GRAVITATION

Facts that Matter

• Universal law of gravitation: Every object in the universe attracts every other object
with a force which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.

Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance of d from each other as
shown in the figure.
Let F be the force of attraction between two objects. According to the universal law of
gravitation

• G is called a universal constant because its value does not depend on the nature of
intervening medium or temperature or any other physical variable.
S.I. unit of G = Nm 2 /kg 2
Value of G = 6.673 � 10 –11 Nm 2 /kg 2
(Found by Henry Cavendish)
• Importance of universal law of gravitation
Universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena like:
(i) the force that binds us to the earth.
(ii) the motion of moon around the earth.
(iii) the motion of planets around the sun.
(iv) the tides due to the moon and the sun.
• Free fall
When an object falls down towards the earth under the gravitational force alone, we
say the object is in free fall.
This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity, denoted by ‘g’. Unit is m/s 2 .
As F = ma (a = g) ...(i)
F = mg ...(ii)

M = Mass of the earth

d = Distance between the object and the earth
G = Gravitational constant
If the object is place on the earth then d =R
(R = radius of the earth)
 Earth is not a sphere it is flattened at poles.

Calculation of value of g

G = 6.67 × 10 –11 Nm 2 /kg 2

M = 6 × 10 24 kg (Mass of the earth)
R = 6.4 × 10 6 m
On substituting the given values

Motion of objects under the influence of gravity ‘g’ does not depend on the mass of the
body. All objects small, big, heavy, light, hollow or solid fall at same rate.
• The three equation of motion viz.

(iii) v 2 – u 2 = 2as are true for motion of objects under gravity.

For free fall, value of acceleration a = g = 9.5 ms –2 .
• If an object is just let fall from a height then in that as u = 0 and a = g = 9.8 m/s 2 .
• If an object is projected vertically upward with an initial velocity u, then a = –g = –9.8
ms –2 and the object will go to a maximum height h where its final velocity becomes zero
(i.e., v = 0).
• Mass: Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. It is the matter present in it. It
remains the same everywhere in the universe.
• Weight: The force of attraction of the earth on the object is known as the weight of the
object. Its S.I. unit is Newton.
W=m×g
The weight of an object can change from one place to the other, from one planet to the
other.
Weight of an object on moon is given by the formula

W m = weight of an object on moon

M m = mass of the moon = 7.36 × 10 22
R m = radius of the moon = 1.74 × 10 6
G = 6.67 × 10 –11 Nm 2 /lg 2

∴ Weight of an object on moon th the weight of an object on the earth.

MOTION

Distance �Time Graphs

• For a body at rest
• As the slope is zero, so speed of the body is zero.

• For a body moving with uniform speed

• For accelerated motion.
• The slope of graph is increasing with time

• For decelerated (speeding down) motion.

• Slope of graph is decreasing with time

Velocity �Time Graphs

• When a body moving with a uniform velocity.
• The slope of AB indicates zero acceleration

• When a body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration.
• Greater is the slope of v-t graph, greater will be the acceleration

• When a body is moving with uniform acceleration and its initial velocity is not zero.

• When a body is moving with increasing acceleration.

• Slope increases with time.

• When a body is moving with decreasing acceleration.

• Slope decreases with time.

• When a body is moving with a uniform retardation and its initial velocity is not zero.
• As θ > 90°, graph has a negative slope.

Facts that Matter

• An object is said to be in motion when its position changes with time.
• We describe the location of an object by specifying a reference point. Motion is
relative. The total path covered by an object is said to be the distance travelled by it.
• The shortest path/distance measured from the initial to the final position of an object is
known as the displacement.
• Uniform motion: When an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it
is said to be in uniform motion.
• Non-uniform motion: Motions where objects cover unequal distances in equal
intervals of time.
• Speed: The distance travelled by an object in unit time is referred to as speed. Its unit
is m/s.
• Average speed: For non-uniform motion, the average speed of an object is obtained by
dividing the total distance travelled by an object by the total time taken.

• Velocity: Velocity is the speed of an object moving in definite direction. S.I. unit is
m/s.

• Acceleration: Change in the velocity of an object per unit time.

• Graphical representation of motions
(i) Distance-time graph
For a distance-time graph time is taken on x-axis and distance is taken on y-axis.
[Note: All independent quantities are taken along the x-axis and dependent quantities
are taken along y-axis.]
OA = CD = u
OE = CB = v
OC = AD = t
BD = BC – DC (Change in velocity)
AD is parallel to OC.
∴ BC = BD + DC = BD + OA
∴ BC = v and OA = u
We get v = BD + u
∴ BD = v – u ...(1)
In velocity-time graph, slope gives acceleration.

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

BD = v – u
at = v – u
∴ v = u + at
(ii) Equation for position-time relation:

Let us assume,
s = distance travelled by the object
t = in time t
a = with uniform acceleration.
∴ Distance travelled by the object is given by area enclosed with OABC in the graph.
∴ s = OABC
= (area of rectangle OADC) + (area of DABD)

Substituting
OA = u, OC = AD = t and BD = at
We get
 (iii) Equation for position-velocity relation:

s = distance travelled by the object

t = in time t
a = moving with uniform acceleration
s = area enclosed by trapezium OABC

Substitute value of ‘t’ in (1)

• Uniform circular motion: When a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed,
its motion is called uniform circular motion.

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work Done
• Work done on an object is defined as the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
distance moved by the object in the direction of the applied force.
Work done = force × distance
=F×s
1 Joule = 1 Newton × 1 metre.
The unit of work is joule.
• Work done by a force acting obliquely is equal to W = F cos θ × s
• Work done on a body moving in circular path is zero.
Energy
• The energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. The S. I. unit of energy is Joule (1
KJ = 1000 J).
• Form of energy: (P.E & K.E.), heat energy, light energy, sound energy etc.
• Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body by virtue of its motion.

• Kinetic energy
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by the body due to its position or shape.
• Potential energy = mgh
• Law of conservation of energy states that whenever energy gets transformed from one
form to another, the total energy remains unchanged. i.e., energy can neither be created
nor destroyed.
Power
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work. S.I. unit of power is Watt. ( W).
• Commercial unit of energy is kWh (kilowatt –hour).

SOUND
• Sound is a mechanical energy which produces sensation of hearing. Sound is produced
due to vibration of different objects.
• Sound wave propagates as compressions & rarefactions in the medium. Sound waves
are longitudinal waves.
Characteristics of a Sound Wave
Sound waves are produced due to variations in pressure & density of the medium.
• Compression is the portion of the medium where a temporary increase in volume & a
decrease in density takes place when a sound wave passes through the medium.
• Rarefaction is the portion of the medium where a temporary increase in volume &
consequently a decease in density takes place when sound wave passes through the
medium.
• Crest is the portion of the medium where the density (or pressure) has a value larger
than its average value.
• Trough is the portion of the medium where the density (or pressure) has a value
smaller than the average value.
• Amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side
of the mean position.
• Oscillation is the change in density (or pressure) from maximum value to the
minimum value and again to the maximum value.
• Frequency enables us to know as to how many times a particular event occur in a
given time.
• Time Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation in density (or pressure) of
the medium.
• Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive
rarefactions.
Characteristics of Sound
• Loudness or intensity.
• Pitch or frequency.
• Quality or timbre.
Reflection of Sound
• An Echo is the phenomenon of repetition of sound of a source by reflection from an
obstacle.
• Multiple echoes are heard when sound is repeatedly reflected from a number of
obstacles at suitable distance.
• Megaphone, stethoscope ear trumpet, hearing aid etc are based on phenomenon of
multiple reflection of sound.
• Reverberation is the phenomenon of persistence of audible sound after the source has
stopped emitting sound.
Reverberation is reduced by carpeting the floor, upholstering furniture & covering the
walls with some absorbing material like curtains etc.
Range of Frequencies
• Audible range of hearing of average human being is in the frequency range of 20Hz to
20KHz.
• Infrasound has a frequency below 20Hz. Ultrasound has a frequency above 20 kHz.
• Ultrasound finds application in industry, medical service & communications.
Human Ear
• Outer ear collects sound waves.
• Middle ear amplifies the sound waves.
• Inner ear converts the amplified sound energy into electrical energy & conveys to the
brain as nerve impulse for interpretation.

LAWS OF MOTION
Facts that Matter
• Force: It is a push or pull on an object that produces acceleration in the body on which
it acts.
S.I. unit of force is Newton.
• A force can do three things on a body.
(a) It can change the speed of a body.
(b) It can change the direction of motion of a body.
(c) It can change the shape of a body.
• Balanced forces: Forces are said to be balanced forces if they nullify one another and
their resultant force is zero
• Unbalanced forces: When two opposite forces acting on a body, move a body in the
direction of the greater force or forces which brings motion in a body are called as
unbalanced forces.
• First law of motion: An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force.
• Inertia: The natural tendency of an object to resist a change in their state of rest or of
uniform motion is called inertia.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia.
Its S.I. unit is kg.
A body with greater mass has greater inertia.
• Frictional force: The force that always opposes the motion of objects is called force
of friction.
• Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional
to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of the force. Mathematically ,
F = k ma (where k is a proportionality constant)
F = ma (∵ k = 1)
• Momentum: The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity and
has the same direction as that of the velocity. Its S.I. unit is kg m/s.
(p = mv)
 1 Newton: A force of one Newton produces an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 on an object of
mass 1 kg.
1N = 1kg m/s 2
(F = ma)
• Third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and they
act on two different bodies.
• Conservation of momentum: If the external force on a system is zero, the momentum
of the system remains constant i.e., in an isolated system, the total momentum remains
conserved.

Suppose A and B are two balls, they have mass mA and MB and initial velocities uA
and uB as shown in above figure before collision. The two bodies collide and force is
exerted by each body.
There is change in their velocities due to collision.
(mAuA + mBuB) is their total momentum after the collision.
The sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of
momentum after the collision, provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on
them.
This is known as the law of conservation of momentum.