also been discussed.
Probable resources which community can marshal have been identified. The
list is not exhaustive and one can add more to this list. Efforts of various
available groups which can contribute in community organization and
community actions have been enunciated. Learners have been provided a
chance to check their progress and further readings have been suggested.
1. Write the meaning of Urban Land ceiling Act ?

2. Explain the Community Planning ?
92
8.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Legislation Related to Urban
Development
1.The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act was enacted in India in 1976 NOTES
with a view to curbing land price increases and promoting low-income
housing through socialisation of urban land. This paper critically examines the
stated objectives of the Act and the major achievements after its
implementation, and finds that the Act has so far not lived up to its
expectations. The paper begins with an introductory background for the
evolution of the Act and highlights its major provisions. A careful examination
of the limitations in the implementation of this Act and its major implications
as per experience is then presented. The paper concludes with the necessity for
a thorough reappraisal of major policy instruments, search for alternative
strategies and consideration of the realities of the existing situation in the
country for possible improvement.
2.A study of the practice of community planning in the various disciplines
leads to the conclusion that despite their similar means, and the fact that they
are influenced by the same social processes, almost no dialogue exists among
the various professions engaged in community planning. The diversified
activity, rather than contributing to an enrichment of this occupation, has led to
a dispersal of the knowledge, has made it difficult to create a significant mass,
and has interfered with efficient learning of lessons from experience.
1. Attali, J (1979). ―Towards Socialist Planning‖, in Holland, S

(ed.). Beyond Capitalist Planning. Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Publications.
2. Bishnu B.Bhandari, ―Participatory Rural Appraisal‖, Institute
of Global Environmental Strategies, 2003.
3. Conyers, D and Hills, P (1986). An Introduction to
Development Planning in the Third World. New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
4. Roa, A; Anderson, M B and Overholt (eds.) (1991). Gender
Analysis in Development Planning. Connecticut: Kumarian Press.
5. The Programme for Developing Local Plans for Social
Inclusion in Catalonia Barcelona, 7-8.10.2010, Synthesis Report.
93
Urban Development Administration
UNIT IX URBAN DEVELOPMENT
NOTES
ADMINISTRATION: NATIONAL, STATE
AND LOCAL LEVELS; STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTIONS OF URBAN
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Urban Development Administration
9.2 National
9.3 State
9.4 Local levels
9.5 Structure
9.6 Functions of Urban Development Agencies
9.7 Lets Sum Up
9.0 INTRODUCTION
The essence of development administration is to bring about change through

integrated, organised and properly directed governmental action. In the recent
past the governments in most of the developing nations have shifted their
focus on development by means of planned change and people's participation.
With this shift of administrative concern towards developmental objectives the
researchers and practitioners of Public Administration have been forced to
conceptualise the developmental situation and to bridge the gaps in
administrative theory. The growing welfare functions of the government have
brought into limelight the limitations of the traditional theory of
administration.
The essence of administration in the present conditions lies in its capacity to
bring about change in the structure and behaviour of different administrative
institutions, to develop an acceptance for the change and to create a system
which can sustain change and improve the capacity of institutions to change.
All this calls for renewed efforts on the part of institutions engaged in the tasks
of development. Thus development administration as an area of study and as
means to realise developmental goals assumes importance. This unit will
highlight the meaning, features and genesis of development administration.
9.1 URBAN DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
There is no uniform definition of development administration which is

94
agreeable to all. But we can atleast arrive at certain basic features and Urban Development Administration
characteristics of order to understand the concept of development
administration, we should try to understand the meaning of the concept viz., NOTES
administration of development and development of administration. i)
Administration of Development Development is integral to the aims and
activities of the government especially in the developing countries. Because of
paucity of resources, human and material in their counties, the need for making
optimum utilisation of available means and augmenting new means assumes a
great importance. Development administration thus becomes a means through
which the governmen€ brings quantitative and qualitative changes in an
economy. Government is engaged in not only fixing priorities but also making
efforts to realise them. Though Weidner is said to be the - first to conceptually
explain the definition of development administration, many other scholars, like
Riggs, Ferrel Heady, Montgomary, Gant, Pai Panandikar have attempted to
define the term in their own ways. However, before we analyse the different
definitions and meanings of the term, it should be mentioned that all of them
agree that development administration is an effort towards planned
transformation of the economy involving not only the sphere of administration
but also formulation of policies and indeed the society as a whole. It is an effort
at the synchronisation of changes in all spheres of development-economic,
political, social and cultural. Thus development is not only viewed in terms of
growth process, but it includes a process of social change. The State plays a
leading role in bringing about development through its administrative system. In
order to discharge this role it requires a distinct type of. support by
administration which involves, as'has been observed by Swerdlow, special
understanding of problems in the developing countries. These must be
perceptible at different operative levels i.e., officials must make enough
different decisions, adopt enough differknt policies and engage in enough
different activities to warrant the different designations of development
administration. Thus devel-opment administration is simply termed as an action
or functioning part of the government administration. It is action-oriented and
places the administration at the centre in order to facilitate the attainment of
development objectives. For Harry J. Friedman development administration
means: i) the implementation of programmes designed to bring about modernity
(i.e. socioeconomic progress and nation-building), and ii) the changes within the
administrative system which increase its capacity to implement the
programmes. According to Hahn Beenlee, development administration is
involved in managing a government or an agency so that it acquires an
increasing capability to adapt to and act upon new and continuing social
changes with a view to achieve sustained growth. Gant observed that
development administration is "that aspect of Public Administration in which
focus of attention is on org~ising kn~dministerin~ public agencies in such a
way. as to stimulate and facilitate &fined programmes of social and economic
progress. It has the purpose of making change attractive and possible." Thus
development administration involves two elements: 1) the bureaucratic process
that initiates and facilitates socio-economic progress by making the optimum
use of talents and expertise available; and 2) mobilisation of administrative
skills so as to speed up the development process. Development administiation
Urban Development Administration concentrates on the needs and desires of the people, It is concerned with
formulation of plans, programmes, policies and projects and their
NOTES implementation. It plays a central role in carrying out planned change i.e. it is
concerned with plinning, co-ordination, control, monitoring and evaluation of
plans and programmes. It is not only concerned with the application of policies
as determined by the political representatives in existing situation but also with
introducing efforts to modify existing situations so as to serve the cause of the
masses. The administration of development implies: i) the execution of
programmes designed to bring about progressive improvement ii) the changes
within an administrative system which increases its capacity to Development
AdmhWstion : implement such programmes. In brief, administration of
development involves Conctpt and Mclaiag the following objectives: i) ii) iii)
iv) v) vi) . vii) viii) ix) application of innovative strategies for development
emphasis on development at the grassroots level. Development has to be a need-
oriented and self-reliant process stress on social development and human capital
as a major resource development has to be viewed not merely as a technological
problem but also as an ideological norm profound and rapid change in order to
establish a distinct and just social order recognising and highlighting the unity,
rather than dichotomy between politics and administration effective and
efficient use of scarce resources creation of a politics-administrative
environment which is oriented towards securing basic needs of the population
freedom of administrative machinery to express its values and beliefs without
fear or favour on programmes and projects. 'ii) Development of Administration
or Admiitntive Development Development Administration has to be efficient
and effective. For that puQose it has to aim at enlargement of administrative
capabilities and structural and behavioural change. It is this aspect of
administration that is called administrative develspment or development of
administration. In simple terms it means development of administrative
system,'of administrative health by introducing-administrative rationalisation
and institution building. The purpose implicit in this concept is not merely
changing the administrative procedures and channels but also bringing out
fundamental change in administration thar leads to: 1) political development, 2)
economic growth, and 3). social change. T~L administration should evolve so
as to commensurate with societal goals. I Development of administration further
means cultural change in administration. The cblonial administrative culture is
unsuitable to the changed socio-political ethos 9f the developing world. Our
British legacy has adversely affected rhe administration. The obsolete Acts e.g.
Police Act, 1861,'cannot take us towards the path of change. Development of
administration should refer to the creation of ability to adjusi to new stimuli or
changes. The development of administration aims at qualitative and quantitative
transformations in administration with an eye on the performance of
management of affairs. The term also implies technological changesin
administration so as to enable it to adopt new modes or techniques of
administration. Thus administrative development focuses on adaptability,
autonomy and coherence in . administration. In short, administrative
development is concerned with: 1) The capacity of an administrative system to
take decisions in order to meet the ever increasing demands coming from the
environment and with the objective of achieving larger political and
96
socioeconomic goals. 2) Increase in size, in specialisation and division of tasks Urban Development Administration
and in the ptofessionalisation'of its personnel. 3) A pattern of increasing
effectiveness in the optimum utilisation of available means and further NOTES
augmentation of the means, if necessary. 4) Increase in administrative capability
and capacity. 5) Transformation of existing administrative mechanism into
aonew machinery through modernising the bureaucracy by external inducement,
transfer of technology and training. . -- 6) Replacement bf initiative, practices
etc. with those bas@ on ~eakstic-negd?,-._- cwccped Appmebcs 7) Reducing
the dependence on foreign experts by producing adequate trained manpower. 8)
Promotion of development initiative. 9) Administrative reorganisation and
rationalisation. 10) Making modernisation culturally related. 11) Removing or
reducing bureaucratic immobility and widespread corruption. 12) Reorientation
of established agencies, and the delegation of administrative powers to them.
13) Creation of administrators who can provide leadership in stimulating and
supporting programmes of social and economic improvement. The meaning and
importance of administrative development as an ingredient of development
administration has been well summed up by Caiden in the following words,
"Administrative reform is an essential ing;edient of development in any country,
irrespective of the speed and direction of change. Administrative capacity
becomes increasingly important in the implementation of new policies, plans
and ideas. The improvements in administrative capacity may involve the
removal of environmental obstacles, structural alternatives in traditional and
innovatory institutions bureaucratically organised or otherwise. This would also
necessitate changing individual and group attitudes and performance." The
behaviour pattern of bureaucrats is as crucial to development administration as
the institutions and structures. The purpose of development of administration is
to remove the administrative lag which seriously handicaps governments in
planning and executing co-ordinated programmes of economic and social
reforms. The predominant concern of development administration is to design
and administer such development programmes which meet the developmental
objectives. It is the administration geared to the task of achieving certain
clearcut and sp-ecified objectives and goals expressed in operational terms.
Thus develodment administration is defined as a process of action motivated by
and oriented to the achievement of certain predetermined goals. Actually
administration of development and development of administration are
interrelated concepts. Both are dependent on each other. Administration of
development is as important as development of adniinistration. To achieve
development goals it is essential that there is proper assessment of resources,
proper plan formulation, evaluation and. implementation, adequate involvement
of people, emphasis on technological change and self-reliance. At the same time
we also need developed bureaucracy, integrity in administration, initiative,
innovativeness, delegation of powers, decentralised decision-making etc.
Administrative development cannot take place without administrative change
and reform. Both the concepts support each other and development of
administration is needed for administration of development. As per F. Riggs
'development administration' and 'administrative development' have a chicken
and egg kind of relationship. Superiority of one concept over the other cannot
be established.
Urban Development Administration
NOTES Check Your Progress 1

1. Write the meaning of Development Administration ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------Explain the Municipalities ?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------
9.2 NATIONAL --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
/ STATE / LOCAL LEVEL STRUCTURES
-----------
Municipal governance in India was first introduced in 1687 when the Madras
Municipal Corporation was formed, followed by the creation of the Calcutta
Municipal Corporation and the Bombay Municipal Corporation in 1726. In
1850,the Improvements in Towns Act was passed by the Government of India
that established a system of councillors and gave them administrative authority.
Subsequently, Lord Mayo‘s Resolution of 1870 instituted the system of city
municipalities and called for the introduction of an elected president to lead
them.
In 1882, Lord Ripon‘s Resolution of Local Self-Government created the outline
and structure of municipal governance in India. It introduced a two-tier system of
governance to increase governance efficiency through decentralisation of
functions. Based on the 1918 Montague-Chelmsford Report, the Government of
India Act 1919 introduced the system of ‗Dyarchy‘, where power-sharing
arrangements between the state and the local bodies differed, but conformed to
the same organisational pattern.
The District Municipalities Act of 1920 transformed the Municipal Councils into
elected bodies and granted them powers to flesh out their own budgets.
The Urban Governance: Institutional and Strutural Framework

Government of India Act 1935 brought local government within the purview of
the state or provincial government and granted them enhanced powers. The
following types of urban local bodies are found in India:
1) Municipal Corporation – Municipal Corporation is established by the Act of
state government for the big cities of states and by the Act of Parliament for the
big cities of Union Territories. A corporation has three authorities. First is the
corporation council headed by the Mayor, who is assisted by the Deputy Mayor.
The councillors and Mayor are directly elected by the people. Council is a
deliberative and legislative organ of the corporation. Second organ of the
corporation are the standing committees to deal with various activities like
health, education, public works and are empowered to take decisions in their
respective fields. The third authority of the corporation is the Municipal
Commissioner, who is a government officer and is responsible for the
98
implementation of the decisions taken by the council and standing committees. Urban Development Administration
2) Municipalities – They are setup by the Acts of state legislature for the
administration of small cities or towns. It also has three authorities. First NOTES
the municipal council is the legislative branch of the municipality, and is
headed by the Chairman, who in turn is assisted by a Deputy Chairman.
The standing committees facilitate the work of municipality in various
fields such as health, taxation finance etc. The third authority of the
municipality is the Chief Municipal Officer, who is appointed by the
state government and is responsible for the general administration of the
municipality.
3) Notified Area Committee – This may be created either in a town
which is
fast developing or which may not fulfill the conditions for the creation of
a municipality. It is known as Notified Area Committee because it is
created through a notification of the state government published in the
official gazette. It is not a statutory body and all its members and
chairman are nominated by the government. It performs similar functions
as performed
by a municipality.
4) Town Area Committee – It is created by a separate Act of state
government for the administration of small towns. It performs a limited
number of functions like street lighting, drainage, etc. As provided in the
Act, it may be wholly elected or totally nominated or partly elected or
partly nominated ody.
5) Cantonment Boards – They are established to perform municipal
functions for civilian population living in cantonment or military areas.
Its noticeable feature is that it is created and works under the central Act
of 1924 under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence. There
are three types of Cantonment Boards depending upon the number of
civilian population in the Cantonment Area. It consists of partly elected
and partly nominated members. The members are elected for a three year
term. The military officer commanding the cantonment station is the ex
officio chairman of the Cantonment Board.
6) Townships – Townships are established by a public sector undertaking
as its housing colony to provide civil amenities to its employees living in
township. It has no elected members and its affairs are managed by a
Town
Administrator appointed by the public sector undertaking.
Urban Governance 7) Port Trusts – Such urban bodies are established by
an Act of the Parliament to manage and protect ports and to provide civic
amenities to the port area. It is headed by an official appointed by the
central government. It has both elected and nominated members.
8) Special Purpose Agencies – The state governments establish some
special purpose agencies to perform some specific functions of
municipalities. They function as separate bodies not under the control of
municipalities. They may be created either by an act of State Legislature
or by an order of the executive. Some of these agencies are Housing
Urban Development Administration Board, Water Supply Undertaking, Electricity Supply Undertakings,
Urban Development Authorities, etc.
NOTES
9.6 FUNCTIONS OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
In this section, you will read about the role of government agencies in
development. Various government agencies play important roles in directing
the development activities to be pursued in both the short and the long run.
The role of a few important government agencies that play an important part in
development in India is discussed. These agencies are:
i) The National Planning Commission -
Dynamics of Development ii) The Finance Commission of India
iii) The State Planning Board
iv) The District Planning Boards Committees
The National Planning Commission Rudimentary economic planning by
government agencies first began in India in the 1930s under colonial British
rule. The colonial government of India formally established a planning board
that functioned from 1944 to 1946. Private industrialists and economists
formulated at least three development plans in 1944.After India gained
independence, a formal model of planning was adopted, and the Planning
Commission, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of India, was
established. Accordingly, the National Planning Commission was set up on 15
March 1950, with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the chairman. The First
Five-year Plan was launched in 195 1. Now, the Eleventh Five Year Plan is
underway in the country.
A few important functions of National Planning Commission are:
a) To make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the
country, including technical personnel, and to investigate the possibilities of
augmenting those resources that are found to be deficient in relation to the
nation's requirement
b) To formulate a Plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of
country's resources
C) To determine the priorities define the stages of the implementation of the
Plan, and to propose the allocation of resources for due completion of each
d) To indicate the factors tend to retard economic development, and determine
the conditions which, in view of the existing social and political situation,
need to be established for the successful execution of the Plan
e) To determine the nature of the machinery, which will be necessary for the
successful implementation of each stage of the Plan, in all its aspects
f) To appraise, from time to time, the progress achieved at each stage of the
Plan, and to recommend the adjustments of policy and measures that such
appraisal may show to be necessary
g) To make interim recommendations based after considering the prevailing
economic conditions, current policies, measures, and development
programmes.
From a highly centralized planning system, the Indian economy is gradually
moving towards indicative planning, where the Planning Commission
100
concerns itself with building a long term strategic vision of the future, and Urban Development Administration
decides on the priorities of the nation. It works out sectoral targets and
provides promotional stimuli for the economy to grow in the desired direction. NOTES
The Planning Commission plays an integrative role in the development of a
holistic approach to the policy formulation in critical areas of human and
economic development.
The emphasis of the Commission is on maximizing the output by using the
limited resources optimally. Instead of looking for mere increase in the plan
Development Agencies outlays, the effort is to look for increase in the
efficiency of utilization of the allocations.
ii) Finance Commission of India
The Constitution of India provides for the establishment of a Finance
Commission for the purpose of allocation of certain resources of revenue
between the Union and the State Governments. The President of India
established the Finance Commission under Article 280 of the Constitution.
The qualifications, powers and procedures of the Commission itself are
regulated
by the Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951. The
Finance Commission is constituted to define financial relations between the
Centre and ' the States. Under the provision of Article 280 of the Constitution,
the President appoints a Finance Commission for the specific purpose of
devolution of nonplan revenue resources.
Under Article 280 of the Constitution, the Finance Commission is required to
make recommendations to the President about The distribution of net proceeds
of taxes to be shared between the centre and the states, and the allocation
between the states of the respective share of such proceeds.
The principles which should govern the grants-in-aid by the center to states
Out of the Consolidated Fund of India. The measures needed to augment the
consolidated fund of a state to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and
the Municipalities in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by
the State Finance Commission.
Any other matter referred to it by the President of India, in the interests of
sound finance. .,
The Finance Commission has the following powers
The Commission shall have all the powers of the Civil Court, as per the
Code of Civil Procedure, 1908. It can call any witness, or, can ask for the
production of any public record, or document, from any court or office. It can
ask any person to give information or documents on matters as it may feel to
be useful, or relevant. It can function as a civil court in discharging its duties.
iii) State Finance Commission
The 731~ constitutional amendment envisages that in every five year, the state
government shall appoint a Finance Commission to review the financial
aspects
of the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), and Urban Local Bodies (LILBs). The
State Finance Commission (SFC) will give recommendations with regard to
i) The distribution between the state and the Panchayats of the net proceeds of
taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the state which may be divided between
Urban Development Administration them, and how allocation would be made among the various levels of
panchayats Dynamicsof Development ii) What taxes, duties, tolls and fees
NOTES
may be assigned to the panchayats
iii) Grant -in-aids to the panchayats.
The report of the commission together with the action taken report shall be
laid before the state legislature. Many states have appointed their third State
Finance Commission. The State Finance Commission reports are referred to
in the matter of the allocation of resources to different sectors in the states.
iv) State Planning Boards
The State Planning Boards were formed, primarily, to assist the Planning
Commission in allocating resources to states, to enable the state governments
to formulate development plans based on a scientific assessment of the
resources of the state, and the growth priorities. The boards were assigned the
task of preparing an Annual Economic Review to be presented, along with the
Budget Document to the state legislatures.
The main functions of the State Planning Boards are:
1. To assess the resources of the state, and to prepare schemes for their
effective Utilization
2. To assist the District Planning Officers in preparing district plan
proposals, so that they may be incorporated in the overall Plan
3. To ascertain the obstacles to growth of the state economy, and to
suggest measures for removing regional.imbalances.
4. To monitor the progress of Plan schemes, and to suggest changes in
developmental policies To decide Plan priorities.
v) District Planning Boards and Committees
The decentralized planning process started long ago in India, and, in 1969, the
. Union Planning Commission issued guidelines for preparing district plans.
Realizing that the planning machinery and competency were not yet
developed at the district level at the time, efforts were redirected, in later
years, to strengthen the state level planning process. In the early 1980s, a
Working Group, under the Chairmanship of Professor C.H. Hanumantha Rao,
was constituted to develop guidelines for district plans. Based on the
recommendations of this Committee, the Seventh Five Year Plan adopted
decentralized planning at the district level as one of the major strategies to
achieve plan targets.
Local self-government is the prime instrument of decentralization at the grass
root level. The intention of local self-government is to shift from bureaucratic
administration to democratic administration, and to formulate, and execute
development programmes through people's participation, and to instill
political consciousness among the people. They act as vehicles in carrying
back to the people the power that really belongs to them. They ensure self-
governance through directly elected representatives.
According to Dr. D.R. Gadgil, the primary requirements of district planning
are the knowledge of local conditions. and the association of local with
formulation, and the implementation of development plans. The well known
Development Agencies Economist, Gunnar Myrdal pointed out, way back in
1968, "The ideal has always been that the plan should come from the people
102
and meet their wishes and needs, and have their support in thought, as well, as Urban Development Administration
deed". The points put forth in favour of decentralized planning are it
facilitates the formulation of locally relevant programmes, with reference to NOTES
natural endowments, and felt needs of the people it makes bureaucrats more
accountable to the people it also facilitates the participation of ordinary
people in the planning and development process At the state level, the District
Planning Board, and, more recently, after the 73rd Constitutional Amendment,
the District Planning Committees have begun to function. The important
functions of District Planning Board are i) To formulate a long term district
perspective plan, and to evolve a strategy of planned development for the
district, on the basis of felt needs of the people, and local priorities ii) To
prepare a priority-wise list of schemes and programmes, taking into account
the resources available from the plan fund and community contribution, well
before the beginning of each year
iii) To take appropriate measures for the proper implementation of schemes
and programmes and projects
iv) To monitor the progress of projects, and for this purpose the District
Planning and Development Board may meet as frequently as necessary. The
Board will send performance reports to the State Planning Board at regular
intervals.
V) To encourage the panchayats and other local bodies to implementat
development projects themselves. They are responsible for the maximum
involvement of people, and for developing confidence in their leadership, and
in their ability to implement development work. The involvement should be
both in terms of ilnancial and physical parameters
vi) To make efforts to generate additional resources for developmental work
with the cooperation of people. NGOs, NRIs, and other agencies and; vii)
Any other related function that might be assigned by the State Planning
Board.
In the 73rd Constitution Amendment, Article 243 ZD envisages that there
shall be a District Planning Committee in every district to consolidate the
plans prepared by the panchayats and municipalities in the district. Now, in
most states, the District Planning Committees (DPC) have been constituted.
The Act envisaged that the chairman of the Zilla Parishad (the District
Panchayat) be the chairman of DPC. However, in many states, DPCs are
headed by District Commissioners. The function of the DPCs is more, or
less, equivalent to the District Planning Board. Recently, the DPC has been
instrumental in the preparation of District Agriculture Plan, District BRGF
(Backward Region Grant Fund) plan and District NREGS (National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme) now called MREGA (Mahatma Gandhi
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) Plan in mo4t of I hc states
9.7 LETS SUM UP
Development agencies play an important role in the development of a nation. In

India, the National Planning Commission, the Finance Commission, the State

Urban Development Administration Finance Commission, and State Planning.Board play vital roles in the
formulation of national and state plans. At the district level, under the umbrella
NOTES of decentralized planning, the District Planning Committees are being involved
in preparation of district development plans. This unit also discusses the role
and the functions of various bilateral and UN agencies, such as the World
Bank, the ADB, UNICEF, USAID, CIDA, along with others and their work in
the development of various sectors. The development agencies, including
NGO's and banks, also play an important role in the socioeconomic
development of a nation.
1. Write the meaning of Development Administration ?

2. Explain about the Municipalities ?
1. Development administration thus becomes a means through which the

governmen€ brings quantitative and qualitative changes in an economy.
Government is engaged in not only fixing priorities but also making efforts to
realise them.
2. Municipalities – They are setup by the Acts of state legislature for the
administration of small cities or towns. It also has three authorities. First the
municipal council is the legislative branch of the municipality, and is headed by
the Chairman, who in turn is assisted by a Deputy Chairman. The standing
committees facilitate the work of municipality in various fields such as health,
taxation finance etc. The third authority of the municipality is the Chief
Municipal Officer, who is appointed by the state government and is responsible
for the general administration of the municipality.
1. Kundu, A. Bagchi, S. and Kundu, D. (1999), ―Regional Distribution of

Infrastructure and Basic Amenities in Urban India‖, Economic and Political
Weekly, 34/28/1999.
2. Kundu, Amitabh (2001), ― Institutional Innovations for Urban
Infrastructure Development-The India Scenario‖, in Good Urban Governance
Campaign-India Launch Learning from one another, UNCHS (Habitat), New
Delhi, September 4 to 6.
3. Kundu, Amitabh and Darshini MaAhadevia (2002), Poverty and
Vulnerability in a Globalising Metropolis :Ahmedabad, New Delhi, Manak
Publications Pvt Ltd.
4. Kundu, Amitabh and Niranjan Sarangi (2005), ―Issue of Urban
Exclusion‖, Economic and Political Weekly, August13.
104
5. Kundu, Amitabh, (1993), In the Name of the Urban Poor: Access to Urban Development Administration
Basic Amenities, New Delhi, Sage Publications India.
6. Sen, Amartya, (1981), Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement NOTES
and Deprivation, Delhi, Oxford University Press.
7. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2006), Human
Development Report 2005, New Delhi.
8. Ministry of Urban Development (2005), Jawaharlal Nehru Urban
Renewal
9. Mission-Overview; Government of India, New Delhi;
https://jnnurmmis.nic.in
10. Ministry of Urban Development (2005), Jawaharlal Nehru Urban
Renewal
11. Mission-Toolkit; Government of India, New Delhi;

Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies
UNIT X URBAN SERVICES AND
NOTES
URBAN DEFICIENCIES;
METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT
AUTHORITIES, HOUSING AND URBAN
DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION
(HUDCO) AND UNITED NATIONS
CENTRE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT
(UNCHS); HOUSING BOARD.
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Urban services and urban deficiencies
10.2 Metropolitan Development Authorities,
10.3 Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)
10.5 Housing board
10.6 Lets Sum Up
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Urban is one of the important and most growing sector particularly in

developing countries. One of the predictions envisages that there will soon be
four billion city dwellers on the planet, each of them producing consuming and
travelling.
These growing millions have to be fed, provided with housing, safe drinking
water, sanitation and energy, and means of transportation. Management of these
services is critical to raise the quality of living in city life. Many urban
problems are the result of poor management, poor planning and absence of
coherent urban policies rather than urbanization itself. Urban Management
although a fragile yet a most important component of urban planning and
development. In this unit we will cover the meaning and scope of urban
management and also management of urban services. After reading this unit,
you will be able to:
i) Define urban management and delineate its scope
ii) Explain management and delivery of urban services
iii) Describe the pre-requisites of good urban management
10.1 URBAN SERVICES AND URBAN DEFICIENCIES

Urban services and mobility are key to inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
106
cities and human settlements. The New Urban Agenda needs to make concrete Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies
recommendations for cities and human settlements to become inclusive, safe,
resilient, and sustainable by including access for all to adequate, safe, NOTES
affordable, accessible and sustainable basic services and infrastructure. This
requires particular attention to the most vulnerable groups in society, such as
the urban poor, women, children, older people and those with disabilities.
Urban services like water, energy, waste treatment and transport are vital
enablers for social and economic development opportunities and are thus key to
achieving the Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Hence, access to these services ought to be a basic human right.
Over the coming decades, services and infrastructure for transport, water,
sanitation, waste management and energy have to be provided for a rapidly
growing urban population. Global urban growth poses enormous challenges, in
particular with regard to greenhouse gas emissions, social exclusion, safety and
air quality. This requires a transition towards more sustainable, safe and
inclusive provision of urban services. Providing access to urban amenities,
transport has a key role to play in this.
Furthermore, with greater vulnerability to various types of risks, there is more
need to improve the resilience of all service-providing infrastructures. Finally,
equal access to basic services for all groups and communities should be
available, with the emphasis on affordability and safe environments where
basic services can be enjoyed for all, especially for the most vulnerable and
those dependent on these services for living a decent life. Services and access to
amenities are not merely the provision of infrastructure but also boosting
efficiency, embracing local innovation and grassroot initiatives. Technology
solutions must be fit for purpose to contribute to equality and access to urban
services for all, including vulnerable groups. The advancement of Smart City
concepts and the high pace of ICT becoming nested within the urban sphere
both call for further yet careful integration into infrastructure and service
polices under the conditions of inclusiveness, safety, resilience and
sustainability, while taking into account the distinctive governance and
innovation dynamics of urban services and infrastructure. Resilience may be
improved by developing adaptive systems and networks, including
decentralised ones facilitating the self-sufficiency of municipalities and
communities.
Towards new modes of governance - Time for concerted action A human-
centred, inclusive and multi-level governance approach, integrated urban
development, applying the principle of subsidiarity and appropriate legislative
frameworks and enforcement mechanisms are critical to the delivery of urban
services and ensure coordinated action. To support this, intra- and inter-city
learning and capacity building can help to leapfrog to sustainable solutions.
International efforts to implement the New Urban Agenda need to focus on all
levels of governance and decision-making to ensure that multilateral and
bilateral organisations, local authorities as well as national governments
conform to and adopt the Urban Agenda. Thus the New Urban Agenda should
respond to the following key messages.
Key messages on Urban Services and Technologies
1. Access for all
Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies 2. Cities have the responsibility to provide adequate, sustainable and resilient
urban infrastructure and services to all. These refer to both high quality living
NOTES conditions – through services such as safe water supply, waste management and
electricity – and to facilitating convenient and equal, non-discriminatory access
to urban opportunities like jobs, education, healthcare and public spaces
through transport systems and mobility services. To supply these services, local
authorities need funding stability and predictability as well as appropriate
policy and planning
capabilities. This requires support by national governments and the
international community.
Efficient use
Efficient and effective use of urban services require local and national policies
that support people to reduce the consumption of finite resources and shift
demand toward sustainable options, including reducing water, waste, energy
use, and demand for private motorised travel. Local and national governments
should prioritise dense urban development and employ the most appropriate
policy and
technology options to support sustainable choices for services, consumption
and mobility.
Local leadership
Local authorities should take responsibility and leadership for inclusive well-
being and the sustainability of cities. To do so effectively, they need to engage
and develop alliances with the relevant stakeholders at local, national, and
international level.
National policies and funding support
National governments need to enable local authorities to provide adequate
services to urban population. This includes frameworks for the funding of the
development and operation of services and the ability for local authorities to
associate and coordinate beyond city boundaries.
URBAN DEFICIENCIES
The promise of jobs and prosperity, among other factors, pulls people to cities.
Half of the global population already lives in cities, and by 2050 two-thirds of
the world's people are expected to live in urban areas. But in cities two of the
most pressing problems facing the world today also come together: poverty and
environmental degradation.
Poor air and water quality, insufficient water availability, waste-disposal
problems, and high energy consumption are exacerbated by the increasing
population density and demands of urban environments. Strong city planning
will be essential in managing these and other difficulties as the world's urban
areas swell.
Threats
 Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty, with local
governments unable to provide services for all people. Concentrated
energy use leads to greater air pollution with significant impact on
human health.
 Automobile exhaust produces elevated lead levels in urban air.
 Large volumes of uncollected waste create multiple health hazards.
 Urban development can magnify the risk of environmental hazards
108
such as flash flooding. Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies
 Pollution and physical barriers to root growth promote loss of urban tree
cover. NOTES
 Animal populations are inhibited by toxic substances, vehicles,
and the loss of habitat and food sources.

1. Write the meaning of Urban Services ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Write brief note on United Nations of Human Settlement ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
_______________________________________________
__
10.2 METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITIES
The earliest evidence of town-planning was found in India in the ruins at

Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Lothal, Kalbangan and other sites of the Indus
Valley complex. The remains of urban centres in India reveal certain features
of urban planning such as street system, division of a city into specialized
functional quarters, development of commanding central cites for palaces,
temples and what would now be called civic buildings and advanced system of
fortification, water supply, drainage, etc.
Town-planning is an essential pre-requisite of organized civic life. The
planning of a town consisted
1. the orderly arrangement of the city‘s residential, commercial and
administrative divisions in such a manner that each part could function without
much overlapping;
2. an efficient system of roads connecting different parts of the town, and the
town with the outside world;
3. the provision of safe, sanitary and comfortable housing in a variety of
dwelling types to meet the needs of all types of families;
4. the provision of recreation, schools and other community services of a high
standard;and
5. the provision of adequate water supply, public utilities and services.1
Metropolitan planning in India still has to face a fluid condition on account of
the economic condition of the people. Rural folk do not like to move into
towns voluntarily they do so for a better income. In the process they suffer
considerable psychological and environmental tensions. For their integration
into a new society, it is essential to undertake community development on a
fairly extensive scale simultaneously with physical planning for cities. This
will have to be as a basic part of the over-all programme as national economic
development and will naturally have to be concurrently linked up with a
nation-wide programme for controlling the growth of population.
Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies While the technical aspects of planning are of vital importance, the existence
of efficient administrative machinery is equally important. It will enable plans
NOTES to be implemented in a properly phased and coordinated manner. Where a
region is completely within the jurisdiction of a State Government, the
problem is obviously easy. Where the region extends into several political
jurisdictions, the problem gets complicated, as in the case of Delhi.
Adjustments have to be made not only with the various governments
concerned but also with the local authorities. For the development of the Delhi
metropolitan area, which three political jurisdictions of three states, co-
ordination and consultation at all stages are necessary for fruition of plans.
This co-ordination has already been achieved at the technical plan-making
level. Achievement at the administrative and political levels will involve the
active participation of the central and state governments and the local bodies
concerned.
Regional plans transcending political jurisdictions, as in the case of the Delhi
metropolitan area and the national capital region, call for vision and
imagination, apart from day-to-day co-ordination and understanding. If the
purpose of planning is clear and if the objectives are understood, smooth and
active collaboration is likely to ensure.
10.3 HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

CORPORATION (HUDCO)
In 1998, the National Housing and Habitat Policy (NHHP) was announced
which specifically emphasized that housing construction in both rural and
urban areas should be left in the hands of the private sector and that the
government should restrict itself to the role of a facilitator. The Policy
promised ―Shelter to All‖ by the year 2001 but this promise was to be realized
through the invisible hand of the market which was supposed to ensure
affordable housing to all if all impediments to its efficient functioning were
removed. As a follow up to the recommendations of the NHHP 1998, the Two
Million Housing Programme was launched in 1998-99. It was a loan based
scheme promoting the construction of 20 lakh additional housing units every
year (13 lakh for rural areas and 7 lakh for urban areas). Out of this HUDCO
was to meet the target of 4 lakh dwelling units in urban areas and 6 lakh in
rural areas annually. In 1999, the Draft National Slum Policy was announced
which proposed the integration of slum dwellers in the mainstream of urban
life through in-situ up gradation. The Draft Policy included all underserviced
settlements in its definition of slums and proposed their up gradation and
improvement as opposed to eviction. It also spoke about granting tenure to
slum dwellers inhabiting government land apart from providing them with
basic civic amenities. The Draft National Slum Policy was never adopted,
however in 2001, a Rs. 20 billion subsidy based scheme called the
ValmikiAmbedkarAwas Yojana (VAMBAY) was started with the aim to
provide/ upgrade shelter to urban slum dwellers.
In the 9th Plan period two other major steps were taken to further the process
of liberalization of land and real estate markets. The first step was the repeal of
110
the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act in 1999. The second major step Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies
was taken in 2002 when the government allowed 100 percent Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) in integrated townships, including housing, commercial NOTES
premises, hotels and resorts. FDI was also permitted in infrastructure projects
such as roads, bridges, mass rapid transit systems and for the manufacturing of
building materials. The minimum area to be developed was fixed at 100 acres.
The 2001 Census had shown that contrary to the expectations and
predictions of a wide array of actors, the rate of growth of urban population
was steadily declining. This has been attributed to cities becoming
inhospitable to poor migrants due to the promulgation of neo-liberal urban
policies. However, the 10th Plan celebrates this fact and attributes it to the
success of rural development programmes along with the limited availability
of land for squatting in central urban areas. The Plan identifies urbanization as
a key determinant of the economic growth in the 1980s and 1990s, boosted by
economic liberalization. The 10th Plan (2002-07) was prepared in the backdrop
of the Union Budget of 2002-03 which had announced radical measures to
push cities into carrying out comprehensive urban reforms. The overriding
thrust of the 10th Plan was to promote overhauling of the legislative,
governance and administrative structure of cities through a set of market-
friendly urban reforms and promotion of PPPs in urban infrastructure and
services. A lot of emphasis was placed on making urban local bodies
financially strong so that they have to rely less and less on state transfers. To
enable ULBs to raise their own resources the Plan advocated reform in
property tax, levying of user charges, increasing non-tax revenues, controlling
establishment costs, better utilization of municipal assets and
overhauling municipal accounting systems. These reforms, it was suggested,
would enhance the credit-worthiness of ULBs and make them capable to
mobilising funds from capital market and investors. The Plan also spoke about
substantially increasing investment in up gradation of urban infrastructure and
services but made it clear that central assistance in this regard would be made
conditional upon states and ULBs carrying out sector reforms, in particular
better standard of services and levying of user charges
Building Partnerships and Solutions in an Urbanizing World The United

Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) was established in 1978, two
years after the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, held in
Vancouver, Canada. The Centre serves as the lead agency for the human
settlements development activities of the United Nations family, as well as for
the global exchange of information about human settlements conditions and
trends.
Habitat's integrated programme of policy advice, operational research,
technical cooperation, capacity-building and awareness-raising focuses on
priority areas defined by Governments through the United Nations
Commission on Human Settlements, its governing body, and contained in the
Centre's Work Programme. These areas are:
Shelter and social services;
Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies urban management;
environment and infrastructure; and
NOTES assessment, information and monitoring.
Currently, Habitat has 235 operational programmes and projects underway in
80 countries, focusing on capacity-building, human settlements management
and development, basic services and infrastrucure, and housing. The Centre's
principal collaborating partners in the UN system are: the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF), the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs and the
World Health Organization (WHO). Habitat also closely collaborates with
bilateral and external assistance agencies, international and national non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), associations of local authorities,
parliamentary associations, women and youth organizations and private sector
bodies.
At present, Habitat is in the process of re-organization which will enable it to
effectively spearhead the global implementation of the Habitat Agenda -- the
Global Plan of Action adopted at the Second United Nations Conference on
Human Settlements, held in Istanbul, Turkey in June 1996. To execute the key
functions outlined in the Habitat Agenda, and to meet the expectations of
partners and national Governments alike, the existing organizational structure
and working methods of the Centre are being re-focused to converge on its new
strategic tasks and responsibilities. The Centre's medium-term plan for 1998-
2001, approved by the UN General Assembly at its fifty-first session, has the
implementation of the Habitat Agenda as its primary goal.
10.5 HOUSING BOARD
Housing Board in India has been set up in most of the Indian states by the
government of India in order to promote the property market's expansion.
The board for housing in India sees to the proper development of the ideally
located and well-placed colonies. To boost housing projects all over the country
the Housing Boards in India have been formed in various states.
The objectives of the Housing Boards in India are:
To provide housing accommodation to needy citizens at reasonable prices
To construct houses and to allot them under the categories of high income
group, middle income group, and low income group
To select the sites for housing and decide the services to be provided
To formulate schemes for self financing that help the middle and high income
groups
To construct commercial complexes, multi-storied buildings, and shops and
then to lease them out in rent so as to secure financial resources for the boards.
Some of the various housing boards in India are as under:
Gujarat Housing Board
Andhra Pradesh Housing Board
Himachal Pradesh Housing Board
Orissa Housing Board
Madhya Pradesh Housing Board
Among Indian Housing Boards, the one belonging to Gujarat was been set up
112
on May 1st, 1960 and has constructed over 176,754 houses in the entire state. Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies
The Andhra Pradesh Housing Board was established on July 1st, 1960 and has
constructed projects under various categories such as low, middle, and high NOTES
income groups and built around 69,398 houses. The Orissa Housing Board
was set up in 1968 and it has built around 28,500 houses in the state. The
Madhya Pradesh Housing Board had been set up under the 1972 Madhya
Pradesh Griha Nirman Mandal Adhiniyam Act. It has constructed a lot of
houses all over the state. The Housing Boards in India have been instrumental
in providing accommodation for lakhs of Indians across the country. Housing
Boards in India have been successful to a large extent and the government of
India needs to ensure the availability of funds for the housing boards to ensure
that they continue with their projects.
10.6 LETS SUM UP
Urban population of India is larger than the total population of many countries.
Despite this important fact, one has to accept that India with about 27 per cent
of its population living in its urban areas is less urbanised. Also the spread of
its urban population is not even. The large cities especially the metropolitan
cities have most of the total urban population. Small and medium towns have
not flourished. Poor migrants from rural areas bypass these towns and arrive at
large cities in search of employment. About 15 per cent of the total urban
population of the States of India lives inslums. The actual picture is grimmer.
Around 23 per cent of the urban population of the towns reporting slums was
living in slums in 2001. The cities with more than one million population have
high percentage of population living in slums. Urban basic services are poor in
urban India and are less than the requirement. Urbanisation is happening in
India. But it has its problems. Major problems of urban areas of India are
overcrowding, congestion, inadequate basic services and urban infrastructure,
lack of efficient transport facilities, air pollution, environmental pollution and
existence of slums.

1. Write the meaning of Urban Services ?
2. Write the brief note on United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat) ?
1.Urban services and mobility are key to inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable cities and human settlements. The New Urban Agenda needs to
make concrete recommendations for cities and human settlements to become
inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable by including access for all to
adequate, safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable basic services and
infrastructure.
Urban Services and Urban Deficiencies 2.Building Partnerships and Solutions in an Urbanizing World The United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) was established in 1978, two
NOTES years after the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, held in
Vancouver, Canada. The Centre serves as the lead agency for the human
settlements development activities of the United Nations family, as well as
for the global exchange of information about human settlements conditions
and trends.
 Government of India (2007), ―National Urban Housing and Habitat
Policy‖, Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation
 HUDCO (2004), ―Trends and Gaps in Housing and Basic Amenities in
India, 2001, (mimeo)
 National Housing Bank (2010), ―Report on trend and Progress of
Housingn India‖(mimeo)
 Odeyar d.Heggade and Francis Cherunilam (1987), Housing in
India,Himalaya Publications, New Delhi
 Bhole, Vijaya (1988),Housing and Urban Development in India,
Classical Publications, New Delhi
 Htpp://India.gov.in/default.php
114
Urban Development Programmes
UNIT XI ROLE OF VOLUNTARY
NOTES
AGENCIES IN URBAN COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.2 Voluntary Agencies In Urban Community Development
11.3 Role of Voluntary Agencies In Urban Community Development
11. 4 Lets Sum Up
11.0 INTRODUCTION
Voluntary organizations are also known as non profitable or non Paid

organization. Voluntary organization means a group of people working
together voluntarily to help the needy persons with their needs and resources
available to them. They not work for personal intention but they work for
humanity, welfare of people and development. Voluntary organizations are
initiated by individuals or group of individuals voluntarily for development,
particularly for disadvantaged sections of society. Voluntary organization is
organized for voluntary action. ―Voluntary organization is a group of persons
organized on the basis of voluntary membership without state control for the
furtherance of some common interests of its members‖ David .L.Sills.The
term voluntarism is derived from the latin word ―voluntas‖ which means will
or freedom. It is that action or activity which is not diverted or controlled by
the state. It is an activity which is governed by its own members and not by
any outside force. Thus we can say that voluntary organization is a group of
people who spend their free time helping others without monetary
compensation and do not make a profit from their activities. It is a structured
group of people who have come together of their own accord for a social
rather than a commercial purpose.

In a democratic, socialistic and welfare society, voluntary organisations are
indispensible and they perform a number of functions for the welfare of its
members, the development of a country, integration and solidarity of the
society and nation , voluntary organisation have enormous impact on the well
being of the communities worldwide. Things of all the ways that volunteers
make a difference in day today life. Volunteer organisation deliver critical
services to fire fighters and are participating in search and rescue, to delivering
meals to homeless youths, to maiming the phone lines at domestic violence and

Urban Development Programmes sexual assault centers the volunteers also clear drain from parks and roadways
in India. It frees up time for city employees to focus on other services. The
NOTES community is beautified when volunteers participate in clean ups, gardening
and planting. Voluntary organisation provides day care and elder care to
families that may not be able to afford these valuable services without
assistance. Schools are strengthened when volunteers donate time and resources
to tutor students, building illiteracy and knowledge. Support for youth for
motoring and personal growth of community youth, thus encouraging them to
become strong citizens and future volunteers. When a community is doing well
as a whole and individual tend to thrice as well. The services provided by the
volunteers are really great and full of courage that otherwise might have been
provided at higher cost or not provided at all. Voluntary organisation not only
helps to keep our environment neat and tidy but they provide end number of
services like free medical camps, free meditation, education related programs,
agricultural programs, free coaching and support young people with everything
and contribute veterinary expertise to organisations like animal shelters, wild
life rehabilitations centers. According to corporation for national and
community services 61.8 million individuals the United States contributed 8
billion hours of volunteerism in 2008 alone. The economic value of all these
volunteering is 162 billion US dollars. This is roughly equivalent to the 2008
gross domestic product of Egypt.
11.3 ROLE OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES IN URBAN

There is no doubt that voluntary agencies have been playing a pioneering role
in rural development activities. They have also exhibited the qualities of
flexibility of service, personal touch and proximity to the clientele. In addition,
they have demonstrated the capacity to initiate and experiment with new
programmes and showed sensitivity to meet difficult problems in ways that
cannot be adopted by the state. However, it is necessary to envisage the
following role for these bodies in the context of village base organisations.
a) The voluntary agencies have to supplement and not to compete with
government efforts. The government should not consider their activities as
duplication.
b) They act as eyes and ears of the people at the rural level and act as a source
of reliable feedback to government so that it can design the policies and
programmes accordingly.
c) It is possible for the voluntary agencies to reach a large number of people
and set an example for others.
d) Voluntary bodies, quite often, take initiative in the implementation of certain
acts such as Minimum Wages Act, Abolition of Bonded Labour Act etc., in
letter and in spirit. Through public interest litigation and administrative
measures, these bodies could activise the system and make it respond.
e) Dissemination of information is another potential area in which the voluntary
agencies is of immense use. It is quite often seen that information regarding
various schemes, programmes projects etc., do not reach the rural poor.
116
Information is power and the role of the voluntary body is to distribute such Urban Development Programmes
power and make it accessible to the rural poor.
f) Voluntary sector has been in the forefront in utilizing rural skills and talent. NOTES
Further, it is possible to minimis? the dependency syndrome through various
methods and a sense of self-reliance has to be instilled among the villagers.

1. Write the meaning of Voluntary Agencies ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Write any two role of voluntary organizations ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
11. 4 LETS SUM UP
In this lesson, various issues have been analysed. A number of issues and
problems indicate the wide ranging scope of the subject. Voluntary action is
looked upon by many as an instrument of mass mobilisation or involvement of
large number of people and, thus, help to reduce the chasm between the
'governed' and the 'governors'. Voluntary action in patnership with the
government is an important issue. The presence of healthy atmosphere and
goodwill between government and voluntary agencies is a basic prerequisite to
strengthen good relations between the two. At present, there appears to be
mutual suspicion and lack of trust in each other. On several occasions,
voluntary agencies have been valued so long as they function within the
existing "order" and follow directives of government. Any agency that
questions the existing order is normally treated as a subject of law and order
problem, demanding repressive action.
A proper measuring norm has to be developed to assess the working of
voluntary organisations in this country. Apart from this, distribution of funds
remain a controversial and sensitive subject. It became acute when funds came
from international bodies. Some critics point out that the foreign donors use
these voluntary bodies, to whom they donate money, as clever ploy to weaken
the power of the state as a part of the large game of global power politics.
Further, selflessness and selfishness cannot always be distinguished easily.
Organisations, functioning at different levels in different areas, suffer from
lack of coordination. In spite of these and other problems, with their
uniqueness of the operational abilities, the voluntary agencies have a crucial
role to play in rural transformation.
11. 5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Write the meaning of Voluntary Organisation ?

Urban Development Programmes 2. Write any two role of Voluntary organization ?
NOTES 11.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Voluntary organizations are also known as non profitable or non Paid

organization. Voluntary organization means a group of people working
together voluntarily to help the needy persons with their needs and resources
available to them. They not work for personal intention but they work for
humanity, welfare of people and development. Voluntary organizations are
initiated by individuals or group of individuals voluntarily for development,
particularly for disadvantaged sections of society.
2. Voluntary bodies, quite often, take initiative in the implementation of
certain acts such as Minimum Wages Act, Abolition of Bonded Labour Act
etc., in letter and in spirit. Through public interest litigation and administrative
measures, these bodies could activise the system and make it respond. a) The
voluntary agencies have to supplement and not to compete with government
efforts. The government should not consider their activities as duplication.
b) They act as eyes and ears of the people at the rural level and act as a source
of reliable feedback to government so that it can design the policies and
programmes accordingly.
 Franda, Marcus, 1983. Voluntary Association and Local Development

in India; Young Asia Publication; New Delhi.
 Kulkarni, V.M, 1969, Voluntary Action in a Developing Society;
Indian Institute of Public Administration; New Delhi.
 Kramer, Ralph M, 1989. Voluntary Agencies in rhe Welfare State;
University of California Press; London.
 Shah Kalpana, 1984. Women's Liberation and Volunrary Action:
Ajanta; New Delhi. Journals
 Bhattacharya, Mohit., 1987. "Voluntary Associations Development and
the Statem—Indian Journal of Public Administration; Vo1.'33, July-Dec., pane
383-94 : IlPA
 Zhaturvedi, H.R, "Role of Voluntary Organisations in Rural
Development", Indiun, Journal of Public Administration; Vol-33, July-Dec.,
page 53346 : IlPA
 Maheshwari Shriram, 1987. "Voluntary Action in Rural Cevelopment",
Indian Journal of Public Administration; Vol33, July-Dec., page 559-68 : IIPA
 Muttalib, M.A. 1987. "Voluntarism and Developrnent-Theoretical
Perspective", Indian Journal of Public Administration; Vol-33 July-Dec., page
399419 : IIPA
118
UNIT XII URBAN DEVELOPMENT Urban Development Programmes
NOTES
PROGRAMMES: FIVE YEAR PLANS
AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT;
MADRAS URBAN DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS (MUDP) I & II
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Urban Development Programmes
12.2 Five year plans and urban development;
12.3 Madras Urban Development Projects (MUDP) I & II
12 4 Lets Sum Up
12.0 INTRODUCTION
As per 2001 population census 285.35 million people reside in urban areas. It
constitutes 27.8% of the total population of the country. In post-independence
era, while population of India has grown three times, the urban population has
grown five times. The rising urban population has also given rise to increase
in the number of urban poor.As per 2001 estimates, the slum population is
estimated to be 61.8 million. The ever increasing number of slum dwellers
causes tremendous pressure on urban basic services and infrastructure. In
order to cope with massive problems that have emerged as a result of rapid
urban growth, the government of India has launched many programmes since
independence. One of the illustrious examples is JNNURM launched recently
to rejuvenate urban development in India.
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• Describe various urban development programmes launched in India since
independence.
• Discuss JNNURM.
12.1 URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Urban development programmes with a focus on reduction and alleviation of
poverty, has been one of the objectives of five-year plans in the country since
the beginning of the planned era. This was, however, brought into the core of
Urban Development Programmes planning exercise only during the Fifth Year Plan. The consumption levels of
different commodities were projected in this plan by taking higher growth
NOTES rates for people in lower consumption brackets. Extensive research has since
then been carried out to study the dimensions of poverty, its temporal trend,
spatial pattern etc.
Urban Development Plans,
Policies and Programmes This led to identification of theoretical solutions for
reduction of poverty and launching of programmes during the past Five Year
Plans. An analysis of the government policies and programmes and investment
pattern during the fifties, sixties and seventies reveals a distinct bias for urban
areas. Public sector investment in infrastructure and basic services improved
the level of services in urban centers, which accentuated the rural urban
disparity. These investments were concentrated mostly in the large cities that
attracted private investments as well as subsidized institutional funds. This
resulted in creation of employment opportunities at a higher level of
productivity earnings than in rural areas, widening the gap between their
income levels. This period also witnessed the creation of a number of Boards
and Corporations at the state level and development authorities at the city
level. Considerable funds were routed through these agencies that improved
the level of services for at least a section of the urban population.
Removal of poverty received attention initially in the Fifth Five Year Plan.
The earlier plans did not emphasize on proper analysis of the dimension of
poverty. The Fifth Plan noted that the consumption levels of the bottom 30 per
cent of the country‘s population remained below the minimum of Rs.40.6 per
capita per month at 1972-73 prices. No distinction was, however, made
between rural and urban poverty. The plan stressed poverty could be removed
by promoting economic growth and through proper implementation of the
national level programmes like Minimum Needs Programme. The Sixth Plan
addressed the problem of poverty in a more focused manner and recognized
that economic growth process by itself was not enough to tackle poverty. It
noted that about per cent of the rural population and 41 per cent of the urban
population were living below the poverty line in 1979-80. Specific
programmes like Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns,
Minimum Needs Programme, Urban
Basic Services, Integrated Rural Development Programme, National
Rural Development Programme (NRDP) etc. were recommended for urban
and rural areas. The Sixth Plan showed a distinct bias in favour of rural
poverty by implementing specific programmes. The programmes that have
been launched since independence have been briefly discussed in the
following section. i) Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
(IDSMT): The programme was launched in 1979-80 basically for developing
small and medium towns partly by providing basic services to poor and also
by improving their economic conditions so that the growth of metro cities
could be arrested. Initially, the scope of the programme was restricted to towns
with population below one hundred thousand as per the 1971 Census. It had
been decided in the Eighth Plan to include cities having population of five
120
hundred thousand as per the Census of 1991. Urban Development Programmes
ii) Low Cost Sanitation Programme (LCS): The goal of providing sanitation NOTES
facilities to eighty per cent of urban population was fixed in the early eighties
with the announcement of the UN Decadal Programme for Water Supply and
Sanitation. Accordingly, a centrally sponsored scheme was launched in 1980-
81, with the objective of eliminating manual scavenging through conversion of
dry latrines. It covered all the households, which have dry latrines and those
having no latrines including slum and squatter settlements.
Urban Development
Programmes in India Under this scheme, loan and Central subsidy were both
channeled through
HUDCO.
iii) Shelter and Sanitation for Pavement Dwellers (SSPD): This programme
was launched in large urban areas including metropolitan cities, having
sizable shelter less population. The Tenth Plan has pointed out that the
provision of subsidy under the scheme has to be adequate to make it feasible
for the NGOs to take up shelter construction. The grants per bed should also
be revised to achieve the objective of providing a sufficient number of nights
– shelters for the homeless women and children. The Pay and Use component
of this scheme is being merged with the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan of
VAMBAY. iv) Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP): This
is another centrally sponsored scheme launched during the Eighth Plan for
providing water to the towns having less than 20,000 population as per the
Census of 1991, operationally under the State PHED to be funded by the
Central Government, State Government and concerned ULBs on 50:45:5
ratio. The Centre met the entire cost in Union Territories.
v) National Slum Development Programme (NSDP): The NSDP initiated in
1996 as a scheme of Special Central Assistance for slum improvement, has
been providing additional central assistance to state governments to provide
water supply and sanitation among other facilities to the slums.
vi) VAMBAY (Valmiki-Ambedkar Awas Yojona): This scheme has been
launched in 2001-02 to provide shelter or upgrade the existing shelter of the
people living below poverty line in urban slums implemented in partnership
with state governments who will set up the implementation machinery,
arrange for land where required and for the credit component for housing.
The state funds under the scheme will be in proportion to their slum
population.
vii) Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY): In order to alleviate the conditions of
urban poor, a Centrally Sponsored Programme - Nehru Rozgar Yojana – was
launched at the end of the Seventh Five Year Plan (October 1989) with the
objective of providing employment to the urban unemployed and
underemployed poor. The Central Government indicated its overall
contribution while the essential task of identifying, earmarking and
Urban Development Programmes coordinating the relevant sectoral inputs was undertaken by the State
Governments. The NRY consisted of three schemes namely (i) the Scheme of
NOTES Urban Micro Enterprises (SUME); (ii) the Scheme of Urban Wage
Employment (SUWE); and (iii) the Scheme of Housing and Shelter
Upgradation (SHASU). During the Eighth Plan, 92% of the available funds
were utilized but for the shortfall in the number of dwelling units upgraded/in
progress under SHASU, the targets have been achieved under all the other
schemes. viii)Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP): The UBSP
Programme was implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme during the
Eighth Five Year Plan with the specific objectives of effective achievement of
the social sector goals; community organization, mobilization and
empowerment; and convergence through sustainable support system. The
expenditure on the Urban Development Plans,Policies and Programmes
Programme was being shared on a 60:40 basis between the Central and the
State Governments and UTs (with legislatures). Further, the per capita
expenditure on any slum pocket is Rs.75/- in the first year and Rs.50/- from
the second year onwards after the basic infrastructure is developed.
ix) Prime Minister‘s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PM
IUPEP): Recognizing the seriousness and complexity of urban poverty
problems, especially in the small towns, the PMI UPEP was launched in
November, 1995 applicable to all Class II urban agglomerations with a
population ranging between 50,000 and one lakh subject to the condition that
elections to local bodies have been held.
x) The Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY): The Nehru Rojgar
Yojna (NRY) and Prime Minister‘s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication
Programme (PMI UPEP) were two important direct poverty alleviation
programmes in urban areas. Although their thrust was on employment and
income generation for urban poor, these had components for provision of
basic services as well. PMI UPEP was launched in the year 1995-96 with the
objectives of employment generation, shelter upgradation, social development
and community empowerment. It may, however, be noted that during 1997,
the three programmes of UBSP, NRY and PMIUPEP have been merged into
a single employment generation programme called Swarna
Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojona (SJSRY).
The SJSRY is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme applicable to all the urban areas
with expenditure to be shared in ratio 75:25 between the Centre and
States/UTs. The programme has two sub-schemes namely: (a) Urban Self –
Employment Programme and (b) Urban Wage Employment Programme.
The self-employment and wage employment components of the NRY and
PMIUPEP have been re-organised under this single programme. The shelter
upgradation components of both NRY and PMIUPEP have been merged with
the National Slum Development Programme.
The SJSRY seeks to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed or
underemployed poor by encouraging the setting up of self-employment
122
ventures or provision of wage employment. This programme is based on the Urban Development Programmes
creation of suitable community structures on the UBSP pattern and delivery
of inputs under this programme was devised through urban local bodies and NOTES
similar community institutional structures and rests on the foundation of
community empowerment. Community organisations like Neighbourhood
Groups (NHGs), Neighbourhood Committees (NHCs) and Community
Development Societies (CDSs) have been set up in the target areas based on
the UBSP pattern. The CDSs is the focal point for purposes of identification
of beneficiaries, preparation of applications, monitoring of recovery and
generally providing whatever other support is necessary to the programme.
The CDSs identifies viable projects suitable for that particular area.
12.2 FIVE YEAR PLANS AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

The available literature on the current planning practices in the country
indicates that planning objectives, policies and strategies at national level, are
basically formalized in the Five Year Plans. According to Item 20 of the
Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India, social
and economic planning is a joint responsibility of the central and state
governments. However, land being a state subject, the role of state
governments becomes more pronounced in the implementation process.
At the state level, the system of economic planning is similar to the one at the
national level. Spatial or physical planning is generally limited to a few
selected urban settlements. The urban planning system includes the master
plan, detailed further through zonal plans. In some states, provision of an
interim general plan is also available. Generally the state Town and Country
Planning Department/ Directorate is responsible for preparation of
master/development plans of urban settlements under the respective state
Regional and Town Planning Act. In Maharashtra, and Gujarat, the
development plans of urban centers are prepared by state Town Planning and
Valuation Departments, for, and on behalf of the municipalities. The
development authorities, in some states, perform the planning function also.
Private sector town planning consultancy firms are also engaged by various
organizations to prepare development plan of state capitals, new towns and
other towns. The implementation of these plans is generally through
development authorities and special function boards/undertakings.
12.3 MADRAS URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

(MUDP) I & II
The term "SSS" is normally used to cover a variety of projects in which land is
developed primarily for the benefit of lower income groups. The basic
objective ofthis project is to provide low income families with the land and
public utility components of the housing package. A variety of technical and
financial assistance, enable them to use self-help to build, and progressively
improve their dwellings. The following are provided in the sites and services
by housing authorities in different parts ofthe world: (1) pegged out lots,
unpaved roads and paths common water taps and pit latrine. (2) as above but
Urban Development Programmes main services water connections cover each lot. (3) as same as (2) but with
paved roads and foot paths (4) paved roads, foot paths, main service
NOTES connections and a sanitary care. (5) any of the above with more or in some
cases with a partly finished house including roof covering (World Bank 1977,
Kalaidasan 1982).
Objectives
The most important factor in minimising subsidies is, designing the
programmes according to the paying capacity of the target population.
For example, individual electricity connection may be optional, and a
core sanitary unit, may be left to be constructed by the beneficiary
himself. High rates of repayment defaults, plot resales and high
subsidies, all indicate a mis-match between the target population‘s ability
to pay, and project design. Some understanding on the capacity of the
target population to pay for a developed plot, can be gained by looking at
the amounts low income households are presently spending on housing.
So far as developing countries are concerned, the lower income
household‘s ability to pay range from 3 to 15 per cent of their monthly
income. The sites and services projects are located far from employment
centres because oflow cost ofland, otherwise it will be financially
disastrous for the occupants. The inhabitants must bear the extra cost of
transportation to the work area and the extra cost of goods purchased
locally and both of them appear to rise in direct proportion to the
distance of the project from the city centres. Either through employment
generation or in terms of equity benefits to residents, their economic
development can be improved. Equity benefits are by far the greater,
though they represent a potential danger. While net gains can be realised
from the sale ofthe property, plot transferto higherincome families
undermine the purpose of the project. On the other hand, income gained
from room rental should not be discouraged since it helps to support the
occupants and is often ploughed back into physical improvement ofthe
site. Rentals can also meet part of the demand for cheap unsubsidized
accommodation to the recent migrants in need of employment. For this
and many other reasons a SSS area should be accessible to the very poor
with the minimum services even though opportunities are made for
betterment of families to improve their standards, perhaps by paying for
their own water connection and so on

1. Write the Concept of Community Development Programme ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Write the meaning of SJSRY ?
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124
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MADRAS URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Urban Development Programmes
1. One of the important objectives of the project was to redirect a significant NOTES
part of public investments in the key sectors of housing, employment, social
support services, water supply and transport, to directly benefit the low-
income population of the metropolitan area.
2. The second major objective of the project was to ensure full cost recovery
for replicability of the project and mobilization of local resources to cover the
additional expenditure required for the maintenance of the assets created under
the project, and to expand the services to meet the population growth in the
area.
3. The third major objective was to develop the capabilities of the Chennai
Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) and other agenciesinvolved in
urban development to formulate and execute similar projects on a continuing
basis. Under this, CMDA was expected to propose future development
programmes including capital budgeting for them. The concerned sectoral
agency would acquire expertise and skill for preparing detailed proposals and
on this behalf, CMDA would offer guidelines to agencies and would, review
all proposals for their economic and financial viability and for their
consistency with the development objective as identified in its strategy plan.
MADRAS URBAN DEVELOPMENTPROJECT - II
Local urban services which act as a link to a larger array of government and
private services such as schools, small businesses, markets, shops, police and
fire protection, religious, cultural and social welfare centres such as clinics,
employment agencies and day care of kindergarten schools.
MUDP-II was planned to provide 18267 shelter units at an estimated cost of
Rs.384.10 million over an extent of 291 ha. About 70% of shelter units are
meant to house EWS people along with necessary physical facilities, social
facilities, basic amenities provided in the schemes. It has been decided by the
planning authority to follow the same standards of MUDP I in implementing
the programmes under MUDP II.
(i) Advanced sale of prime land to generate resources for development, (ii)
Allotment ofsites sufficiently in advance to ensure early settlement, (iii)
Streamlining of procedures in respect of execution of lease-cum-sale
agreement, handing over of site, issue of planning permission, issue of cash
and material loans etc. again to help occupation of site, (iv) Provision for
maintenance of roads and services during the construction and occupation
period to ensure quick transfer ofmaintenance functions to local body, (v) It is
proposed to include a percentage ofunits for rehabilitation of slum dwellers
from objectionable slums, on easier terms, (vi) Adopting low cost sanitation
methods in preference to underground sewerage system in several of the sites.
TAMIL NADU URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
1. Besides Madras for which a well conceived Urban Development
Programme is under implementation, Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli and
Urban Development Programmes Salem need the most urgent attention as they are the immediate next order of
big towns and growth poles considering the need of basic services in these
NOTES centres.
2. Population studies indicate that Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli and
Salem Planning Areas are expected to have a population of 2.27, 1.61, 1.33
and 1.07 million respectively by the turn ofthe century. All the four cities have
developed as focus of trade and commerce, Centres of Textile Mills and
Engineering Industries besides beingimportantseats ofadministration, higher
and technological education.
3. The four cities are geographically, centrally located and equi-distantfrom
one another and have a strong relationship with the surrounding hinterland,
and are served by a good net work both by broad and metre gauge lines of the
Southern Railways. They are also on the domestic airline map.
4. Administratively also, these cities are geared to take up the Urban
Development Programmes, having benefitted under the centrally sponsored
and state integrated urban development programmes in the fifth and sixth five
year plans.
5. To summarise, these cities have been selected for inclusion in the Tamil
Nadu Urban Development project because of i) Advantageous geographic
location vis-a-vis Madras and other Urban Centres and strong relationship with
surrounding hinterland.
ii) A fairly developed level of infrastructure including social infrastructure.
iii) A strong economic base which has potential for increasing employment
and incomes.
iv) The level of affordability for shelter and other services is comparatively
higher.
v) Being ‗near million cities‘ and having a long tradition of municipal
administration they are equipped to absorb investments through better
administrative and technical capabilities.
vi) The institutions that will implement such projects are Tamil Nadu Housing
Board, Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board, Department of Highways and
Rural Works, Public Works Department and they have all experience in the
implementation of MUDP, and have acquired the proper orientation for
undertaking such projects.
In TNUDP (World Bank 1988) project, 54 per cent of total investment went to
shelter programme, whereas it is 37 per cent for MUDP I and 62 per cent for
MUDP II. For transport sector 34 per cent of the total cost is allocated and for
MUDP I and II it is 35 per cent and 32 per cent respectively. 11 per cent of
investment goes to municipal services, water supply and drainage. In MUDP I
it is 21 per cent and in MUDP II it is only 3 per cent. Investment towards
technical assistance is maintained almost at the same level in all urban
development projects. It is 1.6 per cent under TNUDP, 1 per cent for MUDP I
126
and 2 per cent for MUDP II. Urban Development Programmes
NOTES
12 4 LETS SUM UP
This Unit has presented you an overview of urban development policies and
programmes. Here, we have discussed the types, structure, functions and
resources of urban local bodies. An attempt has also been made to emphasis‘
the importance and strategies of disaster management in urban areas. Further,
we have highlighted various on-going efforts in respect of urban reforms in
India. Urban development programmes with a focus on reduction and
alleviation of poverty, has been one of the objectives of five-year plans in the
country since the beginning of the planned era. This was, however, brought
into the core of planning exercise only during the Fifth Five Year Plan. In
order to cope with massive problems that have emerged as a result of rapid
urban growth, it has become imperative to draw up a coherent urbanization
policy/strategy to implement projects in select cities on mission mode. The
need for the mission also rose in order to harness the potential of reforms in
urban infrastructure, for National Level Reform-linked Investments, for
sustainable infrastructure development and efficiency enhancements. The
JNNURM is the outcome of the mission strategy and is in vogue since 2005
for fastening the process of urban development.
12. 5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write the Concept of Community Development Programme ?
2. Write the meaning of SJSRY ?
1. Urban development programmes with a focus on reduction and

alleviation of poverty, has been one of the objectives of five-year plans in the
country since the beginning of the planned era. This was, however, brought
into the core of planning exercise only during the Fifth Year Plan
2. The SJSRY is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme applicable to all the
urban areas with expenditure to be shared in ratio 75:25 between the Centre
and States/UTs. The programme has two sub-schemes namely: (a) Urban Self
–Employment Programme and (b) Urban Wage Employment Programme.
1. Asthana, M.D. and Sabir Ali (2004), Urban Poverty in India, New
Delhi, Council for Social Development and Uppal Publishing House.Council
for Social Development (2006), India: Social Development Report, Delhi,
Oxford University Press.
2. Jha, Ramanath, and Nasrin Siddiqui, (2000), People-friendly cities:
Explorations in India Urban Governance, Mumbai, UNICEF.
Urban Development Programmes 3. Kadekodi, G.K. and G.V..S.N. Murty, (1992), Poverty in India: Data
Base Issues, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
NOTES 4. Kundu, A. Bagchi, S. and Kundu, D. (1999), ―Regional Distribution of
Infrastructure and Basic Amenities in Urban India‖, Economic and
Political Weekly, 34/28/1999.
5. Kundu, Amitabh (2001), ― Institutional Innovations for Urban
Infrastructure Development-The India Scenario‖, in Good Urban
Governance Campaign-India Launch Learning from one another,
UNCHS (Habitat), New Delhi, September 4 to 6.
6. Kundu, Amitabh and Darshini MaAhadevia (2002), Poverty and
Vulnerability in a Globalising Metropolis :Ahmedabad, New Delhi,
Manak Publications Pvt Ltd.
7. Kundu, Amitabh and Niranjan Sarangi (2005), ―Issue of Urban
Exclusion‖, Economic and Political Weekly, August13.
8. Kundu, Amitabh, (1993), In the Name of the Urban Poor: Access to
Basic Amenities, New Delhi, Sage Publications India.
128
BLOCK V: TAMIL NADU URBAN Tamil Nadu Urban Development project
(TNUDP)
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT, TAMIL NOTES

NADU SLUM AREA ACT 1971
UNIT XIII TAMIL NADU URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (TNUDP);
URBAN BASIC SERVICES
PROGRAMMES (UBSP), NEHRU
ROZGAR YOJANA (NRY), ETC
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Tamil Nadu Urban Development project (TNUDP)
13.2 Urban Basic Services Programmes (UBSP)
13.3 Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), etc
13.4 Lets Sum Up
13.0 INTRODUCTION
The problem of providing gainful and quality employment to the new entrants
to the job market has been a major challenge for India. With improving
standards of health, nutrition and education, a large number of youth are
entering the job market. The unemployment rate in India has increased
significantly over the past 10 years and the number of unemployed persons was
estimated to be about 35 million in 2002. About 60% of them are educated and
nearly three fourths live in the rural areas. Another recent trend, following the
1990s, is the near stagnant growth of employment in the organised sector and
negative growth in the public sector. As a consequence, it is now pressing for
the country to create gainful job opportunities for all. Denying access to
employment to a major portion of the workforce or absence of employment
opportunities will only deprive our youth of economic freedom. In fact, this is
the single biggest problem that our planners, political parties and all right
thinking individuals in the country are facing in this century. This unit aims to
acquaint you with the Prime Minister‘s Rozgar Yojana, (PMRY)—a popular
selfemployment scheme.
13.1TAMIL NADU URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

(TNUDP)
TNUDP III was launched on 19th October 2005. This is a repeater Project of
TNUDP II and would be to consolidate the achievements of TNUDP II, thus
continuing to improve urban infrastructure services in Tamil Nadu in a Self-Instructional Material
129
Tamil Nadu Urban Development project sustainable manner.
(TNUDP)
The objectives of the project are as follows:
NOTES
To develop Tamil Nadu Urban Development Fund (TNUDF) as a financial
intermediary to provide financing for infrastructure to ULB on a sustainable basis.
To strengthen urban reforms and consolidate the achievements under TNUDP-
II in institutional strengthening and capacity building
To provide a grant to the Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority
(CMDA) to take up traffic and transportation sub-projects like road widening,
ROBs and RUBs in the CMDA area.
COMPONENTS OF THE PROJECT
The Project consists of two components, an Institutional Development
component (IDC) and an Urban Investment component. The IDC provides the
Technical Assistance (TA) and training needed to build capacity to further the
devolution process.
13.2 URBAN BASIC SERVICES PROGRAMMES (UBSP)

Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP): The UBSP Programme was
implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme during the Eighth Five Year
Plan with the specific objectives of effective achievement of the social sector
goals; community organization, mobilization and empowerment; and
convergence through sustainable support system. The expenditure on the
Urban Development Plans, Policies and Programmes Programme was being
shared on a 60:40 basis between the Central and the State Governments and
UTs (with legislatures). Further, the per capita expenditure on any slum pocket
is Rs.75/- in the first year and Rs.50/- from the second year onwards after the
basic infrastructure is developed.
During the recent past, the policy planners in India have been paying
considerable attention towards designing more effective social safety nets and
revamping the existing measures, stemming out of growing recognition to the
burgeoning informal sector and its resultant adverse implications on labour
standards and social security systems, Of late, issues like targeting, proper
identification, expansion of coverage as well as designing of efficient delivery
mechanisms received more attention. Along side these aspects, mounting fiscal
deficit scenarios forced the Central and State Governments to seek alternative
approaches to devise more cost-effective and targeted interventions and obtain
enhanced participation of and contributions from other stakeholders, such as
the employers and social/ community actors (including the targeted
beneficiaries themselves).
i) Food Security Initiatives: Since mid 1990s, a major area of intervention was
in terms of targeting and strengthening the food based social security
systems. In 1995, a major scheme on providing mid-day meals was launched
through which some amount of cooked food was ensured per day to the
Self-Instructional Material children of indigent families. This measure not only acted as a means of
130
nutritional support to the families of unorganised sector labour, but also Tamil Nadu Urban Development project
provided an incentive for school enrolment of their children. In 1997, the PDS (TNUDP)
framework prevalent in the country was massively overhauled and a revamped
and targeted system (TPDS) was launched, with a progressive and NOTES
discriminatory pricing mechanism, through which a higher share of overall
food subsidy was earmarked to those families below poverty line.
These efforts, of streamlining the benefits to the disadvantaged and needy
segments of the society, were further supplemented with the introduction of
two more programmes in 2000, namely Annapurna Scheme and Antyodaya
Anna Scheme. While the former aimed at providing some food relief to the
elderly in the impoverished families, the latter was objected to abate hunger
among poorest of the poor.
The next remarkable step was the introduction of the Community Grain
Bank Scheme, which though launched on an experimental basis in select tribal
regions, was generally hailed as an effective and innovative approach to ensure
community involvement in the implementation of social security measures..
State governments of different states and also many NGOs are running many
community supported welfare programmes for the workers of the informal
sector particularly in rural areas.ii) Social Insurance and Pension Measures: In
the social insurance sector also, the recent past witnessed a remarkable upsurge
with the introduction anumber of new schemes.
A major and universal of social insurance scheme (Janshree Bima Yojana)
was launched in 2000, through the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC).
The implementation of the scheme, which is currently functional and
expanding, is designed with the help of some local level nodal agencies,
Urban Poverty and Inequlity
which could be panchayats (local self governments), non-governmental
organizations and self-help groups (SHGs) or any other institutionalized
arrangements. Another scheme launched in collaboration with LIC in 2001,
Krishi Samajik Suraksha Yojana, was aimed at providing some social
insurance benefits to the farm workers. However, due to inadequate resources,
the scheme was closed later in 2004. Yet another LIC aided scheme was the
Varishta Pension Bima launched in 2003, which is being fully financed by the
investments of the beneficiaries. Subsequently, in 2004, a community based
Universal Health Insurance Scheme was also launched by the public sector
general insurance companies of the country, which aimed at providing some
reimbursement of medical expenses; life-cum-accident insurance; and
compensation on jobs loss to the families below poverty line. Some of the
other social security initiatives introduced by the Government of India, in
recent past, include: Handloom Weavers‘ Comprehensive Welfare Schemes,
Handicraft Artisans Comprehensive Welfare Scheme, Pension to Mastercraft
persons, National Scheme for Welfare of Fishermen and Training and
Extension, Aam Admi Bima Yojana and Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana. In
2004, Government also launched a Comprehensive Social Security Scheme for
the Unorganized Sector Workers, as a follow up to the recommendations of the Self-Instructional Material
131
Tamil Nadu Urban Development project Second National Commission on Labour (2002).
(TNUDP)
iii) Legislative Interventions and Initiatives: There have been some
NOTES commendable legislative initiatives in the recent past that have bearings on the
welfare of unorganized sector workers. In 1996, two umbrella legislations
towards regulating the conditions of work and provision of a measure of social
security to the group of construction workers, which constitutes one of the
largest segments of workers in the unorganized sector – were passed by the
Parliament of India.
On the basis of these legislations [The Building and other Construction
Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996
and The Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Cess Act,
1996],various states are expected to enact state level legislations.
Subsequently, the Government notified the Building and Other Construction
Workers (ECS) Central Rules, 1998, which stipulated several social security
benefits to the construction workers including accident relief, old age pension,
housing loans, payment of insurance premium, payment towards educational
expenses of children, medical and maternity benefits. Following these Acts,
various state governments are currently in the process of enacting their own
legislations. So far, six states have enacted such legislations and functioning
of the new schemes under these legislations have been attaining momentum in
states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The Second National Commission on Labour (NCL), constituted by the
Government in 1999 dealt with the social security concerns of unorganized
sector in a detailed manner. One of the six special study groups constituted by
the commission was on social security and in its final report submitted in
2002, the Commission provided detailed recommendations towards
strengthening the social security system in the country. Further, the Ministry
also prepared an Unorganised Sector Workers Bill, 2004, which contained
measures relating to both social security and conditions of work in the
informal sector.

1. Write the meaning of Urban Basic Services ?
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Write short notes on NRY ?
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___________________________________________________________
13.3 NEHRU ROZGAR YOJANA (NRY), ETC
OBJECTIVES OF JRY
Jawahar Rojgar Yojana was started with a view to expand the coverage of
132
wage employment opportunities to all villages and to achieve the objective of Tamil Nadu Urban Development project
providing employment to all wage seekers in close proximity to their (TNUDP)
villages. Accordingly, the responsibility to implement the programme was
given to the Gram Panchayats. The primary objective of JRY was to generate NOTES
additional gainful employment for the unemployed and the underemployed in
rural areas.
The secondary objectives of JRY were: (a) to create productive community
assets for direct and continuing benefits to the poor and strengthening rural
economic and social infrastructure which would lead to rapid growth of rural
economy and as a result improve the income levels of the poor and (b) to
bring about improvements in the overall quality of life in rural areas.
SALIENT FEATURES OF JRY
We know that JRY came into being after the merger of NREP and RLEGP,
the two wage employment programmes, and its objective is also the same, but
there are some differences in the process of its planning and implementation.
The main features of the programme are as follows:
• Expenditure for the programme was shared by the Centre and states on 80:20
basis.
Poverty Alleviation Programmes – A Retrospect
• DRDA/Zilla Parishad were m
ade responsible for implementation at the district level and gram panchayats at
the village level. The funds were directly released to the DRDA/ZP.
• Six per cent of the total JRY funds were earmarked for Indira Awas Yojana
(IAY). Of the remaining, 20% were to be retained at the district level DRDA
ZP) for inter-block/ inter-district projects and 80% to be distributed to gram
panchayats.
• The works were to be executed by the village people and employment of
contractors was totally banned as in the case of NREP and RLEGP.
• Preference was given to SCs and STs.
• Employment opportunities for women were reserved up to 30 per cent.
• Food-grains as part of the wages could be provided at subsidized rates.
• Non-wage component or material component was not allowed to exceed
50% of the total project cost.
• Up to a maximum of 5% of the annual allocation was allowed to meet
administrative expenditure and 1/5 of it could be spent on training of the
officials/ non-officials involved in the implementation of JRY.
• Up to 10% of the total allocation of DRDA/ZP and gram panchayats was
meant for maintenance of the assets created under earlier programmes
(NREP/RLEGP) and JRY.
133
Tamil Nadu Urban Development project
(TNUDP)
13.4 LETS SUM UP
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was essentially a carry forward of the earlier
NOTES wage employment programmes like the Crash Rural Employment Programme
(CREP), the Pilot Rural Employment Programme (PIREP) and the Food For
Work (FFW) programme of the 1970s and NREP, RLEGP of the 1980s.
Initially most of these wage employment programmes were implemented in
isolation and had no practical links with any other rural development
programme. Later on, however, NREP and RLEGP were linked to various
MNP activities like social formats for producing fuel wood and fodder, rural
roads, rural housing, etc. Subsequently, the process of wage employment
under JRY took a concrete shape to support various poverty alleviation
programmes mainly to provide activity and group specific infrastructure and
assets to support the income generating activities of the beneficiaries under
various other programmes. Indira Awas Yojana for providing fully subsidized
dwelling units to the SCs/STs and the very poor of the other categories,
irrigation wells under million wells schemes and projects aiming at
continuing flow of income for the poor under IJRY were the specific features
of JRY, besides generating wage employment for millions of poor people in
the country. The programme also helped in the construction of community
assets like Panchayat Ghars, Common Work sheds, Schools and Anganwadi
buildings, etc. Now, JRY and EAS have been amalgamated into a single
programme called Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana (SGRY), which has
been designed to support the development of infrastructure for basic services
and natural and community resources to provide more opportunities for rural
livelihoods and also generate more wage employment.
1. Write the meaning of Urban Basic Services ?
2. Write short note on NRY ?
1. Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP): The UBSP Programme was
implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme during the Eighth Five Year
Plan with the specific objectives of effective achievement of the social
sector goals; community organization, mobilization and empowerment; and
convergence through sustainable support system.
2. Jawahar Rojgar Yojana was started with a view to expand the
coverage of wage employment opportunities to all villages and to achieve the
objective of providing employment to all wage seekers in close proximity to
their villages. Accordingly, the responsibility to implement the programme was
given to the Gram Panchayats. The primary objective of JRY was to generate
additional gainful employment for the unemployed and the underemployed in
rural areas.
134
13.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Tamil Nadu Urban Development project
(TNUDP)
1. Fourth and Fifth Plan Documents, Planning Commission, Government
of India. NOTES
2. Annual Reports of the Ministry of Rural Development, 1989-90 to
1999-2000, GOI.
3. Rural Statistics, 1990 to 2001, NIRD, Hyderabad
4. Rajakutty, S., 2004, ―Self and Wage Employment Programmes for
Poverty Alleviation in India‖, Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 23, No. 2
(April – June, 2004)
135
Tamil Nadu Slum Area
UNIT XIV TAMIL NADU SLUM AREA
NOTES
(CLEARANCE AND IMPROVEMENT)
ACT 1971, AND PROBLEMS IN
IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN
PROGRAMMES; ROLE OF
DEVELOPMENT WORKER –
APPLICATION OF SOCIAL WORK
METHODS IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Tamil Nadu Slum Area (Clearance And Improvement) Act 1971
14.2 Problems in Implementation Of Urban Community Development
Programmes
14.3 Role Of Development Worker
14.4 Application Of Social Work Methods In Urban Development
14.5 Lets Sum Up
14.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed the issues and challenges related to urban development in

the preceding Unit. But, the urban development issues and challenges can be
effectively addressed only through propzr policies and programmes of urban
development. In Intlia, the Ministry of Urban Development is responsible for
formulating policies, suppofiing and monitoring programmes and coordinating
the activities of various Central Ministries, State Governments and other nodal
authorities in so far as they relate to Urban development in the country. Hence,
in the present Unit we attempt to present to ! OJ a broad picture of the policies
and programmes of urban development and their relevance to addressing of the
issues and challenges of urban development in India.
14.1 TAMIL NADU SLUM AREA (CLEARANCE AND

IMPROVEMENT) ACT 1971
Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board was established in September 1970 and has
been implementing various Housing, Slum Development and Rehabilitation
136
and Resettlement programmes to ameliorate the living conditions of the slum Tamil Nadu Slum Area
families in Tamil Nadu. The Board initially started its activities in Chennai and
its activities were gradually extended to other urban areas of Tamil Nadu since NOTES
1984 onwards in phased manner.
The motto of Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board is ―GOD WE SHALL
SEE IN THE SMILE OF THE POOR―. The Board has been implementing
various programmes like In-situ tenemental schemes, In-situ plotted and
infrastructure development and Rehabilitation and Resettlement schemes to
improve the environs of the slums and the living standards of the urban slum
families to achieve the Slum Free Cities Vision before 2023.
TAMIL NADU SLUM AREA (CLEARANCE AND IMPROVEMENT)

ACT 1971
An Act to provide for the improvement and clearance of slums in the State of
Tamil Nadu.
WHEREAS the number of slums in certain areas in the State of Tamil Nadu is
on the increase and the slums are likely to become a source of danger to public
health and sanitation of the said area.
AND WHEREAS under the existing law, it has not been possible effectively
to arrest the growth of slums, to eliminate congestion and to prov ide for
certain basic needs such as streets, water -supply and drainage in slums and to
clear slums which are unfit for human habitation.
AND WHEREAS to obviate this difficulty, it is expedient to provide for the
removal of un-hygenic and insanitary conditions prevailing in slums, for better
accommodation and improved living conditions for slum dwellers, for the
promotion of public health generally nd for the acquisition of land for the
purpose of improving or developing slum areas, re - developing slum
clearance areas and rehabilitating slum dwellers:
AND WHEREAS it is Directive principle of State Policy embodied in the
constitution that the State should regard the improvement of public health as
among its primary duties. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Tamil
Nadu in the Twenty –second ear of the Republic of India as follows:
PRELIMINARY
1. Short title, extent and commencement:- This Act may be called Tamil
Nadu Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1971.
2. It extends to the whole of Tamil Nadu.
3. It should come into force on such date as the Government may, by
notification, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different areas
and for different provisions of this Act:
Provided that any reference in any such provision to the commencement of
this Act shall be construed as a reference to the coming into force of that
provision.
2. Definitions. - In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires. -
(a) ―Board‖ means the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board, established under
section 34;
Tamil Nadu Slum Area (b) ―Building‖ includes a house, out-house, stable, latrine, shed, hut, wall and
any other such structure, whether or masonry, bricks, wood, mud, metal or
NOTES any other materials whatsoever, but does not include part or machinery
comprised in a building;
(c) ―Court‖ means -
(i) in the city of Madras, the Madras City Civil Court;
(ii) elsewhere, the Subordinate Judge‘s Court having jurisdiction and if there
is not such Subordinate Judge‘s Court, the District Court having jurisdiction;
(d) ―erection‖ in relation to a building includes extension, alteration or re-
erection;
(e) ―Government‖ means the State Government;
(f) ―land‖ includes building and benefits to arise out of land and things
attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything attac hed to the
earth or permanently fastened to anything attached to the earth;
(g) ―occupier‖ includes-
(i) any person who for the time being is paying or is liable to pay to the owner
the rent or any portion of the rent of the land or building in respect of which
such rent is paid or is payable;
(ii) an owner in occupation of, or otherwise using his land or building;
(iii) a rent-free tenant of any land or building;
(iv) a licensee in occupation of any land or building; and
(v) any person who is liable to pay to the owner damages for the use and
occupation of any land or buildings;
(h) ―owner‖ includes any person, who is receiving or is entitled to receive the
rent of any land or building whether on his own account or on behalf and
others or as an agent, trustee, executor, administrator, receiver or guardian or
who would so receive the rent or be entitled to receive the rent, if the land or
building were let to a tenant;
(i) ―person interested‖ in relation to any land or building, includes any
personclaiming, or entitled to claim, an interest in the compensation payable
on account of the acquistion of that land or building under this Act;
(j) ―prescribed authority‖ means any authority or person authorized by the
Government in this regard, by notification;
(k) ―slum area‖ means any area declared to be a slum area under sub -section
(1) ofsection 3; (1) of section 3;
(l) ―slum clearance area‖ means any slum area declared to be a slum
clearance area under section 11;
(m) ―State Housing Board‖ means the Tamil Nadu State Housing Board
constituted under the Tamil Nadu State Housing Board Act, 1961 Tamil Nadu
Act XVII of 1961);
(n) ―work of improvement‖ in relation to any building in a slum area includes
the execution of any one or more of the following works, namely:-
(i) necessary repairs;
(ii) structural alterations;
(iii) provision of light points, water -taps and bathing places;
(iv) construction of drains, open or covered;
138
(v) provision of latrines, including conversion of dry latrines into water-borne Tamil Nadu Slum Area
latrines;
(vi) provision of additional or improved fixtures or fittings; NOTES
(vii) opening up or paving of Court-yards;
(viii) removal of rubbish; and
(ix) any other work including the demolition of any building or any part there
of which in the opinion of the pre scribed authority is necessary for executing
any of the works specified above.
14.2 PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
Urban development programmes with a focus on reduction and alleviation of

poverty, has been one of the objectives of five-year plans in the country since
the beginning of the planned era. This was, however, brought into the core of
planning exercise only during the Fifth Year Plan. The consumption levels of
different commodities were projected in this plan by taking higher growth
rates for people in lower consumption brackets. Extensive research has since
then been carried out to study the dimensions of poverty, its temporal trend,
spatial pattern etc.
Urban Development Plans,
Policies and Programmes This led to identification of theoretical solutions for
reduction of poverty and launching of programmes during the past Five Year
Plans.
An analysis of the government policies and programmes and investment
pattern during the fifties, sixties and seventies reveals a distinct bias for urban
areas. Public sector investment in infrastructure and basic services improved
the level of services in urban centers, which accentuated the rural urban
disparity. These investments were concentrated mostly in the large cities that
attracted private investments as well as subsidized institutional funds. This
resulted in creation of employment opportunities at a higher level of
productivity earnings than in rural areas, widening the gap between their
income levels. This period also witnessed the creation of a number of Boards
and Corporations at the state level and development authorities at the city
level. Considerable funds were routed through these agencies that improved
the level of services for at least a section of the urban population. Removal of
poverty received attention initially in the Fifth Five Year Plan. The earlier
plans did not emphasize on proper analysis of the dimension of poverty. The
Fifth Plan noted that the consumption levels of the bottom 30 per cent of the
country‘s population remained below the minimum of Rs.40.6 per capita per
month at 1972-73 prices. No distinction was, however, made between rural
and urban poverty. The plan stressed poverty could be removed by promoting
economic growth and through proper implementation of the national level
programmes like Minimum Needs Programme. The Sixth Plan addressed the
problem of poverty in a more focused manner and recognized that economic
growth process by itself was not enough to tackle poverty. It noted that about
51 per cent of the rural population and 41 per cent of the urban population

Tamil Nadu Slum Area were living below the poverty line in 1979-80. Specific programmes like
Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns, Minimum Needs
NOTES Programme, Urban Basic Services, Integrated Rural Development Programme,
National Rural Development Programme (NRDP) etc. were recommended for
urban and rural areas. The Sixth Plan showed a distinct bias in favour of rural
poverty by implementing specific programmes. The programmes that have
been launched since independence have been briefly discussed in the
following section. i) Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
(IDSMT): The programme was launched in 1979-80 basically for developing
small and medium towns partly by providing basic services to poor and also
by improving their economic conditions so that the growth of metro cities
could be arrested. Initially, the scope of the programme was restricted to towns
with population below one hundred thousand as per the 1971 Census. It had
been decided in the Eighth Plan to include cities having population of five
hundred thousand as per the Census of 1991.
ii) Low Cost Sanitation Programme (LCS): The goal of providing sanitation
facilities to eighty per cent of urban population was fixed in the early eighties
with the announcement of the UN Decadal Programme for Water Supply and
Sanitation. Accordingly, a centrally sponsored scheme was launched in 1980-
81, with the objective of eliminating manual scavenging through conversion of
dry latrines. It covered all the households, which have dry latrines and those
having no latrines including slum and squatter settlements.
14.3 ROLE OF DEVELOPMENT WORKER
The Ministry for Public Service and Administration (2007) describes the
roles of CDWs as follows:• to assist in the smooth delivery of services by
identifying and removing obstacles• to strengthen the social contract
between government and communities• to link communities with
government services• to pass on communities‘ concerns and problems
to government structures• to support and nurture the increased
exchange of information• to improve government–community
networks.The above serve to emphasise the significance of government
working together with local communities. An observation can be made,
based on media reports, that communities are mostly feeling that
government is not communicating enough, and as such they are left
behind on matters affecting them directly. In essence, CDWs are formed to
bridge the gap between government and citizens in great need of services
provided by it. It is a complementary structure to existing structures in
municipalities.Advantages of community development workersThe former
President Mbeki on 14 March during the CDWs Indaba (Summit) in
Tshishonga and Mafema (2010: 574) argued that CDWP had brought
in a new category of professionalism in the local government sphere
and would assist and fast track service delivery. It had a structural
resource budgeted for its effective and efficient operations. The CDWP
was formed on the basis of the following strategic objectives and advantages:•
to assist in the removal of development and service delivery
140
bottlenecks• to link communities with government services and relay Tamil Nadu Slum Area
community concerns and problems to government• to support, nurture and
advocate for an organised voice for the poor• to improve government NOTES
community networks (The Presidency 14 March 2008 ‗SA: Mbeki:
Community Development Workers Indaba (Summit)‘ in Tshishonga and
Mafema, 2010: 574).The above advantages have been summarised by the
Forum for Australian Services for Survivors of Torture and Trauma (FASSTT)
in Tshishonga and Mafema (2010: 575) as a process which contributes to
the strength of a community by increasing its social capital, developing
self-reliance through encouraging cohesive relationships and external
partnerships, enhancing and harnessing community skills and resources,
and promoting participation in decision-making leadership to ensure
community ownership.Disadvantages of community development
workersAccording to Tshishonga and Mafema (2010: 575) the
disadvantages of CDWs during the stage of its formation are as follows:• The
CDWP is a cumbersome programme: it is based in the Department of
Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (COGTA), but is
overseen by the whole municipalities as the locus of their day-to-day
activities. Therefore, the CDWP was conceived without a policy direction.•
Communities did not trust the programme because of new
suspicion that the CDWs spy for the government, a legacy of the previous
oppressive government. The South African culture is built on suspicion of
top-down and state-led community development programmes as they
were used during the apartheid to control people.• The role and
responsibility of the CDWs are misunderstood by both local government and
communities, and it often causes conflict and tension (Gray and Mubangizini
2010; Tshishonga and Mafema 2010).• The issue of programme
accountability was an added challenge as councillors had an expectation
that CDWs were to report directly as councillors had an expectation that
CDWs were to report directly to them, thus there was confusion as to who was
in charge of them. This resulted in fragmented and uncooperative
relationships and networks between ward councillors and CDWs (Gray
and Mubangizini 2010; Tshishonga and Mafema 2010).• The Local
Government officials and Councillors felt threatened by CDWs‘
position and direct line communication to the COGTA. CDWs were
thus treated with suspicion in case they assumed the government and
councillor‘s roles.• The suspicions and infighting with political stalwarts of
the communities placed CDWs in a precarious position where they felt
exacerbated by the lack of a formal introduction of the programme,
particularly to the relevant stakeholders such as government departments,
the private sector and communities as targeted recipients of their services.
14.4 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL WORK METHODS IN

URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Social Work Intervention in Urban Community Development

Tamil Nadu Slum Area Conscientization
NOTES Conscientization or creating critical consciousness is a method derived from
Paulo Friere‘s experiences of teaching illiterate peasants to read while at the
same time teaching them to ―read the political and social situation in which
they found themselves.‖ This method stressed the relationship of equality and
mutual respect between group members (―learners-teachers‖) and the
facilitators (―teacher-learners‖). The facilitators engaged the people in a
problem-posing dialogue designed to assist them to elucidate the root causes
of the problems they identified. Working in small groups, the people were
assisted in exploring the interconnections between situations and to devise
action plans, based on critical reflection, to help transform those situations.
The levels of awareness of community development workers reflect their
responses to the community situations and the attitudes and actions towards
the situation. Thus, the type of assistance and their responses to poverty are
dependent on the level of awareness.

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Tamil Nadu Slum Area (Clearance And Improvement)

Act 1971.
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2. Write the meaning of Development Worker ?
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The significance of Freire‘s method for community organizing lies in

providing an effective methodological refinement through problem-posing
dialogue and on the understanding of the root causes of problems and issues
being addressed.
Freire's literacy method is founded on the notions of conscientization and
dialogue. It involves teaching adults how to read and write in relation to the
awakening of their consciousness about their social reality. Conscientization is
a process of developing consciousness, but consciousness that is understood to
have the power to transform reality". It is an 'awakening of consciousness', a
change of mentality Involving an accurate, realistic awareness of one's locus In
nature and society; the capacity to analyze critically its causes and
consequences, comparing It with other situations and possibilities; and action
of a logical sort aimed at transformation. Psychologically It entails an
awareness of one's dignity.
142
Conscientlzation, therefore, leads to people organizing themselves to take Tamil Nadu Slum Area
action so as to change their social realities. The concept of conscientlzation
has attracted those who believe in humanistic implications for the participation NOTES
of the masses and in the necessity of a rapid restructuring of society. It rests on
value assumptions of equality of all people, their right to knowledge and
culture, and their right to criticise their situation and act upon it. It also implies
having a faith in the capacity of all people, including the illiterate, to engage in
critical dialogue. Dialogue is the means of achieving conscientlzation.
Conscientlzation requires that an individual change his or her attitudes,
perception or beliefs. In other words, individuals must not accept that social
reality cannot be questioned and changed.
Freire believed that once a person perceived and understood a challenge and
recognised the possibilities of a response, that person will act and the nature of
his or her action will correspond to the nature of his or her understanding.
Hence, critical understanding of situations leads to critical action. Freire's
literacy method offered the illiterate people the means by which they could
replace their passive perception of their reality by that which was critical so
that they could do something about those situations. Freire felt that before
teaching the illiterate adult to read, he or she should be helped to overcome his
or her passive understanding and develop an increasing critical understanding
of his or her reality. Freire proposed that such conscientization could be
achieved through an active dialogical and critical pedagogy, changing the
learning content so that it comes from the learner's experiences or concrete
social realities, and the use of problem codification. He argued that to acquire
literacy was more than just being mechanically competent in reading and
writing skills but also to be competent in these skills in terms of conscious-
ness. Hence, the educator's role is to enter into dialogue with the illiterate
about concrete situations and give him or her the means with which he or she
can teach himself or herself to read and write. This kind of teaching is not
imposed from the top but takes place in a shared investigation or in a problem-
raising situation between educator and educatee. The emphasis is on the
critical analysis and the creativity of the educatee in order to discourage
passive behaviour of the educatee or learners.
Community Organizing
Community organizing is a long-term approach where the people affected by
an issue are supported in identifying problems and taking action to achieve
solutions. The organizer challenges those he or she works with to change the
way things are—it is a means of achieving social change through collective
action by changing the balance of power. The tactics and strategies employed
by the organizer are similar to the processes of leadership including timing the
issue, deliberate planning, getting the attention of the populace, framing the
issue in terms of the desired solution, and shaping the terms of the decision-
making process.
Community organizing helps to bring out many voices to add collective power
and strength to an issue. Community organizing is a key part of an overall
Tamil Nadu Slum Area strategy to make changes in a community that are widely felt, and that reflect
the wishes of the people who are directly affected by alcohol-related
NOTES community problems. This requires the organizer to not only listen and be
responsive to the community, but also to help community residents develop
the skills necessary to address their own issues in an ongoing way.At the heart
of community organizing are inclusion, ownership, relationship building and
leadership development.
Community organizing looks at collective solutions — large numbers of

people who engage in solutions that impact even more people. These people
usually live in the same neighborhood, town or block. Many traditional agency
responses look at individual solutions. Agencies tend to focus on the
individual as a means to solve public health problems.
Effective community organizing involves the following process:

Assess the community: It's extremely important to know the community that
one will be working in and the history of the issue one will address. Allow two
to three months to become familiar with the community, its history, make-up,
demographics, geography and political leadership. Continue to learn about the
community by going and interacting with individuals. This will help in
learning about the concerns of the community and develop personal
relationships.
Develop an action plan: Work with the team to develop an Action Plan. What
problems has the group identified? What policies would address that problem?
What is the decision-making body one needs to impact? What other steps will
the team need to take to change policy? Break the work down into manageable
steps and tasks. Hold a meeting to discuss plan of action and include a timeline
for when things will happen and identify who is responsible. It should be
realistic, feasible, and flexible.
Issues for an action team that works against alcohol addiction might include:
 Alcohol billboards near school
 Easy for youth to get alcohol at a community festival
 Local store sells to youth
 Youth-targeted alcohol displays at local market
 Abandoned building in area is a hangout where youth drink
Mobilize to action: Building support base is a necessary part of Action Plan.

While the leadership group will guide work, more people are needed to enact
or change policy. Tasks one has to consider:
• Identify potential supporters by going door-to-door
• Build a base of support in the community
• Determine constituents and likely allies
144
• Contact constituents and meet with key members Tamil Nadu Slum Area
• Make presentations
• Identify elected officials who you think will be supportive NOTES
• Solicit advice of supportive politicians for more political contacts
• Ask people to get involved — give them specific tasks
Once the group has identified its policy goals the responsibility of the
organizer is to keep the momentum of the group moving forward. To do this
one should:
• Break large jobs into small tasks
• Get and keep your team members engaged, informed, involved, and
in the spotlight
• Be responsive and reliable — get people what they need to complete
their tasks
• Keep group focused and on track
• Don't let opponents get your group off message or task
Implement: Once the team manages to influence a policy or achieve a goal,
the group will need to decide how it maintains the change and ensures that the
desired results are achieved. For example, policy changes cannot be successful
at reducing youth access to alcohol if those policies don't include enforcement
provisions. After a policy is passed, the group will want to be sure that it is
enforced and accomplishes what was intended. Likewise, the group will have
to decide what its future will be once goal is attained.
Evaluate: It is important to carefully review progress during the campaign to
ensure staying on track, as well as to evaluate the campaign after it has ended
to see what went right or wrong and learn lessons for the future. During the
campaign, make sure you are continuing to make progress toward your goals.
Check up on the process, to make sure the group is effectively working
together. Examples of evaluation questions to ask leaders and other
stakeholders in your campaign might include:
• Is the campaign making a difference? How?
• Are we making progress toward our goal?
• What factors are most important in achieving the goals of the
campaign?
• What are the biggest challenges or obstacles for the campaign?
After the action plan has been implemented and the campaign is
"over," evaluate:
• What has been accomplished?
• What still needs to be done?
• What was done well?
• What could have been done better?
Community Mobilization

Tamil Nadu Slum Area Community mobilization engages all sectors of the population in a
community-wide effort to address a health, social, or environmental issue. It
NOTES brings together policy makers and opinion leaders, local, state, and federal
governments, professional groups, religious groups, businesses, and individual
community members. Community mobilization empowers individuals and
groups to take some kind of action to facilitate change.
Part of the process includes mobilizing necessary resources, disseminating
information, generating support, and fostering cooperation across public and
private sectors in the community. Anyone can initiate a community
mobilization effort — for example in an AIDS prevention programme, the
STD staff of local or state health departments, CBOs, or concerned physicians
and other health professionals. All it takes is a person or a group to start the
process and bring others into it.
The most significant benefit from community mobilization is doing something
to help address an issue impacting their community to save valuable resources.
By getting involved, community- and faith-based organizations, health care
professionals, and policy makers will jointly take actions that should result in
the elimination of problems in their community. Community mobilization can
position your organization as a leader in the community, possibly bringing in
new resources. It can infuse new energy into an issue through community buy-
in and support. Expand the base of community support for an issue or
organization. Help a community overcome denial of a health issue. Promote
local ownership and decision-making about a health issue. Encourage
collaboration between individuals and organizations. Limit competition and
redundancy of services and outreach efforts. Provide a focus for prevention
planning and implementation efforts. Create public presence and pressure to
change laws, polices, and practices — progress that could not be made by just
one individual or organization. Bring new community volunteers together
(because of increased visibility). Increase cross-sector collaboration and
shared resources. Increase access to funding opportunities for organizations
and promote long-term, organizational commitment to social and health-
related issues.
1 Conducting a Community Assessment.
You will need to conduct a Community Assessment to learn where your
community currently stands in regard to syphilis elimination. (Who is
currently involved, what has been accomplished, and what has not happened,
opportunities, barriers, gaps, etc.)
2 Involving the right people.
Do not try to conduct a community-wide campaign just through one of your
department. You will want to form a community coalition of health
professionals, CBOs and FBOs (and their leaders), community activists and
others who have an interest in the issue. Make sure that you encourage open
communication.
146
3 Selecting a strong leader. Tamil Nadu Slum Area
Appropriate leadership is key to the success of your community mobilization NOTES

effort. Whether it is a person in the health department or a member of your
community coalition, this leader needs to be creative and have the ability to
bring together people who have different perspectives and vested interests to
support the coalition‘s vision. This leader needs to become an agent of change
who is passionate about the issue and able to organize members of your
coalition and its target audiences into change agents.
4 Defining goals and strategies.
Your goals help to define what must be accomplished to achieve your vision.
Strategies identify the actions you will take to meet your goals. Set goals that
you think can be achieved and choose strategies that you think can be
implemented with the resources (funding, manpower, equipment) you have or
believe you can obtain.
5 Developing ways to regularly measure progress.
Creating change takes time. Tracking your achievements will help you
maintain the momentum necessary for success. Early in your mobilization
planning process, identify your short- and long-term goals, as well as how and
when you will measure when you have achieved those goals.
Conflict Resolution
Conflict means an adversarial relationship or a disagreement between two or
more persons, between groups, regions or even nation emanating from
different perceptions and interests. Such conflict may be intra-personal as
result of internal disagreement within a person. When one speaks of a conflict,
it is normally taken to mean chaos, wars or mutual suspicion or strained
relations, competition, hatred and many other associated ills. It is incorrect to
normally regard conflict as something very destructive which deserves
avoidance or denouncing.
In most cases conflict is as a result of the following:
- Different perception;
- Dierent behaviors or attitudes;
- Poor distribution of national resources;
- Lack of basic human needs or their frustration;
- Different interests;
- Ideological differences based on religion or political parties.
Types of conflict

Tamil Nadu Slum Area Disputes. This is a type of conflict normally encountered on a daily basis. It is
usually easy to resolve this type of conflict. Examples include; not respecting
NOTES time and appointments, having an argument with someone, late coming
without notifying ones superior, etc. This type of conflict if not responded it
can lead to social discord.
Underlying conflict. This sort of conflict happens when, one continues to push
the problem under the carpet, avoiding or post pining it to the extent that it
only requires an enabling event or a spark off or explode the conflict into war.
Deep rooted conflict

This type of conflict is indeed fundamental. It is based on perception and
religious or ethnic beliefs. It is hard to handle or manage. Some people are
even prepared to sacrifice their lives for what they consider so dear to
themselves.
Levels of conflict
Intrapersonal conflict: The type of conflict that occur within a person.
Examples : choice of partner, moral question or a decision to abandon a bad
practice, use of time, taking a decision etc.
Interpersonal Conflict: Conflict between two or more persons over an issue.
Intragroup conflict: An example is conflict between people within the same
group.
Intergroup conflict: One might cite conflicts between organizations, families,
or institutions.
Intranational conflict: This means an internal conflict between small groups
within the country.
International Conflict: This is conflict between two or more nations. This
could be for ideological reasons, territorial claims, natural resources or other
interests.
Different styles of behavior or Responses to conflict

Avoidance This happens when a person shuns away responsibility. He/she
recognizes the problem, but doesn't make any effort to solve it. This attitude is
always based on the understanding that conflict is always negative, thinking
that trying to extricate from it may land a person into more trouble. It looks as
if one has swept the problem under the carpet, postponing it due to fear. This
simply implies covering up something one would like to see yet this doesn't
solve the problem either. The outcome of such behavior response in face of the
conflict is that, such conflict avoided will always re-surface due to that
148
avoidance attitude which has the potential to result in poor response. Such Tamil Nadu Slum Area
conflict may turn out to be a boomerang or destroy the entire society.
NOTES
Collaboration This method involves mutual discussion and dialogue in order
to arrive at a final decision. This requires active listening and co-operation of
the other party in the conflict in finding a solution. It also requires
participation and mutual understanding of both parties. When both parties are
deeply convinced of their common needs or have relatively the same
bargaining power.
Competition This usually happens when one party feels dominant over the
other and wishes to monopolize, control and out compete the other. One party
doesn't wish to pay any attention to the other and only defends his/her position.
This method uses force to dominate and suppress the other party. It is being
egocentric and selfish, a kind of win / lose aspect. Competition is usually used
when: When negotiations and peaceful talks have hit a deadlock or one of the
parties fails to accommodate the others views. It also happens when one party
is unwilling to give up some interests and is always positional on whatever he
wants. This kind of behavior has always got negative consequences on the
social relations of the concerned parties.
Advocacy
Advocacy can be called as the act of inducing and persuading the democratic
agencies to resolve various social issues. Advocacy is a Latin term. The word
‗Ad‘ means ‗in favour of‘ and ‗Voca‘ is to speak.... hence, the meaning of the
word ‗advocacy‘ is to speak in favour of someone. The lawyers are also called
advocates, as they stand in favour of a side or a party. In other words,
advocacy is to speak for, or support someone. Advocacy is essential for
helping the insignificant social elements, institutions, communities and
neglected public in acquiring their rights and in making the concerned
authorities aware of their issues. E.g. inadequate ration supply, diseases,
especially contagious diseases etc. Advocacy informs the common people in
such situations about the concerned authorities and where and how to
approach them. Such an organized and collective effort is advocacy. Every
nation has always tried to constitute the government policies in favour of the
poor and neglected ones.
The Aims of advocacy:
 To bring the attention of the policy-makers to the issues of the oppressed

ones in the society.
 To influence the making and implementation those of policies.
 To apprise the common man about the details of various policies, schemes,
programmes for social welfare and the existing systems.
 To enhance the skills and outlook for proper execution of policies.
 To create a ‗people-oriented‘ government system.
 To create more and more social advocates from the civil society.

Tamil Nadu Slum Area The first stage is the identification of an issue for policy action. This stage is
also referred to as agenda setting. There are an unlimited number of problems
NOTES which need attention, but not all can get a place on the action agenda.
Advocates decide which problem to address and attempt to get the target
institution to recognize that the problem needs action.
Generally, the second stage, solution formulation, follows rapidly. Advocates
and other key actors propose solutions to the problem and select one that is
politically, economically, and socially feasible.
The third stage, building the political will to act on the problem and its
solution, is the centerpiece of advocacy. Actions during this stage include
coalition building, meeting with decision makers, awareness building and
delivering effective messages.
The fourth stage, policy action, takes place when a problem is recognized, its
solution is accepted and there is political will to act, all at the same time. This
overlap is usually a short window of opportunity which advocates must seize.
An understanding of the decision-making process and a solid advocacy
strategy will increase the likelihood of creating windows of opportunity for
action.
The final stage, evaluation, is often not reached, though it is important. Good
advocates assess the effectiveness of their past efforts and set new goals based
on their experience. Advocates and the institution that adopts the policy
change should periodically evaluate the effectiveness of that change.
Capacity Building
Community capacity can be seen as the capacity of the people in communities
to participate in actions based on community interests, both as individuals and
through groups, organisations and networks. It is not primarily about their
ability to act in their personal, family or employers‘ interest, which are catered
for in other spheres. However, many of the same skills are involved, and
people who are active in the community invariably benefit in other ways as
well.
The actions people and groups take can broadly be described as Community
Activity. This can be divided into three types of activity:
• Action to build social capital: building relationships, trust, shared norms and
networks. It involves people taking part in community initiatives, groups and
organisations, and those groups communicating with the wider population as
volunteers, members and participants.
• Delivering services: these can either be autonomous services provided by
communities, or specialist services provided by community or voluntary
groups, controlled by contracts or service level agreements with public
agencies.
150
• Involvement in governance: representing the interests of all local people or of Tamil Nadu Slum Area
particular groups in influencing decisions that affect the quality of local life.
NOTES
Community capacity building is defined as: Activities, resources and support
that strengthen the skills and abilities of people and community groups to take
effective action and leading roles in the development of
their communities. It is helpful to see community capacity building as three
main types of activity:
• Developing skills - learning and training opportunities for individuals and
groups, and sharing through networks and mutual support, to develop skills,
knowledge and confidence.
• Developing structures – developing the organisational structures and
strengths of community groups, communities of interest and networks.
• Developing support – developing the availability of practical support to
enable the development of skills and structures.
Community capacity building is normally undertaken to achieve a specific
purpose, whereas the community development process provides the wider
context. The key purpose of community development work is ‗collectively to
bring about social change.
Nine domains are identified on capacity building. These are areas where there
are opportunities for individuals and groups to mobilize themselves for greater
control over their lives. Considering these domains encourages strategic
planning, implementation and evaluation of programmes:
1. Improves stakeholder participation;
2. Increases problem assessment capacities;
3. Develops local leadership;
4. Builds empowering organizational structures;
5. Improves resource mobilization;
6. Strengthens links to other organisations and people;
7. Enhances stakeholder ability to "ask why";
8. Increases stakeholder control over programme management;
9. Creates an equitable relationship with outside agents.
The nine domains represent the organizational influences on the community's
capacity. They link the inter-personal elements of the community with the
programme's political, socio-cultural and economic context.
Implementing the Capacity Building approach
Tamil Nadu Slum Area Capacity building is always a process. The approach is not a substitute for
other elements of programme planning such as setting goals or objectives, but
NOTES helps programme staff ask themselves at all stages whether the programme has
helped to increase community capacity.
A four phases guide can be followed while implementation capacity building

of communities:
hase 1: Preparation
A period of observation and discussion before assessing community capacity
will allow adapting the approach to the programme participants' social and
cultural requirements. For example the use of a working definition of
community capacity can provide all participants with a mutual understanding
of the programme. The nine operational domains can be altered at this stage if
necessary.
Phase 2: Assessments
The participants assess their community‘s capacity using participatory
appraisal techniques, which helps to describe different levels of capacity. This
throws light on each of the domains mentioned above and the stage at which
the community‘s lie vis-à-vis these domains. The participants during the PRA
closely describe their community's present situation. In this way the
participants make their own assessment for each domain by comparing their
experiences and opinions.
The participants record the reasons for assessing each domain. This helps
when other people make an assessment later on and also provides some
observable criteria for the selection. This helps in generating the baseline
about the existing resources, skills and knowledge and later on helps in
assessing the success of the capacity building component of the programme.
Phase 3 Developing a strategic plan for community capacity
The assessment must be transformed into action in order to build capacity.
This is achieved through strategic planning in each of the identified and
prioritized domains, which consists of: discussing how to improve the present
situation; developing a strategy to improve the present situation; and
identifying what resources are needed. Activities are designed to guide
participants through these steps.
Phase 4 Follow-up and re-assessments
The approach uses a simplified version of logical framework project planning.
The participants must meet every three to six months to review their
assessment and strategic plan for building community capacity.
152
What are areas in which capacity building is done? Tamil Nadu Slum Area
The capacity building of communities increase the access of the communities NOTES
to:
• Skills
• Information
• Resources – natural, financial and intellectual
• Knowledge
• Technology
• Linkages
What are tools that can be used for Capacity Building?
The tools that can be used for capacity building are:
• Intensive trainings
• Focus group workshops, seminars, discussions
• Exposure and exchange visits to successful projects
PROJECT PLANING AND IMPLEMENTATION
Projects represent the commitment of human and physical resources to
produce specific outputs in a given time and budget framework. Projects vary
in scale, purpose and duration. They may be initiated within a community,
requiring modest inputs and producing tangible outputs within a relatively
short timeframe. At the other extreme, projects may require substantial
financial resources and only generate benefits in the long term. For example,
the former could be an adult literacy project in a village; the latter may be the
provision of universal primary education for all children of school age in a
country. Whilst the former needs one trainer and a few teaching materials, the
latter requires numerous schools, teachers, equipment and administration.
Projects may stand-alone or be integrated into a programme, with several
projects contributing to one overall goal. Despite the difference in scale and
nature of projects, there are aspects of sound project management that are
universal.
The phases of the project cycle can be described as follows:
During the Programming phase, the situation at national and sectoral level is
analysed to identify problems, constraints and opportunities which
development cooperation could address. This involves a review of socio-
economic indicators, and of national and donor priorities. The purpose is to
identify and agree the main objectives and sectoral priorities for development
cooperation, and thus to provide a relevant and feasible programming

Tamil Nadu Slum Area framework within which projects can be identified and prepared. For each of
these priorities strategies will be formulated that take account of the lessons of
NOTES past experience.
Á During the Identification phase, ideas for projects and other development
actions are identified and screened for further study. This involves
consultation with the intended beneficiaries of each action, an analysis of the
problems they face, and the identification of options to address these
problems. A decision can then be made on the relevance of each project idea
(both to the intended beneficiaries and to the programming framework), and
on which ideas should be further studied during the Formulation phase.
Â During the Formulation phase, relevant project ideas are developed into
operational project plans. Beneficiaries and other stakeholders participate in
the detailed specification of the project idea that is then assessed for its
feasibility (whether it is likely to succeed) and sustainability (whether it is
likely to generate longterm benefits for the beneficiaries). On the basis of this
assessment, a decision is made on whether to draw up a formal project
proposal and seek funding for the project.
Ã During the Financing phase, project proposals are examined by the funding
agency, and a decision is taken on whether to fund the project. The funding
agency and partner country agree the modalities of implementation and
formalise these in a legal document which sets out the arrangements by which
the project will be funded and implemented.
Ä During the Implementation phase, the project is mobilised and executed.
This may require the tendering and award of contracts for technical assistance
or works and supplies. During implementation, and in consultation with
beneficiaries and stakeholders, project management assesses actual progress
against planned progress to determine whether the project is on track towards
achieving its objectives. If necessary the project is re-oriented to bring it back
on track, or to modify some of its objectives in the light of any significant
changes that may have occurred since its formulation.
Å During the Evaluation phase, the funding agency and partner country assess
the project to identify what has been achieved, and to identify lessons that
have been learned. Evaluation findings are used to improve the design of
future projects or programmes. Although in the generic cycle the evaluation
phase comes after implementation, it is common practice also to conduct a
mid-term evaluation during implementation, to identify lessons that can be
applied during the remaining life of the project.
The cycle represents a continuous process in which each stage provides the
foundation for the next. For example, the information generated during project
identification (Stage I) provides the basis for detailed project design (Stage II).
Stage III reviews the information generated during the preceding two stages
from several perspectives to ensure the project is viable. Stages I to III provide
the foundations for a project. If they are sound, the project is more likely to
succeed in subsequent stages, in terms of securing funding and competent
154
implementation. However, at any point in the first three stages it may be Tamil Nadu Slum Area
decided that it is more appropriate not to proceed with the proposed project.
NOTES
14.5 LETS SUM UP
In this Unit you have gained understanding about various career options that
would be available to you after successfully completing the course. The unit
described the settings, primary as well as secondary, for social work
intervention, talked about the roles and responsibilities of social work
professionals in these settings. The unit also mentioned about the process of
finding a suitable job, tips for preparing curriculum vitae, conduct in interview
and behaviour expected from a social worker at the work place.

1. Write the meaning of Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Act
2. Write the meaning Development Worker ?
1. Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board was established in September 1970

and has been implementing various Housing, Slum Development and
Rehabilitation and Resettlement programmes to ameliorate the living
conditions of the slum families in Tamil Nadu. The Board initially started its
activities in Chennai and its activities were gradually extended to other urban
areas of Tamil Nadu since 1984 onwards in phased manner.
2. The Ministry for Public Service and Administration (2007)
describes the roles of CDWs as follows:• to assist in the smooth delivery of
services by identifying and removing obstacles• to strengthen the social
contract between government and communities• to link communities with
government services• to pass on communities‘ concerns and problems
to government structures• to support and nurture the increased
exchange of information• to improve government–community
networks.The above serve to emphasise the significance of government
working together with local communities.
 Sheafor, B., & Horejsi, C. (2003). Techniques and Guidelines for

Social Work Practice. USA: Allyn & Bacon
 John, Mary (2000), ‗Alternate Modernities? Reservations and

Women‘s Movement in 20th Century India‘, Economic and
Political Weekly, vol. 35, no. 43-44, 21 October3 November
2000, pp. 3822-29
Tamil Nadu Slum Area
 Karlekar, Hiranmay (1996), ‗Miles To Go For a Fair

NOTES
Representation‘, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 3, no.2,
July- December 1996, pp. 275- 281
 Kaushik, Susheela (2000), ‗Women and Political Participation‘ in

Niroj Sinha (Ed), Women in Indian Politics, Gyan Publishing
House, Delhi ; pp. 53-67.
Websites
http://www . socialworkers . org/pubs/choices/ choices2.asp

http://www . socialworkers . org/pubs/choices/ choices1.asp
http://www.webindia123.com/career/studyabroad/ Canada/
subject.asp?action=Social+Work
http://www.utexas.edu/student/careercenter/careers/ social_work.pdf
http://www.swfs.ubc.ca/index.php?id=2963 http://www.timesjobs.com/
timesJobWebApp/tj/ common/social.jsp
http://www.uq.edu.au/careers/index.html?page= 33999&pid=0
http://www.sitagita.com/
http://www.lawentrance.com/careerindex.htm
156
MODEL QUESTION PAPER Tamil Nadu Slum Area
TIME: 3 HOURS MAXIMUM
MARKS: 75 NOTES
34943 A URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
SECTION – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
Answer All Questions
1) Write the meaning of Urban Community?
2) Give the classifications of City?
3) What is Urbanism?
4) Enlist the approaches of Slums?
5) Bing out any four urban problems?
6) Give the objectives of Urban Community Development
7) What are the principles of UCD?
8) What are the legislations related to urban Development?
9) Write the meaning of HUDCO?
10) What do you mean by TNUDP ?
SECTION – B (5 x 5 = 25 Marks)
Answer All Questions
11. (a) Explain nature of Urban Community ?
(Or)
(b) Explain the meaning and Classifications of City ?
12. (a) Write down the Process of Urbanisation ?
(Or)
(b) Explain the theories of Slums
13. (a) Bring out the cause of Drug Addiction ?
(Or)
(b) Narrate the objectives of Urban Community Development?
(a) Write down the Urban Development Planning?
(Or)
(b) Explain the various structure of Urban Development Agencies ?
14. (a) Elaborate the functions of Housing Board ?
(Or)
(b) Write the functions of Madras Urban Development Project 1 ?
SECTION – C (3 x 10 = 30 Marks)
Answer Any THREE Questions
15. Explain the Trends in Urbanization Process ?
16. Elaborate the City
17. Discuss the role of Voluntary Organization in Urban Community
Development ?
18. Bring out the Urban Development Administration
19. Narrate the significance of Social Work in Urban Development
Programme ?

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ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

[ACCREDITED WITH ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

KARAIKUDI – 630 003

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

34943 A - URBAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

“The Copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University”

UNIT – VIII LEGISLATION RELATED TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT 84-93

• Explain meaning and Characteristics of Urban

• Describe about Urban Community

1.1 URBAN COMMUNITY

Keeping the above criterion of 'urban area' in mind, urbanisation, in general,

Urbanisation implies a cultural, social and psychological pmss whereby NOTES

Urbanisation as a structural process of change is generally related to

Check Your Progress 1

1.1.3 RURAL AND URBAN LINKAGES AND CONTRAST

Rural-urban linkages are both a cause and a consequence of socio-economic

1.2 LET US SUM UP

1.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2. Define the Urban Area

1.4 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2. Definition of urban area: In the Census of India 201 1, the

1.5 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bano, Shadab, (1999) ‗Concubinage and Marriage in the Mughal

Bernier, Francois, (1916) Travels in the Mogul Empire, AD 1656-1668,

Blake, Stephen P., (1991) Shahajahanabad: The Sovereign City in

Habib, Irfan, (2008) Medieval India: The Study of Civilization (New

Hasan, Nurul S., (2005) ‗The Morphology of a Medieval Indian City: A

Holton, R.J., (1986) Cities, Capitalism and Civilization (London: Allen

Khan, Ali Muhammad, (1928) Mirat-i Ahmadi, trs. M.F., Lokhandawala,

Khan, Shah Nawaz, (1979) The Maathir-ul-Umara trs. H. Beveridge,

It is a matter of considerable debate among historians as to whether

Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall,

Definition on Legal Basis

Another equally simple approach is provided through statistical indicators.

Basis of Density of Population

Another quantitative criterion for defining the city on is the basis of

For these reasons attempts to arrive at an exact minimum figure of density

Not satisfied by the density criterion, Willcox added the criterion of

City According to Indian Census

a) All places with municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified

i) a minimum population of 5,000. NOTES

ii) At least 75 per of male working population in non-agricultural

iii) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Check Your Progress 1

2.4 TRENDS IN URBANIZATION PROCESS

By way of explanation to the sluggish growth of urban population the

The 1991-2001 decade too experienced a decline in natural growth rate of

2.5 Let us Sum Up

2.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2. Define City with legal basis ?

2.7 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

2. Davala, Sarath (ed.) 1995, Unprotected Labour in India, Delhi:

3. Davala, Sarath (1993), Employment and Unionisation in Indian

4. Dutt, Rudder (ed) 1996, Organising the Unorganised Workers, Delhi:

5. Government of India 2004, Ministry of Labor, Downloaded from

6. Government of India 2004A, National Policy for Urban Street Vendors

7. Government of India 2005, Economic Survey 2004-2005, Ministry of