Microstructure Development

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 Microstructure
• The physical properties and the mechanical behavior of a
material depend on the microstructure.
• Microstructure is subject to direct microscopic observation,
using optical or electron microscopes.
• In metal alloys microstructure is characterized by
– the number of phases present
– their proportions
– the manner in which they are distributed or arranged.
• The microstructure of an alloy depends on variables such as
– the alloying elements present
– their concentration
– the heat treatment of the alloy. (i.e., the temperature, the
heating time at temperature, and the rate of cooling to room
temperature).

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Optical Microscopic examination of
microstructure
• Light is used to study the microstructure
• Careful and meticulous surface
preparations are necessary to reveal the
important details of the microstructure.
• This is typically done by grounding,
polishing followed by etching.
• Chemical reactivity of the grains of some
single-phase materials depends on
crystallographic orientation.
• When microstructure of two-phase alloy
is to be examined, an etchant is often
chosen that produce different texture for
each phase. 3
Size range for several structural features found in materials

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 5. Phase Equilibria
Equilibrium
• A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a minimum under
some specified combination of temperature, pressure and
composition.
• In a macroscopic sense, this means that the characteristics of the
system do not change with time but persist indefinitely; that is, the
system is stable.

Free energy
• A function of the internal energy of the system, and also
randomness or disorder of the atoms or molecules (or entropy).
• A change in T, P. and or composition for a system in equilibrium
will result in an increase in free energy and in a spontaneous
change to another state whereby the free energy is lowered.
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Development of Microstructure
in Isomorphous Alloys

Equilibrium Cooling
Let’s consider the alloy composition
35 wt% Ni-65 wt% Cu as it cools
down from 1300 ⁰C. We first treat
the situation in which cooling occurs
very slowly.
a. Only L (35 Ni)
b. Solid α just started to appear in liquid (35
Ni)
c. α phase amount increase. Tie line and
lever rule determines compositions and
phase amounts.
d. Virtually a solid of α (35 Ni) while the last
remaining liquid is 24 wt% Ni-76 wt% Cu.
Upon crossing the solidus, the remaining
liquid solidifies.
e. Subsequent cooling will produce no
microstructural or compositional
alterations. 6
 Development of Microstructure in
Isomorphous Alloys-Nonequilibrium Cooling
• Equilibrium solidification and development of
microstructure are realized only for extremely slow
cooling rates.
• As the alloy cools down, the readjustment of
composition of different phases are accomplished by
diffusion process.
• Diffusion is a time-dependent phenomenon: sufficient
time must be allowed at each temperature for the
appropriate compositional readjustment.
• Diffusion rates are low for solids, and for all the phases
it decreases with diminishing temperature.

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 Nonequilibrium Cooling
Some of the consequences of
nonequilibrium solidification of 35 wt% Ni-
65 wt% Cu alloy
a. Liquid only (35 Ni)
b. α phase particles begin to appear (tie
line determines the composition)
c. L phase is as expected from tie line,
but the diffusion in α phase is too
slow. As a result the α formed at b’
point remains same while the
composition of the α grain
continuously changed. On the basis of
lever rule greater proportion of liquid
is present.
d. Unlike in the case of equilibrium
cooling, there is still an appreciable
proportion of liquid remaining.
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e. Finally reaches complete solidification.
 Important Consequences of nonequilibrium
solidification of isomorphous alloys
• The degree of displacement of the nonequilibrium solidus curve
from equilibrium one will depend on the rate of cooling.
• Segregation: a phenomenon that occurred due to distribution of
the two elements within the grain is non uniform.
• Center of each grain is rich in the high-melting elements and near
the grain boundary material has low-melting elements. (Cored
structure)
• If a cored structure is reheated the grain boundary region melt
first to form a liquid form around grains. This can result in sudden
loss in mechanical integrity.
• Coring may be eliminated by a homogenization heat treatment
carried out at a temperature bellow the solidus point for the
particular alloy composition.
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Development of Microstructure
in Eutectic Alloys

Lead-Tin system: Case 1

a. Liquid phase (C1 wt% Sn)
b. α phase begins to form.
(the tie line and lever rule
determine compositions of
α-phase and liquid phase
as well as phase amounts.
c. Solidification is complete.
No subsequent change will
occur upon cooling to
room temperature.

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Development of Microstructure
in Eutectic Alloys

Lead-Tin system: Case 2

d. Liquid phase (C2 wt% Sn)
e. α phase begins to form. (the tie
line and lever rule determine
compositions of α-phase and
liquid phase as well as phase
amounts.
f. Solidification is complete. Single
phase α grains with concentration
C 2.
g. Upon crossing solvus line, the α
solid solubility is exceeded, which
results in the formation of small
β-phase particles. With continued
cooling, these particles will grow
in size.
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Development of Microstructure
in Eutectic Alloys
Lead-Tin system:
Case 3 (eutectic
composition)
h. Liquid phase (C3 wt%
Sn)
i. Upon crossing the
eutectic isotherm, the
liquid transforms to
the two α and β
phases. This results in
layered microstructure

Process of the redistribution of Pb

and Sn occurs by diffusion, in the
liquid just ahead of the eutectic-
liquid interface

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 Development of Microstructure
in Eutectic Alloys
Lead-Tin system:
Case 4
j. Liquid phase (C4 wt% Sn)
k. α phase begins to form.
(the tie line and lever rule
determine compositions of
α-phase and liquid phase as
well as phase amounts.
l. Just before crossing the
eutectic isotherm, the α-
phase composition reach
eutectic α composition.
m. Upon crossing eutectic isotherm, the liquid phase
which is in eutectic composition, transform to the
eutectic structure (alternating α and β lamellae).

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 Microconstituent
• An element of microstructure
having an identifiable
characteristic structure.
• Primary α and eutectic structure
are two microconstituents.
The Fraction of P
We  WL 
Eutectic PQ
microconstituent
Q
The Fraction of W ' 
Primary α PQ
The Fraction of Total
QR
α (both eutectic and W 
primary) PQ R
The Fraction of P
total β W 
PQ R
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 Eutectic
Congruent V+L

β+L HfV2+L

HfV2+L

α+β Eutectic

Eutectoid

β +HfV2 α +HfV2 HfV2+V

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 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams
• It need not to be assumed that phase diagrams
exist only for metal-metal system; in fact, phase
diagrams that are very useful in the design and
processing of ceramic systems have been
experimentally determined for quite a number of
these materials.
• Phase diagrams have also been determined for
metallic (as well as ceramic) systems containing
more than two components; how ever their
representation and interpretation may be
exceedingly complex.

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Ternary Phase Diagram

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