SERIES

series is a sequence of numbers, terms, or elements arranged in a particular order. These

elements follow a pattern or rule, and each term in the series is related to the previous
one in a consistent
way

HERE ARE SOME EXAMPLE OF SUM AND PRODUCT OF SERIES

In[ ]:= Sumx^ii,{i,1,7}

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
Out[]= x+ + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7
In[ ]:= Sumx^ii,{i,7}
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
Out[]= x+ + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7
above example shows the starting point is default 1
In[ ]:= Sumx^ii,{i,8,6}
Out[]= 0

mathematica interprete it as a empty set

In[ ]:= Sumy^ii,{i,1,6,3}

y4
Out[]= y+
4
In[ ]:= Sum[i ^ 2, {i, 1, n}]
1
Out[]= n (1 + n) × (1 + 2 n)
6
In[ ]:= SumConvergence[i ^ 2, i]
Out[]= False
In[ ]:= Sum[1 / n ^ 2, {n, 1, Infinity}]
π2
Out[]=

6
In[ ]:= SumConvergence[1 / n ^ 2, n]
Out[]= True
2 final presentation.nb

In[ ]:= Sum[(x ^ i) (y ^ j), {i, 1, 2}, {j, 1, 2}]

Out[]= x y + x 2 y + x y 2 + x 2 y2
In[ ]:= Sum[(x ^ i) (y ^ j), {i, 1, 2}, {j, 1, i}]
Out[]= x y + x 2 y + x 2 y2
In[ ]:= Sum[x ^ (i (i + 1)), {i, 1, Infinity}]
-2 x1/4 + EllipticTheta[2, 0, x]
Out[]=

2 x1/4
In[ ]:= Product[x + i, {i, 1, 4}]
Out[]= (1 + x) × (2 + x) × (3 + x) × (4 + x)

In[ ]:= POWER SERIES

A power series is a special type of infinite series representing a mathematical function in the form
APPLICATIONS
Engineering, Physics, Finance, Computer Graphics , Signal Processing , Mathematics

In[ ]:= Series[Exp[x], {x, 0, 2}]

x2
Out[]= 1+x+ + O[x]3
2
In[ ]:= Series[Exp[1/x],{x,0,2}]
1
+O[x]3
Out[]= x

In[ ]:= Series[Exp[x], {x, 1, 4}]

1 1 1
Out[]=  +  (x - 1) +  (x - 1)2 +  (x - 1)3 +  (x - 1)4 + O[x - 1]5
2 6 24
 final presentation.nb 3

In[ ]:= Series[f[x], {x, 0, 3}]

1 1
Out[]= f[0] + f′[0] x + f′′[0] x2 +
f(3)[0] x3 + O[x]4
2 6
In[ ]:= Series[Exp[x] / x ^ 2, {x, 0, 4}]
1 1 1 x x2 x3 x4
Out[]= + + + + O[x]5
+ + +
x2 x 2 6 24 120 720
In[ ]:= Series[Exp[1 / x], {x, Infinity, 3}]
1 1 1 1 4
Out[]= 1+ + + + O 
2 3
x 2x 6x x

REPRESENTATION OF POWER SERIES

The power series is printed out as a sum of terms, ending with O[x] raised to a power
In[ ]:= Series[Cos[x], {x, 0, 4}]
x2 x4
Out[]= 1- + + O[x]5
2 24
In[ ]:= InputForm[%]
Out[]//InputForm= SeriesData[x, 0, {1, 0, -1/2, 0, 1/24}, 0, 5, 1]

OPERATIONS ON POWER SERIES

ADDITION OF POWER SERIES
This code add two power series x^2 + x^3 and x^4 + x^5 up to the 5 th order term
In[ ]:= Series[x ^ 2 + x ^ 3, {x, 0, 5}] + Series[x ^ 4 + x ^ 5, {x, 0, 5}]

Out[]= x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + O[x]6

Multiplication of Power Series:

This code multiplies two power series x^2 and x^3 up to the 3rd order term.
In[ ]:= Series[x ^ 2, {x, 0, 3}] * Series[x ^ 3, {x, 0, 3}]
Out[]= x5 + O[x]6

Differentiation of Power Series:

This code calculates the 5th order coefficient of the derivative of 1/(1-x).
In[ ]:= series = Series[x ^ 3 - x ^ 2 + x, {x, 0, 5}]
Out[]= x - x2 + x3 + O[x]6
In[ ]:= D[series, x]
Out[]= 1 - 2 x + 3 x2 + O[x]5

Integration of Power Series:

This code integrates the power series x^2 up to the 3rd order term with respect to x.
In[ ]:= Integrate[Series[x ^ 2, {x, 0, 3}], x]
x3
Out[]= + O[x]5
3
These examples demonstrate how to perform basic oper ations like addition, multiplica-
4 final presentation.nb

tion, differentiation, and integration on power series using Mathematica.

COMPOSITION AND INVERSION OF POWER SERIES:
Inversion of a power series involves finding a new series that represents the inverse
function of the original series.
In Mathematica, you can use the “InverseSeries” function to find the inversion of a
power series.
Composition of power series involves combining two power series to form a new series.
In Mathematica, you can achieve this by substituting one series into another using the
“/.” operator.
In[ ]:= InverseSeries[Series[Log[1 + x], {x, 0, 5}]]
x2 x3 x4 x5
Out[]= x+ + + O[x]6
+ +
2 6 24 120
In[ ]:= Series[Exp[x] - 1, {x, 0, 5}] /. x  Series[x ^ 2, {x, 0, 3}]
Out[]= x2 + O[x]4

Converting Power Series to Normal Expressions

Power series in Mathematica are represented in a special internal form, which keeps track of
such attributes as their expansion order.
For some purposes, you may want to convert power series to normal expressions. From a
mathematical point of view, this corresponds to truncating the power series, and assuming
that all higher-order terms are zero.
General code:

In[ ]:= t = Series[cos[x], {x, 0, 5}]

1 1 1 1
Out[]= cos[0] + cos′[0] x + cos′′[0] x2 + cos(3)[0] x3 + cos(4)[0] x4 + cos(5)[0] x5 + O[x]6
2 6 24 120
In[ ]:= Normal[t]
1 1 1 1
Out[]= cos[0] + x cos′[0] + x2 cos′′[0] + x3 cos(3)[0] + x4 cos(4)[0] + x5 cos(5)[0]
2 6 24 120
In[ ]:= Factor[%]
1
Out[]= × 120 cos[0] + 120 x cos′[0] + 60 x2 cos′′[0] + 20 x3 cos(3)[0] + 5 x4 cos(4)[0] + x5 cos(5)[0]
120
SERIES COEFFICIENT

In[ ]:= SeriesCoefficient[t, 3]

1
Out[]= cos(3)[0]
6
 final presentation.nb 5

In[ ]:= SeriesCoefficient[Exp[-x], {x, 0, n}]

(-1)n
n≥0
Out[]= n!
0 True
In[ ]:= Table[%, {n, 0, 5}]

1 1 1 1
Out[]= 1, -1, ,- , ,- 
2 6 24 120
Solving Equations Involving Power Series

In[ ]:= y = 1 + Sum[a[i] x ^ i, {i, 3}] + O[x] ^ 4

Out[]= 1 + a[1] x + a[2] x2 + a[3] x3 + O[x]4
In[ ]:= D[y, x] - y  x
Out[]= (-1 + a[1]) + (-a[1] + 2 a[2]) x + (-a[2] + 3 a[3]) x2 + O[x]3  x

SOLVING RECURRENCE EQNs

Recurrence equations describe how each term in a sequence depends on previous terms.
RSolve takes recurrence eqn and solves them to get explicit formulas for a[n].

LINEAR RECURRENCE EQN

Linear recurrence equations have terms that depend on previous terms in a simple, linear
way, typically involving addition and multiplication by constants.
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  2 a[n - 1], a[1]  1}, a[n], n]
Out[]= a[n]  2-1+n
In[ ]:= Table[2 ^ (n - 1), {n, 10}]
Out[]= {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512}
In[ ]:= RSolve[a[n]  2 a[n - 1], a[n], n]
Out[]= a[n]  2-1+n 1

This solves a recurrence equation for a geometric series.

In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  r a[n - 1] + 1, a[1]  1}, a[n], n]
-1 + rn
Out[]= a[n]  
-1 + r
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n + 1]  r a[n] + 1, a[1]  1}, a[n], n]
-1 + rn
Out[]= a[n]  
-1 + r
SECOND - ORDER RECUENCE EQN
In second - order linear recurrence equation, each term depends on two previous terms .
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  4 a[n - 1] + a[n - 2]}, a[n], n]
n n
Out[]= a[n]  2 - 5  1 + 2 + 5  2
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  a[n - 1] + a[n - 2], a[1]  a[2]  1}, a[n], n]
Out[]= {{a[n]  Fibonacci[n]}}
6 final presentation.nb

In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n + 1]  n a[n] + a[n - 1], a[1]  0, a[2]  1}, a[n], n]
BesselI[n, -2] BesselK[1, 2] + BesselI[1, 2] BesselK[n, 2]
Out[]= a[n]  
BesselI[2, 2] BesselK[1, 2] + BesselI[1, 2] BesselK[2, 2]

NON-LINEAR RECURRENCE EQ.

Nonlinear recurrence equations have terms that depend on previous terms in a nonlinear way,
involving operations like exponentiation, multiplication/division by variables or functions,
trigonometric functions, etc.
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  a[n + 1] × a[n - 1]}, a[n], n]
1  3 n 1  3 n
 +  1 + -  2
Out[]= a[n]   2 2 2 2 
In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  (a[n + 1] × a[n - 1]) ^ 2}, a[n], n]
1  15 n 1  15 n 2π 1  15 n 1  15 n
 -  1 + +  2 + -  1 + +  2
Out[]= a[n]   4 4 4 4 , a[n]   3 4 4 4 4 

Q-Difference Equations
q-difference equations are those in which the arguments of a are related by multiplicative
factors.
In[ ]:= RSolve[a[q n]  n a[n], a[n], n]
1 Log[n]
×-1+ 
Out[]= a[n]  n 2 Log[q] 1
In[ ]:= RSolve[a[n]  a[q n] + a[n / q], a[n], n]
π π
-
Out[]= a[n]  n 3 Log[q] 1 + n 3 Log[q] 2

COUPLED SYSTEM OF RECURRENCE EQN

In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[n]  b[n - 1] + n, b[n]  a[n - 1] - n, a[1]  b[1]  1}, {a[n], b[n]}, n]
1 1
Out[]= a[n]  × 4 + 3 (-1)n + (-1)2 n + 2 (-1)2 n n, b[n]  × 4 - 3 (-1)n + (-1)1+2 n - 2 (-1)2 n n
4 4
PARTIAL RECURRENCE EQN

In[ ]:= RSolve[{a[i + 1, j]  2 a[i, j]}, a[i, j], {i, j}]

Out[]= a[i, j]  2-1+i 1[j]

Introduction to Residues
- Residues are defined in the context of complex analysis as the coefficient of the (
frac{1}{z-a} ) term in the Laurent series expansion of a function around a singular point ( a ).
This is essential for understanding how functions behave near points of singularity.
Basic Concepts
the `Residue` function in Mathematica and its basic syntax.
Residue[f, {z, z0}]
. Calculating Simple Residues
 final presentation.nb 7

In[ ]:= Residue[1 / (z ^ 2 + 4), {z, 2 I}]


Out[]= -
4
In[ ]:= ResidueExp[z]  (z - Pi), {z, Pi}
Out[]= π

Residues at Essential Singularities and Multiple Poles

- how to compute residues at essential singularities and poles of higher order
In[ ]:= Residue[Exp[1 / z], {z, 0}]
1
Out[]= Residue z , {z, 0}
In[ ]:= Residue[(z + 1) / (z - 1) ^ 3, {z, 1}]
Out[]= 0

Using Residues to Evaluate Integrals

In[ ]:= residues = Residue[z / (Exp[z] - 1), {z, 2 Pi I k}]
Out[]= 0
In[ ]:= integral = 2 Pi I Total[residues]
Out[]= 0

Introduction to Limits
In calculus, a limit is a fundamental concept that describes the behavior of a function as its
input (or variable) approaches a certain value.
Limits help us understand what happens to a function at a specific point, even if the function
is not explicitly defined at that point
Basic Limit Calculations
- how to calculate limits at a point
In[ ]:= Limit[x ^ 2, x  2]
Out[]= 4

A limit that doesn’t exist and how Mathematica handles it

In[ ]:= Limit[1 / x, x  0]
Out[]= Indeterminate

Limits Involving Infinity

In[ ]:= Limit[(3 x ^ 3 + x ^ 2) / (x ^ 3 - 1), x  Infinity]
Out[]= 3

One-sided Limits
- These are limits that approach a point from one direction—either from the left or the right.
- finding a right-hand limit and a left-hand limit.
In[ ]:= Limit[1 / x, x  0, Direction  "FromAbove"]
Limit[1 / x, x  0, Direction  "FromBelow"]
Out[]= ∞
Out[]= -∞
8 final presentation.nb

Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

- Trigonometric functions often have interesting limits, like
In[ ]:= LimitSin[x]  x, x  0
Out[]= 1

Exploring Complex Functions

- limit involving a more complex function or an expression where direct substitution is not
possible
In[ ]:= Limit[(x ^ 2 - 4) / (x - 2), x  2]
Out[]= 4

Using ‘Assumptions’ in Limits

- how to use assumptions to refine the results of limits, especially when dealing with
inequalities or conditional limits
In[ ]:= Limit[Exp[-x ^ 2] / x, x  Infinity, Assumptions  x > 0]
Out[]= 0

Introduction to Pade Approximations

- Pade approximations are rational functions (ratios of two polynomials) that are used to
approximate functions.
- Pade approximations often provide superior accuracy over Taylor series, particularly near
points where the function’s behavior is complex (like near singularities).
Pade Approximation in Mathematica
- basic syntax:
PadeApproximant[function, {variable, expansion point, {n, m}}]
where ( n ) is the order of the numerator polynomial and ( m ) is the order of the denomi-
nator polynomial
Simple Examples
- how to calculate a Pade approximation of simple functions, like \( e^x \), around \( x = 0
\)
In[ ]:= PadeApproximant[Exp[x], {x, 0, {3, 2}}]
3x 3 x2 x3
1+ + +
5 20 60
Out[]=

2x x2
1- +
5 20

Complex Functions
- Applying Pade approximations to more complex functions.
In[ ]:= PadeApproximantSin[x]  x, {x, 0, {4, 5}}
53 x2 551 x4
1- +
396 166 320
Out[]=

13 x2 5 x4
1+ +
396 11 088
final presentation.nb 9
10 final presentation.nb