Ipi Bulletin 2 Fertilizing - For - High - Yield - and - Quality - Cotton

'P
Bulletin 2
(revised)
by J. Halevy and M. Bazelet

2nd revised edition
International Potash Institute

Bern/ Switzerland 1989
IPI-Bulletin No. 2 (revised)
Fertilizing for High Yield

and Quality
COTTON
J. Halevy, M. Sc. Agr. Ph.D., Department of Soil
Chemistry and Plant Nutrition,
ARO, The Volcani Centre,
Bet Dagan/Israel
and
M. Bazelet, M. Sc. Agr., Dead Sea Works Ltd.,
Beer-Sheba/Israel
International Potash Institute

P.O. Box 121
CH-3048 Worblaufen-Bern/Switzerland
Phone 31/585373, Fax 31/584129, Telex 912091 ipich
Contents
I. Introduction ......... ................................... . 5

2. W orld production .......................................... 5
3. Effect of climatic conditions on plant development ................ 6
3.1 Tem perature .............................................. 7
3.2 R adiation ................................................ 8
3.3 CO 2 concentration in the air .................................. 9
3.4 M oisture availability ....................................... 9
4. Soils, rotation and cultivation practices ......................... 10
4.1 Soils ..................................................... 10
4.2 R otation ................................................. 10
4.3 Soil preparation and planting ................................ 12
4.4 Irrigation ................................................. 12
5. Development and nutrient uptake ............................. 15
5.1 Dry matter accum ulation .................................... 15
5.2 N, P, K and other elements, their uptake and importance for yield and
quality ................................................... 16
5.2.1 N itrogen ................................................. 16
5.2.2 Phosphorus ............................................... 21
5.2.3 Potassium ................................................ 21
5.2.4 C alcium .................................................. 24
5.2.5 M agnesium ............................................... 24
5.2.6 Sulphur .................................................. 26
5.2.7 M icronutrients ............................................ 26
6. Fertilizer evaluation and application ........................... 28
6.1 N itrogen ................................................. 28
6.1.1 Soil tests for estimating availability ............................ 28
6.1.2 Plant tests ................................................ 29
6.1.3 Fertilizer application ....................................... 30
6.2 Phosphorus ............................................... 32
6.2.2 Plant tests ................................................ 32
6.3 Potassium ................................................ 33
6.3.2 Plant tests ................................................ 34
6.4 Calcium and liming ........................................ 37
6.4.1 Soil criteria useful in diagnosing Ca status ...................... 39
6.4.2 Plant analysis ............................................. 39
3
6.5 M agnesium ............................................... 40
6.5.1 D iagnostic m ethods ........................................ 40
6.6 Sulphur .................................................. 41
6.6.1 Soil tests ................................................. 41
6.6.2 Plant analysis ............................................. 41
6.7 Fertigation ............................................... 42
7. Interactions ............................................... 43
7.1 Interactions between plant nutrients ........................... 43
7.1.1 N itrogen x phosphorus ..................................... 44
7.1.2 N itrogen x potassium ...................................... 44
7.1.3 Potassium and other elements ................................ 45
7.2 Interactions between nutrients and water ....................... 45
7.2.1 N itrogen x water .......................................... 45
7.2.2 Interaction between other nutrients and water ................... 46
7.3 Interaction between potassium and diseases ..................... 47
8. Bibliography ............................................ . 48
4
1. Introduction
Cotton belongs to the genus Gossypium of the family Malvacae. According to

Hutchinson et aL [1947] there are 20 species in the genus Gossypium that are divided
into eight sections. Only two sections contain cultivated species: in the Herbaceac
section the old world species (n = 13 chromosomes): G. herbaceum and G. arboreum,
and in the Hirsuta section, the new world species (n = 26 chromosomes): G. hirsutum
and G. barbadense.
Cotton is a perennial crop which can be grown continuously like trees, and under
tropical conditions stays evergreen and produces continuously. However, almost all
commercial production is grown as an annual crop which is planted every year, to
maintain reasonable to very high yields, and to keep the insect population on as low
a level as possible by destroying all plant residues after each growing season.
Cotton requires a long warm growing season. It is therefore cultivated in almost all
tropical countries, as well as in many subtropical countries. Cotton is grown on a
wide range of soils from heavy alluvial soil with pH 8 and more to highly weathered
and leached sands of pH 5 and even lower.
Cotton is the most important plant fibre, and it is used for many purposes, but
especially for clothing. In 1986, the world production of cotton lint was 15 048 mt,
while the production of all other plant fibres was only 622 mt (FAO [1987]).
Yields of cotton vary over a very wide range depending on: genetic potential, crop
management, soil conditions and climatic variations. Yields can be as low as 500 kg/
ha under dryland conditions or as high as 8000 kg/ha of cotton seed with high yield-
ing varieties and very good crop management.
It is not suprising that these dramatic changes in yields are achieved mainly by the
use of more fertilizer and better fertilization practices. Therefore, most of this bull-
etin will be devoted to the interrelationship between fertilization practices and yield
and quality of cotton.
2. World production
Cotton is grown in many countries in all parts of the world. It is grown in South-
America as well as in Central and North America up to the latitude 43. It is grown
in Africa- from S. Africa in the south up to Egypt in the north, in Southern Europe-
in countries such as Greece and Spain, in Asia from the Middle East to the Far East
and in the Soviet Union up to the latitude 37'. In recent years, Australia has also
entered the field as an important grower of cotton with increasing area (164 000 ha)
and yield (1.32 tons/ha).
The average area under cotton throughout the world during 1983-1986 was 33.8
million hectares (FA 0 [19871) nearly the same area that was cultivated 50 years ago
(Stanhill[1976]). The average world production increased from II x 106 tons of lint
5
per year for the decade 1961-1970 (Stanhill [1976]) to an average of 16.8 X 106 tons
during 1984-1986 (Table 1). Although cotton is grown commercially in about 70
countries, ranging from 470 N to 350 S, approximately 80% of world production is
concentrated in eight countries (Table 2).
Table t. Areas under cotton and yield of seed cotton (FAO [1987])
Area Annual lint yield
(mio. ha) Total mio. tons tons/ha
Africa 3.97 1.30 0.33
N. + C. America 4.37 3.01 0.69
South America 4.52 1.31 0.29
Asia 17.06 8.24 0.48
Europe 0.31 0.24 0.77
Oceania 0.17 0.22 1.29
USSR 3.36 2.51 0.75
Total world 33.76 16.83 0.50
Table 2. Area and yields of 8 major cotton producing countries 1984-1986 (FAO [1987])
Country Area Annual lint yield
(mio. ha) Total mio. tons tons/ha
India 7.55 1.42 0.188
China 5.49 4.65 0.847
USA 3.93 2.63 0.669
USSR 3.36 2.51 0.747
Brazil 3.29 0.79 0.240
Pakistan 2.42 1.16 0-479
Turkey 0.68 0.52 0.765
Egypt 0.43 0.42 0.977
Total eight countries 27.15 14.00 0.516
3. Effect of climatic conditions on plant development
The life cycle of the cotton plant may be divided into four main stages:
1. From germination to first true leaf.
2. From first true leaf to first square.
3. From first square to opening of first flower.
4. From first flower to the end of boll opening.
6
Every stage of the life cycle is affected by climatic conditions such as temperature,
evaporation, precipitation (or irrigation), etc. The duration of each growing stage,
the rate and the intensity of plant development are dependent on climatic factors. It
is also very difficult to isolate one factor from another, because there are interac-
tions between the factors e.g. between the optimum temperature and intensity of
radiation.
3.1 Temperature
Temperature is the main factor that affects the length of each of the growing stages
(Figure 1). In this figure we see that in all stages low temperatures retard growth, but
the degree of retardation is different from one stage to another.
140 I I I I I I I I I
- Legend: 1) Germination and emergence
2) Early growth
anduntil squaring
flowering
120 -3) Squaing
4) From flowering to open boll
') 80-
o3
• )GermI m
9'
I
80
16 2 0 4 2 2 3
120 32 -4 36
M7
TEMPERATURE (00)
Fig. 1. Temperature effect on the number of days required for each stage of development in
the cotton plant (from Lamas er at. [1977], adapted from different sources).
The data in Figure 1 indicate that it is impossible to evaluate plant development in
calendar days, therefore it is necessary to introduce values such as 'physiological
days' or 'day-degrees'. There are different ways for day-degree calculation, but only
that of Young el al. [1980] will be presented here. They assume that 12.8 'C is the
temperature below which cotton plants do not develop (minimum temperature).
The day-degree units are determined by subtracting K = 12.8 0 C from the daily
maximum temperature.
In an experiment in which 5 planting dates were tested, the day-degree units in the
different planting dates and development stages were calculated (Table 3).
The data in Table 3 show that with delayed planting significantly fewer days are
required for all four stages, but in the day-degree units there were no meaningful
differences.
Table 3. Number of days and day-degree units at five dates of plant growth development
(Young et al [1980])
Intervals of plant growth and development from planting to:
Date of planting True leaf ISquare Flower Open boll
Number of calendardays
1April 26.5 b* 74.0 e 97.5 e 155.5 d
15 April 25.0 b 68.5 d 89.0 d 144.5 c
29 April 23.0 b 62.5 e 80.5 c 140.5 c
13 May 18.5 a 55.5 b 75.0 b 133.0 ab
27 May 17.5 a 49.5 a 70.5 a 135.0 ab
Day-degree units
1 April 5825a 21005 a 33226 a 58878 b
15 April 6147 a 22611 a 33331 a 57298 ab
29 April 6763 a 23861 b 32932 a 58083 ab
13 May 6301 a 23989 b 33597 a 56038 a
27 May 6961 a 23595 b 33096 a 55721 a
Means followed by the same letter within each column for number of days and day-degree
units are not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability.
3.2. Radiation
Sunshine is vital to cotton and areas with more than 50% cloud-cover are not suit-
able for cotton regardless of temperature and moisture (Waddle [1984]). The inten-
sity of photosynthesis is dependent on the intensity of radiation. Some investigators
report that in cotton maximum photosynthesis occurs when light intensity is 79% of
the maximum intensity at noon. Others report that it occurs at maximum light
intensity at noon - approx. 10 000 fc (Rimon [1984]). Maybe the varying results are
due to different growing conditions such as water status in the soil and plant, tem-
perature and stage of development of the plant. In fact, it is very difficult to isolate
8
the effect of radiation because the other factors such as temperature, respiration,
etc. are involved in the growth process.
3.3 C0 2concentration in the air

Cotton as a C 3 plant may increase its photosynthesis when the concentration of CO 2
in the air increases, if all the other factors are unlimiting. Especially under high light
intensities the CO 2 concentration in the air may become a limiting factor. One of the
most pronounced effects of CO 2 enrichment in cotton is a large build-up in the per-
centage of sugars and starches stored in the leaves.
Increasing the CO 2 concentration from 300 ppm (the average concentration of CO 2
in the air) to 600 and 1000 ppm increased photosynthesis and dry matter production.
Increasing the CO 2 level from 330 ppm to 1000 ppm under controlled conditions
lowered the node number of the first flower, doubled boll production and delayed
abscission of squares and boils (Krizek [1979]).
3.4 Moisture availability

Soil water available for cotton includes that present in the soil at the depth of the
root system when the crop is planted plus that added by rainfall and irrigation after
planting.
Table 4 shows that cotton requires at least 500 mm of water to grow a crop of mini-
mum acceptable yield. Yield level becomes a function of available water supply at
successive stages of growth, when other growth factors are equal.
Table 4. Hypothetical water demand by cotton at sequential growth stages for increasing
lint yields (from Waddle [1984]).
Water needs by stages of growth Lint yields in tons/ha
0.17 0.84 1.69
water mn
Seedling (planting to flower bud initiation) 80 80 100
Fruiting (through 4th week of blooming) 120 140 200
Maturing (5th week of blooming to 1st week
of open boll) 180 230 320
Opening (1st week open to all open) 120 270 380
Totals 500 720 1000
9
4. Soils, rotation and cultivation practices
4.1 Soils
There are no soils which can be considered as being definite cotton soils. Within the
climatic zones, we find cotton growing on practically all soils. However very heavy
clay soils and very sandy soils are unfavourable- The high clay soils require drainage
to avoid saturation and oxygen stress, while sandy soils have a low water holding
capacity and require frequent water supply. Studies by Huck [1970] clearly demon-
strated that cotton roots like those of many plants stop functioning when soil oxy-
gen falls below 10%. In bad drainage conditions cotton might suffer from K
deficiency even when K levels in the soil are reasonable for normal conditions.
4.2 Rotation
Cotton is grown by farmers either in rotation with other crops or in monoculture for
many consecutive years. When cotton grows year after year on the same land, dis-
eases build up in the soil. Verticillium wilt, root rot and seedling diseases are gener-
ally less common on farms where crop rotation is followed. It is also noted that good
feeding with K enables plants to persist when attacked by many diseases. Few defi-
nite or systematic crop sequences have been used on cotton in different countries in
the world. Some proven rotations for different soils in the U.S.A. are presented in
Table 5.
Crop rotation can bejustified in most cotton growing areas, but U.S. cotton growers
are reluctant to rotate cotton because rotation complicates cotton production, and
poses an extra challenge to management. Crop-rotation is a cost-effective soil man-
agement practice (Waddle [1984]).
In Latin America cotton often alternates with wheat, maize, rice, legumes and other
crops. In tropical Africa it alternates with groundnuts, maize and various subsist-
ance crops and also two to five fallow years (Sudan). In Egypt the most common
rotation is cotton, wheat, berseem-clover, maize (Fauconnier[1987]). In India and
Pakistan: cotton, wheat, jowar (Sorghum vulgare); cotton, wheat, toria (Indian
rape-Brassicacampestris); cotton, legume, wheat (Berger [1969]).
Multiple cropping is defined as: 'Growing two or more crops in the same field in one
year.' Increasing food and fibre production by increasing the area under cultivation
is perhaps no longer possible, except marginally, in many countries. The answer for
achieving the projected food and fibre for the growing population of developing
countries therefore lies in increasing yield per unit of land area and per unit time,
through adoption of a high level agricultural technology. An important factor in this
system is the soil fertility level which must be maintained by proper fertilization
enabling sustained high and economic yields. Fertilizer use in multiple growing sys-
tems in general was described by Roy and Braun [1984]. Double cropping of wheat
and cotton was suggested by Carmi and Plaut [1986].
10
Table5. Proven rotation in the USA (Waddle [1984]).
Soils Ultisols and Inceptisols Mollisols, Alfisols and Vertisols Entisols and Ardisols
cotton cotton alfalfa cotton cotton alfalfa cotton cotton
corn soybean alfalfa sorghum corn alfalfa safflower barley or wheat
Rotation cotton rice alfalfa wheat wheat cotton
cotton cotton cotton cotton
cotton Irrigated In Western USA

4.3 Soil preparation and planting
The preparation of a good seed bed is very important, and this can be done by plow-
ing and disc harrowing.
The soil preparation carried out by many farmers includes plowing to 30-40 cm
deep and to 60-70 cm deep with a heavy plow or a subsoiler every 3-4 years. The
soil is afterwards harrowed or disked and levelled, and then planting is carried out
on a flat soil or on ridges. Ridge preparation has an advantage in heavy soils and in
winter rainfall regions because it hastens the drying of the soil, and also increases
soil temperatures earlier so planting is possible at an earlier date.
In some developing countries soil preparation is much less efficient as they do not
have the equipment, or the money to buy the equipment. The seed bed and soil con-
ditions are much less favourable and therefore the yields are lower.
More and more in recent years, there has been a tendency to reduce and minimize
soil cultivation (= conservation tillage) in order to avoid soil structure deterio-
ration, creation of hardpan in the lower layer and reduction of soil erosion, while
leaving the residues of the former crop on the soil surface. This also reduces cost by
saving expensive machinery. In other cases the soil is only partly cultivated by what
is called 'Controlled Traffic'. In this method the cultivation is carried out by a sub-
soiler always in such a way that the rows are kept in the same place from one season
to the next. In this way the hardpan, where the plants are grown, is broken. The soil
between the rows is not interrupted, and the wheelings are kept in the same place.
When this method of conservation tillage is used, special attention must be paid to
fertilization with phosphorus and potassium. Potassium moves to a limited extent
and phosphorus hardly at all from the surface of the soil downwards, except in very
sandy soils. Therefore, P and K fertilizers should be applied in concentrated bands
along the rows or side-dressed in bands into the soil near the plants (Touchstone and
Reeves [1988]).
There are many forms of conservation tillage, and it is important to take into
account that a system which works best with one soil may not be successful on
another soil. Optimum planting time has been studied in many investigations. Irri-
gated cotton is generally planted when soil temperatures at a depth of 20 cm are not
below 15.5 'C for ten successive days, or at 20 'C at 5 cm depth.
For germination and seedling emergence the minimum soil temperature is 15 'C,
maximum 42 'C. The elongation of both hypocotyl and radicle have a temperature
optimum of 34.4 'C. Emergence of seedlings is affected by soil crusting, and to
emerge through a crust the seedling must exert growth pressure to penetrate it.
4.4 Irrigation
Production systems all over the world may be divided into dryland, rainfed and irri-
gated with supplementary or full irrigation. 'Dryland' is a crop that grows during the
summer on the water accumulated in the soil during the winter rainy season. 'Dry:
land' cotton needs a minimum of 400-500 mm of rain. Sometimes supplementary
12
irrigation during the dry summer is applied. 'Rainfed' is defined as cotton which is
grown where summer rains are common through the season. Water relations of cot-
ton were reviewed by Jordan[1983] and by Bieloraiet al [1983]. The actual quantity
of water used by the plant during the growing season can be expected to vary
between 750 and 1200 mm for irrigated cotton, including rainfall. Though the con-
sumption may differ in different areas, depending on climatological factors, the
water used during the growing season follows similar trends in all locations.
Evapotranspiration is low early in the season when leaf area is small, root system
shallow, and temperatures low. The roots usually penetrate the soil to about 2 m
under unrestricted conditions. Root penetration is often limited by the depth of soil
wetting. Under favourable moisture conditions roots grow 1.0-2.0 cm/day as seen
in Figure 2 (Bielorai [1973]).
Bieloraiet aL [1973] discuss the fact that cotton production in arid zones is also lim-
ited by highsalinity of soil and irrigation water, especially during germination and
early growth stages. The inhibition of plant growth by saline substrates is associated
with osmotic reduction of water absorption as well as nutritional and toxic effects.
Thomas [1980] found that growth inhibition of cotton was associated with low K/
Ca+ Mg ratios.
40
80
0
0
120 409 2
2001
20 40 70 95 120
DAYS AFTER PLANTING
Fig. 2. Root growth of cotton plants (Bielorai [1973]).
13
The rate of vegetative development is low in the early growth periods, until flower-
ing when it becomes considerably faster. Flower-set is dependent on the rate of
growth in that both too slow and too fast a vegetative growth will result in decreased
flower-set. Cotton normally needs a good moisture supply during flowering and boll
setting, but high moisture supply during the early stage in development results in
excessive vegetative growth at the expense of reproductive growth (Shalhevet et at.
[1981]). Therefore in areas with dry summers the practice is that at seeding time the
150 or the 180 cm soil depth should be wet to field capacity (in medium-heavy tex-
ture soils), either by winter rain or/and pre-irrigation. Thereafter irrigation will be
applied only at the appearance of the first bloom (60-70 days after emergence). The
time of the first irrigation after seeding and the time of the last irrigation before har-
vest determine the number of irrigations required during the season. The number of
irrigations and the amount of water in each irrigation is dependent on soil texture
and evapotranspiration. During the second period, when flowering and boll-setting
take place, the cotton is particularly sensitive to water deficiency. Soil moisture
content should not be allowed to drop below 20-30% available water in the main
root zone. Results of many experiments have shown (Shalhevet at al [1981]) that
70- 80% of the water was absorbed by the cotton plant from a soil depth of 90 cm.
Therefore, the authors recommend to wet not more than 60-90 cm of the soil depth
and thereby efficiently exploit the water stored in the soil.
The systems used for the irrigation of cotton as in other crops include flood, furrow
and sprinkler irrigation. Recently drip irrigation has also been used and irrigation
machines as the centerpivot and the travelling line system.
The rational selection of an appropriate irrigation system and regime must take into
account many factors, including cultivar, soil type, nutrition, anticipated rainfall,
etc. each of them may affect yield.
As a consequence of decreasing supplies and increasing costs of irrigation in recent
years, much attention is being given to the concept of water-use efficiency (WUE),
which is usually defined as the ratio of the marketable yield of a crop to the total
seasonal amount of water removed from the root zone by evapotranspiration and
drainage, or to the amount of water applied plus 'effective' rainfall (that which
remains in the root zone after drainage). In cotton, WUE is usually expressed in
terms of yield of lint produced per unit area of land per unit of water applied plus
effective rainfall. Values of WUE exceeding 6 kg lint/ha/mm water have been
reported (Shalhevet e al. [1981]).
Greater WUE, achieved by raising crop yield or reducing the amount of water
applied, can be brought about by one or more cultural practices. Without altering
irrigation practices, yield can be increased by increasing soil fertility, using suitable
cultivars, and improving control of insect pests and diseases. Reduced application
of water is possible by shallower depth of soil wetting (elimination of drainage loss-
es), reducing frequency of irrigation during certain parts of the season, partial wet-
ting of the soil surface (through alternate furrows or drip irrigation), and reducing
loss of applied water through improved irrigation techniques and equipment.
14
5. Development and nutrient uptake
5.1 Dry matter accumulation

Many plant parameters can be used to evaluate growth and development of cotton.
In recent years it has become common in certain cotton growing countries to moni-
tor the development of the crop especially for simulation models (Wallach [1977];
McKinion and Baker[1982]). The main parameter used for monitoring is the weight
of the dry matter of all plant parts collected during the whole growing season.
Knowledge of dry matter production is essential to a proper understanding of the
nutrition of the crop.
Results relating dry-matter production to nutrient uptake have been accumulated
since the beginning of the century, but early studies referred to yields very low in
comparison to those obtainable today with improved cultivars, more precise man-
agement and proper irrigation.
Figure 3 (Halevy [1976]) shows dry matter accumulation and distribution by the
aerial parts of the cultivar Acala 4-42 grown under irrigation and optimal con-
ditions. The average yield in the experiment from which this figure was drawn was
1700 kg/ha of lint and 2270 kg/ha of seeds.
15000 1 1 1 i 1
12000
LINT
~10C000 SEEDS
FLOWERS
cc
Wr 7500 ~BOLLS AND BURS-
AND UNOPENED
2500 SHED LEAVES
A LEAVES
0.
57 72 84 98 112 157
AGE OF PLANTS (days from emergence)
Fig. 3. Accumulation of dry matter in the aerial plant parts of cotton cultivar Acala 4-42
(from Halevy [1976]).
15
Maximum leaf dry-matter weight was reached at 112 days from emergence, after
which it decreased owing to leaf senescence and shedding. At the first stage of
growth most of the weight of the plant consisted of leaves (more than 60% of total).
Thereafter, the percentage of leaves gradually dropped and reached approximately
20% in mature plants. The dry matter of the stems was more stable than that of the
leaves, being 35% at the first stage and dropping to 25% at the end of the season. The
growth of the reproductive parts was very rapid. At the first sampling it was only 4%,
whereas by the last sampling it was nearly 50%. The rate of growth, as measured by
the weight of dry matter, was slow until flowering (at 72 days) followed by a rapid
acceleration which was nearly constant until boll opening (at 112 days) after which
the rate was slow again; hence, the accumulation pattern formed a sigmoid curve.
The average rate of dry matter accumulation from 72 days to 112 days was 250 kg/
ha/day. 75% of the total dry matter was produced during these 40 days.
5.2 N, P, K and other elements, their uptake and importance for growth, yield
and quality
Cotton does not appear to be an exhaustive crop, since only the lint and seed, which
contain relatively small amounts of mineral nutrients are removed from the field,
while the rest of the plant (roots, stems, leaves and burs) remain in the field. How-
ever when grown intensively, high yielding crops need abundant supplies of avail-
able nutrients over relatively short periods.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium are the major nutrients essential,
and most often added for cotton, while sulphur, zinc and other minor element
deficiencies have been also reported.
The uptake of N, P, K by cotton is presented in Figure 4 and Table 6 (Halevy [1976]).
The results are for the same experiment as thatreferred to in Figure 3. The total
uptake of N and P followed that of dry matter production, whereas K was absorbed
more rapidly reaching a maximum at 112 days from emergence and then decreasing.
Fauconnier[1973] mentions that a cotton crop yielding 560 kg/ha of fibre takes up a
total of 105 kg N, 42 kg P20 5 and 80 kg K 20/ha while it removes 40 kg N, 16 kg P20 5
and 17 kg K 20/ha (Table 7).
5.2.1 Nitrogen
The cotton plant contains more nitrogen than any other mineral nutrient. Soils on
which cotton is grown are often more deficient in nitrogen than in any other plant
nutrient. Nitrogen especially promotes vegetative growth. Various criteria have been
used to evaluate vegetative growth of cotton such as: main stem length, cross-section
area of stem, plant dry-matter weight, leaf area index, etc. As nitrogen promotes
plant growth, the number of auxiliary positions on the vegetative branches is
increased. Thus, flowering will be increased due to an increased number of sites for
flower initiation. Indeed, adding N to N deficient soils increases the total number of
flowers and bolls.
16
PHOSPHORUS
~LIT
0. aU"
40
SEEDS
30
FLOWERS
AND UNOPENED
ROLLSAND BURS
20
STEMS
10 -z10 SHED LEAVES
LEAVES 250 NITROGEN LINT
0
200
POTASSIUM oINT SEEDS
150 -SEEDS
150
FLOWES
ANDUUOSEEDS
AND UNUNEPN
ASHEDAND BURS 100 LEAVES

10BOLLS
STEMS
50 50 L
LEAVES
LEAVES
00 157
57 72 84 98 112 157 57 7284 98 112
AGE OF PLANTS (days from emergence)
Fig. 4. Cumulative uptake and distribution of N, P and K in Acala 4-42 cotton cultivar (from
Halevy [1976]).
17
Table 6- Percentage and rate of N, P and K uptake by cotton cultivar Acala 4-42 during
successive growth periods (Halevy 11976])
Days after emergence Uptake (kg/ha)
N P K
0- 57 13.8 1.8 11.7
57- 72 49.3 6.8 43.7
72- 84 43.7 8-3 55.5
84- 98 61.3 9.8 42.0
98-112 63.6 15.2 31.6
112-157 3.7 4.3 -5.2
0-157 235.4 46.2 184.5
Days after emergence % of total uptake
N P K
0- 57 5.9 3.9 6.3
57- 72 20.9 14.7 23.7
72- 84 18.6 18.0 30.1
84- 98 26.0 21.2 22.8
98-112 27.0 32.9 17.1
112-157 1.6 9.3 -
Days after emergence Uptake (g/ha/day)
N P K
0- 57 240 30 210
57- 72 3290 450 2910
72- 84 3640 690 4630
84- 98 4380 700 3000
98-112 4540 1090 2260
112-157 80 96
Table 7. Nutrient uptake by a cotton crop yielding 560 kg/ha fibre (Fauconnier[1973])
Dry weight kg/ha
% kg/ha N P205 K2O MgO CaO
Roots 8.80 466 4.29 2.28 5.96 1.90 2.98
Stems 23.15 1228 17.93 7.25 17.31 5.16 11.91
Leaves 20.25 1074 34.38 12.78 19.33 9.34 47.69
Capsules 14.21 754 8.14 3.62 20.06 3.24 13.57
Seeds 23.03 1221 38.22 15.51 14.29 6.72 3.05
Fibre 10.56 560 1.91 0.56 2.58 0.45 1.07
Total 100.00 5303 104.87 42.00 79.53 26.81 80.27
The overall effect of nitrogen seems to be to increase total yield (lint and seed)
through prolonging the fruiting period.
Mostly, the boll size is increased by nitrogen. This is due to increased seed size with
little or no effect on lint (Tucker and Tucker [1968]).
18
However, the grower is not interested in too much vegetative growth, which may be
due to high dosages of N, because there is a balance between the vegetative and
reproductive growth. Excessive vegetative growth also decreases light penetration to
the inner and lower parts of the plant, and may decrease photosynthesis. Tall and
dense plant cover causes accumulation of moisture that enhances boll rotting and
creates good conditions for insect development, on the one hand, and prevents pen-
etration of insecticides and fungicides on the other. Where hand picking is practised
too tall plants cause difficulties in picking. Machine harvesting of cotton requires
chemical defoliation. Applying excess N especially late in the season, can increase
the leafiness of the crop and cause difficulties in defoliation.
The effect of N on the quality of fibre is not great, relatively. Some data is given by
Nelson [1949], Sabino et at. [1976] and Malik et al. [1978], as well as others who
registered relatively small increases in fibre length with increasing rates of N.
Application of N can reduce lint micronaire by increasing the number of bolls which
are harvested before reaching the maximum rate of development. Increasing of N
fertilizer mainly increases the N content of plant parts including the seeds, and
hence, the seed protein is increased while the oil content is mostly decreased
(Table 8, compiled by Hearn [1981]). Nitrogen increases the boll size due to an
increase in individual seed-weight (Tucker and Tucker [1968]) with a consequent
decrease in lint percentage (Table 8).
Table 8- Effect of applied N on protein, oil content and lint percentage (compiled by
Hearn 11981]).
N kg/ha % Protein %Oil % Lint
0 22.9 25.6
75 23.2 25.2
150 24-0 24.6
0 19.9 20.9
60 20.0 22.1
120 20.9 20.9
180 21.8 20.3
11 18.9 19.7 40.0
38 20.3 19.3 37.6
67 22.8 18.7 37.6
Nitrogen uptake, removal and deficiency.

The rate of N uptake till flower initiation is very low, then it climbs very quickly and
reaches its maximum when the boils are filling up. In the experiment described in
Figure 4 and Table 6 the uptake from 57 days after emergence till 112 days was 92%
of the total uptake and was nearly linear with an average rate of almost 4 kg N/ha/
day.
19
The main sink for nitrogen at maturity is the seed which contains from 2.8-4.0% N.
At high levels of yield, which are also achieved by high N fertilization, there is a
higher percentage of nitrogen in the seed, and, therefore, the N uptake is highly
dependent on yield. Figure 5 (compiled by Hearn [1981]) illustrates the relationship
between yield and nitrogen uptake.
A practical way to estimate roughly the uptake of nitrogen in irrigated cotton is to
multiply the seed yield by 3.5% (the content of the N in the seed) and then to multi-
ply by 2.5 (the amount of N in the seed is nearly 40% of that found in the whole
plant). An example is given in Table 9.
The seed and the lint are the only parts of the cotton plant which are removed from
the field. As only the seed contains nitrogen (the amount of N in the lint is negli-
gible) therefore the removal of N from the field equals the amount of N taken up by
the seed (Table 9).
N deficiency is characterized by pale leaves, yellowish-green in colour and
considerably reduced in size. If crop is deficient from emergence, all leaves will be
yellow and small; there will be few and short vegetative and fruiting branches. When
deficiency develops during the season, the older leaves become yellow first and
senesce prematurely as N is translocated from old leaves into new growth. Prema-
ture senescence of leaves is accompanied by red pigmentation.
1800
1600 - Halevy [19761
Bassett et al. 119701 Basinski et al. [1975]

1400
uJ Ofson and Bledsoo [19421

1200
0'
10 200 300
N UPTAKE (kg/ha)
Fig. 5. The relationship between yield and nitrogen uptake (compiled by Hearn [1981]).
Table 9. N uptake by seed and whole plant (calculation).

Seed yield (kg) N uptake in seed (kg) N uptake by whole plant (kg)
1000 35 87.5
2000 70 175.0
2500 87.8 218.8
20
5.2.2 Phosphorus
The literature on phosphorus for cotton is much less abundant than that for nitro-
gen, and it has been reviewed by Jones and Bradsley [1968] and Hearn [1981]- P is
involved in energy transfer processes in both photosynthesis and respiration.
As with other essential plant nutrients, phosphorus is necessary for the normal
growth of the cotton plant- Due to the relatively high concentration of phosphorus
in the seed (sometimes even more than 0.7% P), very young seedlings are seldom
phosphorus deficient, but soon after the development of true leaves there is a need
for an outside supply of phosphorus. Numerous instances have been recorded of
phosphorus promoting earliness in cotton. It was also reported that a higher per-
centage of blooms during the first two weeks of blooming, was caused by phos-
phorus fertilization (Jones and Bradsley, [1968]). These facts are also supported by
the findings of Biddulph and Brown [1975] that developing flower primordia possess
both higher rates of accumulation and a higher percentage of phosphorus than is the
case in later stages of flowering. Nelson [1949] found that P had no real influence on
the properties of lint and on the oil content in the seed.
P uptake, removal and deficiency
The uptake of P was described above in Figure 4. The pattern of P uptake as regards
the rate and the distribution among the different organs was similar to that of N.
From 112 days till harvest, P still accumulated at a rate relatively higher than N dur-
ing that period. The accumulation of P by the seeds during this period was higher
than the total uptake since part of the P is remobilized out of the burs into the seeds.
The total uptake of P for the production of 1000 kg lint was 26.5 kg P, the removal
from the soil was 11.8 kg P (Halevy [1976]). Phosphorus deficiency symptoms in cot-
ton are rare. In developed countries in old cultivated areas, it has been difficult to
locate sites low in available P where a response to P can be obtained. Donald [1964]
describes P deficiency in cotton as characterized by little growth and dark green
colour, but these symptoms are rarely met. More frequently, stunting of leaves and
stalks, delay and reduction in fruiting and a variety of off-colour leaf patterns lead
to a suspicion of P deficiency (Jones and Bradsley [1968]).
5.2.3 Potassium
Potassium is the most abundant free cation in plants, and is not a constituent of any
organic compound. K is a co-factor activating a number of important enzymes
which are involved in many processes in the plant such as: photosynthesis, respir-
ation, carbohydrate metabolism, translocation and protein synthesis. K is also
involved in the osmotic regulation of turgor.
A continuous supply of adequate K is needed throughout the entire period of cotton
growth and development. The vegetative growth is increased with each increment of
K fertilizer even between two high K rates, 420 and 560 kg/ha. However, this
increased growth did not result in increased lint or seed yield (Kerby and Adams
[1985]). This suggests that maximum vegetative yield of cotton (not a desirable goal)
requires a very high level of available K, and this is not a suitable basis for fertilizing
21
cotton. Small bolls are typical of K deficiency in cotton. As K deficiency is corrected
with increasing K fertilization, there is a progressive increase in boll size. Bennett et
al [1965] reported that correcting K deficiency increased both the number of bolls
and the size of individual boll.
Increasing the number and size of boils results in a rise in yield. The most obvious
effect of adding K fertilizer to a K deficient soil is the increased amount of lint and
seed produced. Lint/seed ratio (by weight) is hardly affected by fertilizer rate (Kerby
and Adams [1985]).
Discussing results from 400 field experiments in Alabama, Volk [1942] noted that a
high supply of K resulted in later-maturing cotton. The likely explanation for this
appears to be that increased K allows the plant to continue to set bolls later into the
season and not to cut out early.
Usherwood[1985] cites findings that K improved micronaire value (from 3.7 to 4.8),
fibre strength and length. Lachover andArnon [1964] also found an increase in seed
oil percentage between unfertilized and K fertilized plants (from 20.3 to 27.3%) in a
K deficient soil.
In addition to effects mentioned above, it is worthwhile to add that fertilizer K helps
retard or reduce plant diseases, especially cotton wilt and verticillium wilt (Huber
and Arni [1985]; Perrenoud[1977]).
Uptake, removal and deficiency of K
As mentioned above cotton needs K throughout the entire period of its growth and
development. In the early stage until the first bloom the uptake is relatively small,
nearly 10% of the total uptake (Figure 4). The shape of the K uptake curve is similar
to those of dry-matter production, N and P uptake with two major differences:
maximum K accumulation in the plant was reached at 112 days, after which it
dropped, the decrease may be due to movement of K back to the soil. There have
been changes within the plant due to translocation of K from leaves and stems to
reproductive organs.
The main sink for K in the plant is the bur (the carpel wall of the cotton boll) which
may contain up to 4% K and may account for 60% of all the potassium accumulated
by the plant (Weir et al [1986]).
Bennett et at. [1965] show that the total amount of K taken up by a cotton plant is
affected by the level of K fertilizer (Table 10). The uptake of K ranged from 85- 390
kg/ha as K fertilizer rate increased from 0-560 kg/ha. The 280 kg/ha rate was
associated with achieving maximum seed cotton yield and a ratio of 0.13 kg of K per
1 kg of lint. K uptake above this level resulted in luxury consumption. In the exper-
iment described in Figure 4 and Table 6 total K uptake was 185 kg/ha for an average
lint yield of 1700 kg/ha (0.11 kg K per I kg of lint)-
The rate of K uptake is slow at the beginning, increases rapidly at flowering and
reaches its maximum of 4.6 kg K/ha/day between 72 and 84 days (Halevy [1976]).
Basset et al [1970] found 2.1-3.4 kg K/ha/day between day 90 and day 127.
Removal of K from the field
Most of the K that accumulates in the cotton plant is returned to the soil in the
leaves, stems and burs, and becomes, once again, a part of the soil available K pool.
22
The K that accumulates in the seed and lint is removed from the field. The amount
of K removed from the field may be calculated by multiplying the percentage of K
by yield of seed and lint. The content of K in the seed is approximately 1.3% and in
the lint up to 0.5%. Therefore, e.g., a crop of 1700 kg/ha of lint and 2550 kg/ha seed
will contain:
Lint 1700x0.005 = 8.50 kg K/ha
Seed 2550X0.013 = 33.15 kg K/ha
Removal from field= 41.65 kg K/ha
Table 10. Effect of K fertilizer on yield and total K uptake by cotton plants under irriga-
tion in Alabama (Bennett et al. [1965]).
K rate DM yield Seed cotton Lint yield Total K K uptake
kg/ha kg/ha yield kg/ha uptake kg/kg lint
kg/ha kg/ha
0 9.4 3020 1214 85 0.07
70 11.4 4480 1750 140 0.08
140 11.5 4700 1772 195 0.11
280 11.9 5510 1923 250 0.13
420 13.9 5260 2000 320 0.16
560 14.4 5360 2053 390 0.19
K deficiency
Because the K + ion is mobile in the plant, when deficient it moves from older leaves
to new growth, therefore visual symptoms begin on older leaves as a yellowish white
mottling, changing to light yellowish green (Plate 1). Yellow spots occur between
veins, the centers of these die, and numerous brown spots occur at tips and margins
between veins. Tips and margins curl downwards. Finally leaves become reddish
brown, dry and shed prematurely, bolls are improperly developed and with lint of
poor quality (Ulrich and Ohki [1966]). Weir et al. [1986] in California describe what
they call 'K deficiency syndrome of cotton'.Apparent K deficiency symptoms appear
in many San Joaquin Valley cotton fields each year. These symptoms seem to occur
under similar conditions as verticillium wilt, but the visual symptoms are clearly
distinguishable. Several anomalies are apparent in this syndrome- The symptoms
appear in areas where the soil extractable K by ammonium acetate is well above the
accepted critical levels. There were responses to K even in soils with K levels as high
as 170-180 ppm K (clay or silty loam). K is a mobile ion in the plant. Deficiencies
should thus appear in old leaves, but they appear typically in new leaves. In 5 out of
8 experiments there was a significant response to K fertilization. One explanation
may be that levels in the plow layers are much higher that at lower depths. Current
soil test recommendations, which consider only the plow layer, may not be a good
index of soils' ability to supply K throughout the whole growth period (Cassman
[19861).
23
5.2.4 Calcium
Ca is a vital constituent of the cell wall, and is thus essential for meristematic
activity. Calcium is necessary for cell elongation and membrane permeability,
therefore adequate Ca is essential for satisfactory seed germination and growth of
seedlings and roots. In contrast to other cations, Ca plays a comparatively minor
role in enzyme activation.
Cotton contains appreciable amounts of Ca as do most of the higher plants. Never-
theless deficiencies in Ca in the field are rare in comparison with other elements. The
reason for that is that most soils contain much available Ca which derives from pri-
mary minerals after weathering, secondary minerals, soluble and exchangeable Ca.
Normally, Ca ions account for 70% or more of the cation exchange capacity.
Ca uptake ranges from 6.2-13.1 kg Ca for the production of 100 kg of lint. This wide
range is due to high variability of Ca in mature plants (Basset et [1970]).
/l
The removal of cotton from the field is very small, since Ca content in the seed is
0.2%, and the lint contains only traces of Ca.
Malavoltaet al. [1962] describe the symptoms of deficiency as follows: First curva-
ture, later collapse of the petioles takes place resulting in marked defoliation. The
few leaves which remain attached to the plant exhibit a reddish colour. Plants are
stunted and show poor root development. In most cases Ca deficiency occurs on
soils with low pH. After correction of the acidity the additional lime applied is used
by the plant.
Most organic soils contain enough Ca in the soil solution and their exchange sites
are well enough saturated with Ca, to meet adequately crop demands, however this
does not include all tropical soils. It thus appears that the main use of Ca containing
materials is for adjusting the pH in acid soils (mainly applied as calcium carbonate
or dolomite) and in improving structure in sodic soils (applied mainly as gypsum).
5.2.5 Magnesium
The best known role of Mg is its occurrence at the centre of the chlorophyll molecule
and it is thus essential for photosynthesis. Mg is a co-factor in almost all enzymes
activating phosphorylation processes. Mg is also involved in protein metabolism
(Mengel and Kirkby [1978]). Mg is found in soils in soluble and exchangeable form
and in non-soluble form as mineral reserves which are weathered with time. Most of
the soils on which cotton grows contain adequate amounts of available Mg. Also in
many countries the irrigation water contains Mg. But in sandy and acid soil,
especially those which were fertilized for many years with ammoniacal fertilizers
and have a small cation exchange capacity, Mg is readily leached and deficiency
symptoms may appear.
The ratio between Mg and other cations such as Ca, K and NH 4 is important. These
cations may cause leaching of Mg or antagonistically retard its uptake.
Different uptake data are reported in the literature. Basset et al [1970] report
uptake of 3.0-6.5 kg of Mg for production of 100 kg of lint, and the amount removed
from the field by the seed was 0.9 kg Mg/ 100 kg of lint.
24
Plate I (otrl eavce
'ho ITag dif eren stages
of potish deficienc in
coiIpari im tLla hea IH
leaf, Bainmaric. RCA.
IR( f
PkIte 2, fffCCIl Of IIIhI1-

phoru , cifl on p~tint., IlI
the presen&e of N K, S B
or 0,tisl m Caicroll
IR( 'I I eft:90 kitP-O Am.
i')
right: Siwilt
IPLac ; Coltonlph,,(,
d11111
dernonstlrattnlg
t12t)the I I - of
110 effecil
potas h Ipp] I at Iln onl ivd,

Bohtii I)cihoflc\ I R( .
Ieft NI'S withoul potash.
%ield 260 k"'ha right: NPS
plu, 3 kg K O, iei
5 k hi In this excr ent
IllCCn5 ilf K 0 tip to
241) kgiha intrcarsd Cields
LIp to 94 ll hal
Ihe claraitcri st saympo on Mgdeficien
c is purr! ish-red lea es ith green vens
I.waiter in the -eason he, tUin onrnge-red rather than pulp I >h-red. J he Ioc~r lea i,,
are alfectd firt and then the next leaves ip the plant are affected. a', the older
leave, die and sited premat urel Yield, 4 Int and seed are greatly reduced due to
]o, a f leam, Cs Donah /1 th4/,
I)eficieru. at M. v,a, reported in the sand, si X of the ,i ithea tern I SA Wink A,
aIl TBiona 1/,'w, ), 0o sand siotls in Ianzania. Zambia and Brazil tit/earf /l, )s/
5.2.6 Sulphur
Sulphur i' Found in all plant tis.ue It is contained in amino-acids, eillthioine and
C% Qn \ hiwh lie constituents of proteins. It also cctrs in the vitamins thi[mile anti
hiomh. It is present also in glutahrione wNhich is important in) oxidation-reduction
teat uoln , S i , asociated %itlh ihe formation of chlorophyll
Mot irps contain as much S as P. uotton
is armong those crop, lhich utilize rela-
i huge
tel\ nis of S since cotton seed is rich in) pirotmii I her Ire cotlOn ts
all% contain, mnore S than P.
file uptake 4 S b the crop ranges betrc cn 7-33 kg,;ha (earn /1081/) alaoolta
viua/19.N7/rcport an uptake ow 25 kgS for the production of 100 kg of liit. Accord-
ing to the amin tn of S in the seed we estimate the removal to he half if tile total
uptake.
Sulplhur d1l&jhJe,v 11vmpatus
Pale green wi ,ellow leaves appear at the Op of the planis, while old lea,.es remain
gcreen. in contrat i to N deficiency in which yellowing occurs first in the older leaves.
Another difference is that in S deficienc the veins remain green ( lilae and Brown
/196=/)
Sn lph c r del c iccies occur i n Southern and Sou theastern U ni ted State, iKarnp z h
an,?1 ones /Pihand in ran, countri I tropical A frica. Asia and Sotith America.
5.2.7 Mieronutrients
Micron tirien s are needed in very small amounts h the cotton plant. The most
important are- ron. zinc. boro n. manganese. copper and mlol>bden uin. Ahhough
chl rin e and "tdhum are essential for grout. noldeficiencies have been reported For
cotton in To field. Regarding sodium i has been found that cotton responded to
Na in fertilier his is attributc I to partial substitutin of Na for K, (a and Mg, Na
also appear, to have a synergistic role in increasing the uptake of K- (i and Mg.
I*lh Mnicronutnietls are cerally constituents of ceitain enrw.ves ivolved in tihe
,v-temI of nIetab lisi and elnn"5 as photasvwthesis. oxsIaton-rcdlneion. carb -
hdt,
t e and protein nietabolisn.
Iron deficiencies in cotton are rare, but vwere reported in ireece on poorl drained
highly cabcatreos soils. In (alifornia yellowing of leaves after irrigation on heavy
soil is attribuled ' iron defteencex (Itearn//Q81//,. In Israel leal vellowing w a,
treated vkith iron chelate on highly calcaretus soils
26
Correction of deficiency, if it occurs, can be carried out by spraying Fe sulphate onto
the leaves (3%) or, by applying Fe EDT chelate, when possible, with the irrigation
water.
Table 11. Micronutrients for cotton; their uptake, critical levels in leaves, mode and
amount of fertilizer application*
Micronutrient Deficiency Critical Uptake (gr) Fertilizer application
symptoms level in for
leaves production
(ppm) of I t lint
Iron New leaves show 30-50 814 Spray 3% FeSO4 . Soil
interveinal (50-520)** application 10 kg iron
chlorosis. chelate per hectare
The veins remain (FeEDDHa-
green. sequestren)
Zinc Small cupped 10 63-645 4 sprays of 1_2% Zn
leaves with (20-60)" (as ZnSO4). Soil appli-
interveinal cation of 10-20 kg
chlorosis. Zn/ha (as ZnSO 4)
The chlorotic areas
become bronze
as tissues die.
Boron Youngpetioles 10-15 165-268 Soil application 2-4
are thickened (20-60)* kg B/ha (as borax)
with necrotic
pith. Leaves
deform.
Manganese Young leaves first 10-14 213-408 Spray 0.5-1.0% of
affected. (50-350)* Manganese sulphate.
Leaf cupping. Soil application
Interveinal 50- 250 kg MnSO 4 /ha
chlorosis. Yellow-
ish-reddish grey.
Terminal bud
may die.
Copper Interveinal chloro- 6 48-121 Spray 0.5% CuSO 4.
sis. Retardation in (8-20)** Soil application 10-15
growth. kg/ha CuSO 4.
Molybdenum Chlorotic inter- 3 2-4 Application of 0.6-1.2
veinal. Necrosis in kg/ha of ammonium
leaf margins. or sodium molybdate
as spray seed treat-
ment or adding
to superphosphate
fertilizer.
Compiled from: Alinov and lbragimov/1975]; Donald[1964]; Hearn 11981] and Hinkle
and Brown [1968].
** Sufficiency range according to Ohki et al. [1970].
27
Zinc deficiency
Zinc deficiency has been reported in USSR, California, Texas, Zambia, Bangladesh
and Australia. Islam et al. [1982] in Bangladesh report that an addition of 4 kg Zn/
ha together with other fertilizers increased the yield of seed cotton:
in irrigated cotton from 1670 to 1800 kg/ha
in rainfed cotton from 1470 to 1560 kg/ha.
Boron deficiency
Boron deficiency occurs on light textured soils in the south and southeastern USA,
Nigeria, Madagascar, Zambia (Rothwell el al. [1967]) and Malawi.
Manganese deficiency
Manganese deficiencies are not common. Cotton plants can take up toxic amounts
of Mn, when the soil pH is below 5. This has been reported in the southern USA,
Uganda and Tanzania. Le Mare [1982] in Tanzania corrected this by liming.
For correction of deficiency spraying of 0.5-1.0% of Mn sulphate on the leaves or
application of 50-100 kg/ha to the soil are recommended.
In conclusion: deficiencies in cotton fields of zinc, boron and manganese are found
occasionally, of iron and copper rarely and molybdenum deficiency has not yet been
found in the field (Hinkle and Brown [1968]; Hearn [1981]).
The deficiency symptoms, uptake, critical levels in leaves (the level beyond which a
response is anticipated) and fertilizer application of the microelements are sum-
marized in Table 11.
6. Fertilizer evaluation and application
6.1 Nitrogen
6.1.1 Soil tests for estimating availability
The available nitrogen for cotton consists of the mineral nitrogen (especially NO3)
present in the root system (up to 120-150 cm) and the organic N which will be
mineralized during the growing period (which is determined by incubation). The
amount of nitrogen present in the irrigation water has to be added to the pool of
available N. In many experiments carried out by Halevy [1979], the response to N
was dependent on the amount of available N in the soil. As the amount taken up by a
high cotton yield (1700 kg lint/ha) is nearly 250 kg N/ha (see chapter 5.2.1) it was
proposed to subtract the available amount found in the soil from this amount and
add the remainder as fertilizer.
Table 12 presents examples of nitrogen balance sheets for cotton growing in a few
soils irrigated with water from different sources.
In this Table we see that different N levels are recommended for the different soils:
0, 50, 100, 150 kg N/ha.
28
Table 12. Nitrogen-balance sheets (kg N/ha) (from Halevy [1979]).
I 2 3 4 5
Soil and N poor soil Average N rich Soil of Soil of
irrigation N soil soil column 2 column
water N irrigated with I irrigated
source water con- with sewage
taining effluents*
nitrates
Residual 80 100 150 100 80
(N0 3-N)
Mineraliza- 50 70 100 70 50
ble (NO3-N)
From 400 0 0 0 40 120
mm of irri-
gation water
Fertilizer 150 100 No need for 50 No need for
applied fertilizer fertilizer
Efficient 120 80 40
fertilizer
(80%)**
Total 250 250 250 250 250
On the use of sewage effluent, see Feigin et al. [1984].
** 250 kg N/ha (the amount which is taken up by the cotton plant) minus N from soil and
water.
Spencer et al. [1966] used only nitrate nitrogen in 0.3 m soil depth to estimate N
requirement. Cackett (cited by Hearn [1981]) in Rhodesia found a close correlation
between yield and soil nitrate content after incubation. Another approach is to
assume that a certain fraction of organic N will become available during the season;
from 2% in the temperate regions up to 6% in the tropics (Spenceret al [1966]; Wet-
selaar [1967]).
6.1.2 Plant tests

While N soil tests are used to recommend the preplant application of N fertilizer,
plant N analyses are used to monitor the N status of the plant throughout the grow-
ing season. This concept was implemented by Tucker [1968] in Arizona and used
effectively by Maples et al [1977] in Arkansas and Meron and Levin (personal com-
munication) in Israel. A general pattern of petiole nitrate is shown in Figure 6. The
amount of nitrates in the petiole diminishes with age- In the figure are three zones.
Nitrate levels below the desired zone, in the shaded area, do not indicate a deficiency
as such. That is a warning zone, and these values do indicate that additional N will
soon be needed and frequently N can be applied, avoiding a deficiency. The impor-
tance of adequate N during early growth and development is critical.
The desired concentration of nitrate nitrogen in the petiole in a few growth stages
appears in Table 13.
29
20
: 16
-
Ld
W
0.
Deficient
-DATE - .
Fig. 6. General pattern of petiole nitrate in cotton (from Tucker and Tucker [1968]).
Table 13. Desired concentration of N-NO, in petiole during the season.

Growing stage Desired N-NO3 concentration (ppm)
Acala* Acala** Deltapine***
Arizona Israel coastal areas Arizona
Squaring 15000 10000 18000
First flower 12 000 4 500 14 000
First boll 8 000 4 500 10 000
Open boll 40f00 2 600 4 000
*Ray el aL, [1964]

**Wagshalet al, [1983] (Unpublished data, personal commumnication).
**Rayet aL, [1964]
The results from Israel are from the coastal areas. In the upper Galilee the values were simi-
lar to those of Arizona (Meron and Levin, personal commumcation).
6.1.3 Fertilizer application

Year by year throughout the world a large number of N rate experiments are per-
formed and it is difficult to generalize from the results, because of the differences in
30
yields, soils, climates, etc. The decision on the N amount to be added will be based
on the following:
1. What is the target yield?
2. Estimation of N uptake by this yield (Figure 5).
3. Measurement or estimation of the N supplied by the soil.
4. The difference between crop requirement and soil supply is the application level,
after an adjustment is made for fertilizer efficiency.
The type of N fertilizer is not important in most cases. One can use ammonium,
nitrate or urea fertilizers. However, in specific cases, it will be important. In an acid
soil, it is recommended to avoid application of ammonium sulphate which further
reduces the soil pH. If the pH is lower than 5.5 it may cause damage to the cotton (Le
Mare [1972a]). Since some soils present a sulphur problem, ammonium sulphate is
preferred as a base dressing in Africa (Berger[1969]). Where heavy rain persists and
leaching is possible, NH 4 fertilizers are recommended rather than nitrate fertilizers.
Urea is considered equal to ammoniacal fertilizer since the urea is converted very
rapidly to NH 4. The use of nitrate fertilizer is recommended early in spring, when
nitrification is slow. Due to the mobility of nitrates in the soil, nitrogen fertilizer may
be leached by heavy rain or irrigation too deep for the roots to reach it. In such cir-
cumstances split application of nitrogen is recommended, especially if high yields
are expected. The first part is applied before planting and one to two split appli-
cations afterwards, at the first bloom and at the first boll.
When cotton is grown under sprinkler or drip irrigation the best way is to supply the
fertilizer continuously in the water (See chapter 6.7: Fertigation).
Foliar application of urea was efficient under waterlogged conditions (Hodgson and
Macleod [1987]). Spraying with 5 kg/ha of urea significantly increased late square
and boll numbers.
The amounts of nitrogen fertilizer actually differ very much according to countries,
soils and management. In irrigated cotton in the south west of the United States,
where there is an excellent yield potential, and in relatively nitrogen poor soils even
more than 200 kg N/ha may be used.
In Alabama in many trials, some fields failed to show an increase in yield due to N
fertilizer. In most of these fields, cotton had exhibited excessive growth and late
maturity which are commonly associated with excess N. The recommendations for
those soils according to soil tests were too high and it is suggested to decrease N fer-
tilization by at least 34 kg N/ha (Maples at al [1987]). Present recommendations
from the soil testing laboratory in Alabama for different soils and regions are 67, 90,
101 and 146 kg N/ha (Cope [1984]). In India for rain-fed cotton in areas with
assured rainfall 55-67 kg N/ha were recommended and for areas with scarce rain-
fall only 23 kg N/ha. For irrigated cotton in India, the application of less than 55 kg
N/ha may be considered uneconomical, and the amount recommended is up to 112
kg N/ha and even more (Berger [1969]). In Africa approximately 50 kg N/ha are
recommended according to the results from many field trials.
The highest amounts of N per unit area are used in Israel in which 60% of the cotton
is drip irrigated. Under drip irrigation via the water 300 kg N/ha are sometimes
applied.
31
6.2 Phosphorus
Many extractants are used in different countries to evaluate the available P for
crops. One cannot find a special extractant used for cotton. The extractants are
suited for soils rather than for crops, but the levels are adjusted differently for dif-
ferent crops according to their uptake and need for P.
Generally, the acid extractants are better for acid soils in humid regions, while mod-
erately basic (as sodium bicarbonate pH-8.5) is used mainly in calcareous or alkaline
soils.
Thomas and Peaslee [1973] compiled data for relative categorization of P concen-
trations into low, medium and high for two acid and one basic common soil testing
extractant (Table 14).
Table 14. Classification of soil P levels (Thomas and Peaslee [1973]).

Extractant
Relative 0.025 N H2SO4- 0.03 N NI-LF
soil P level 0.05 N HCI 0.025 N HCI 0.5 N NaHCO
Extractable P in soil, ppm
Low 0-16 0-15 0- 5
Medium 17-37 16-30 6-10
High >38 >30 >10
A response will usually be obtained when a 'low' soil level is indicated, frequently
with a 'moderate' level, but rarely with a 'high' level. In Israel the level of >12-14
ppm as extracted by sodium bicarbonate solution was suggested as a 'high' level
(Halevy [1979]) while Le Mare [1972] in Tanzania suggests that when soil P
exceeded 15 ppm the response was small. These are rather higher values than those
suggested in Table 14.
6.2.2 Plant tests

Tissue analysis is useful mostly as a diagnostic tool during the season. Some of the
common sampling methods and the foliar P-levels used to assess the P status were
compiled by Nelson [1980] and Hearn [1981].
In many countries the concentration of P in the petioles is used to assess the P status
of the plant (Thomas and Peaslee [1973]). The safe levels are (in ppm):
First bloom 1500-2000
Peak bloom 1200-1500
First open boll 1000-1200
Maturity 800-1000
32
The available soil phosphorus originates from the breakdown of soil minerals, from
soil organic matter or from the addition of phosphorus fertilizers. In comparison to
the total phosphorus present in the soil, the part that is available is usually small,
amounting only to about 1%of the total. Most of the cotton soils in the world have
depleted most of the available phosphorus from soil origin and unless fertilizer
phosphorus is added at rates equivalent to the amount removed by crops, the phos-
phorus in the surface layer will decrease further and deficiency symptoms will
appear (Plate 2).
Because P is not mobile in most soils, the growers do not expect it to leach and there-
fore they will not side-dress cotton with P, as they do with N in humid cotton areas.
For convenience of application and to avoid periods of rainy spring weather or
heavy labour demand in the spring, many growers add phosphorus in the fall or
winter months.
Because P is readily fixed by most soils, and due to the fact that P is absorbed by the
plant root mainly by diffusion, it is advised to put fertilizer in bands near to the
plants.
All water soluble forms of phosphates are equally effective and advisable on cotton.
In drip irrigation even dilute phosphoric acid is added in the irrigation water. Phos-
phate rock and basic slag are effective in acid soil. Due to the high cost of energy,
there has recently been a great interest in using partly acidulated rock phosphate.
The amounts of P recommended according to soil tests for high yielding cotton
range between 26-66 kg P/ha (= 60- 150 kg P 20 5/ha).
6.3 Potassium
The soil measurement of plant available potassium in general was recently reviewed
by McLean and Watson [1985] and for cotton by Kerby and Adams [1985J.
Most of the methods used for evaluating available K measure the soluble and
exchangeable K. Most of the methods also consider the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of a soil in one way or another. Soils of similar CEC may be grouped together,
and the minimum extractable K' needed to prevent a deficiency increase as CEC
increases. The intensity of supply of K ions to the roots is dependent also on the
amount of other cations in the soil solution so the ratio K/Ca+Mg was sug-
gested for evaluating K availability in soils (PAR = Potassium Absorption Ratio).
The value of exchangeable K expressed as a percentage of the total cation exchange
capacity (EPP = Exchangeable Potassium Percentage) can also serve as a suitable
method for estimating available K in soil.
Halevy [1977] for high yielding cotton in Israel suggested the critical values for dif-
ferent methods of soil analysis. If these values or higher are found in soil, no
response to K fertilization in cotton should be expected (Table 15).
33
Table 15. Critical levels of available K measured by different methods (Halevy 11977]).
Method Unit Value
AF cal/mol -3500
Extracted in CaC12 1:7 ppm K in solution 7.5
Exchangeable in ammonium acetate me K/ 100 g soil 0.6
EPP (% exch. K from CEC) % 3.7
PAR (KV-Ca + Mg) ratio 0.1
The above value of exchangeable K 0.6 me/ 100 g soil is very high in comparison to
the value of 0.26 suggested in California (Cassman [1986]), in sandy soils in
Alabama between 0.1 and 0.2, in Nigeria in Oxisols 0.1 and in Inceptisols 0.2 me
K/ 100 g soil (Kerby andA dans [1985]). Silva et a! [1975] report results from 29 field
experiments in Brazil and suggest that the ratio of exchangeable Ca + Mg/K ratio in
soil and exchangeable K values can be used to evaluate K availability in soils
(Table 16). These ratios were found suitable for acid soils, while in South Africa in
non-acid soils containing high exchangeable Ca + Mg, it was recommended to take a
Ca+ Mg/K ratio of 10- 15 as optimal for cotton.
In Zimbabwe the exchangeable potassium percentage is used as an index for K
availability- Below 4% deficiencies may occur.
Table 16. Ca + Mg/K ratio and exch. K as indices for K fertilization (Silva et al. [1975]).
Ca + Mg/K ratio Exchangeable K Response to
(me/ 100 g soil) K fertilizer
Clay soil - Cultivar IA C 13-1
25-73 0.06-0.11 High
15-36 0.064.30 Medium
12-22 0.21-0.65 Low
Sandy soil- Cultivar]A C - RM3
19 0.104.11 Medium
6-13 0.17-0.30 Low
6.3.2 Plant tests

Many investigators have attempted to establish critical K levels for different parts of
the cotton plant and their results were summarized by Kamprath and Welch [1968]
and Kerby and Adams [1985]. Most of the investigators conclude that petioles are
more sensitive than leaves to changes in available K levels in the soil and that K con-
centration decreases with plant age. Therefore most of them recommend that the
status of cotton be ascertained through petiole analysis. Usually the petioles of the
youngest mature leaves are sampled. Relatively little work has been done on the use
of plant analysis as a guide to K fertilization. For the plant analysis to be of help, the
34
testing must be made at a stage of growth when K fertilizer can still be applied and
be of benefit. Halevy (unpublished data) measured the K in petioles in a field fer-
tilizer experiment 45, 75 and 108 days after emergence. The critical levels below
which the cotton responded to K fertilizer were 4.5, 3.0 and 1.5% K for the sampling
dates 45, 75 and 108 days, respectively. These figures are similar to those found by a
few authors in the United States for high yielding cotton (Sabbe and Mackenzie
[1973]). Silva et at. 1985] report from Brazil that either petioles or blades can be
used for diagnosis of K nutrition. There was a negative correlation between K and
Mg, K and Ca content in the leaf blades.
In the United States it was found that K deficiency occurs more frequently and with
greater intensity on cotton than on most other agronomic crops. This is presented in
Table 17, a summary of 21 years of rotating crops in five experiments in Alabama
(Cope [1981]).
Table 17. Comparison of relative yield of cotton with other plant species in long-term
rotations (1958-1978) in Alabama (Cope [1981]).
Relative yield of zero K treatment-
Soil No: Cotton Corn Soybean Vetch Wheat
1 0.38 0.85 0.64 0-75 0.92
2 0.58 0.86 0.95 0.67 1.00
3 0.24 0.61 0.40 0.42 0.90
4 0.65 0.92 0.91 0.75 0.98
5 0.41 0.83 0.76 0.56 1.01
Yield of zero K treatment divided by maximum yield with K+ added.
Cotton suffered more from inadequate K fertilization than corn, soybean, vetch and
wheat. Cotton also suffers from K deficiency following peanuts, alfalfa and other
legume crops (Kerby andAdams [1985]). In spite of this, potassium is (unlike N and
P) available in most soils in various degrees from mineral resources, consequently K
fertilizer requirements are usually less than these of N and P. In the USA only 38%
of the cotton acreage is given fertilizer K compared with 63% and 46% for N and P,
respectively. Furthermore, although the uptake of K by the cotton plant is quite high
(see chapter 5.2.3), 250 kg K/ha for a high yield, the removal of K by seed and lint is
relatively small, only 50 kg/ha for the same yield. Fertilizer requirement of K can be
estimated by taking into account the target yield and the nature of the soil on the
basis of soil test for K or of soil texture and origin. Where the soil contains much clay
or K-rich minerals, the soil itself will supply what is removed by cropping. On sandy
soils the fertilization policy should aim at least to replace what is removed in the seed
and lint (we can assume that the seed and the lint together contain 1%of K).
Where soils are low in available K, an application of 65-90 kg K/ha is rec-
ommended, while at medium soil test level 33-45 kg K/ha appears to be adequate.
In irrigated areas and with high nitrogen rates, the amount of K fertilizer will be
35
much higher. In Israel, on soils that contain a low level of available K, an amount of
250 kg K/ha is recommended, while at a medium level 125 kg K/ha will be enough.
In California, in some areas deficient in K, the suggested rates are even higher,
amounting even to 500 kg K/ha and more (Berger [1969]).
The K fertilizer most widely used for cotton is potassium chloride. It is also the most
economical, but where conditions of high water table, saline water and bad drainage
prevail, potassium sulphate or potassium nitrate are preferred. In fields where
tobacco follows the cotton crop, which is the situation in some parts of Greece and
Turkey, the use of potassium sulphate is also common to avoid excess of Cl which
impairs the quality of tobacco.
Application to the seedbed along with other fertilizers is most convenient. On light
soils subject to leaching, it is preferred to apply the fertilizer side dressed at 60 days
when the crop demand is great. In order to avoid fixation of K in high fixing soils, it
is preferable to put the fertilizer in bands.
Regarding the time of application, in most of the experiments done all over the
world the K was applied before planting. In an experiment in Brazil (Silva et al.
[1985]), potassium chloride at 66 kg K/ha was applied by several methods:
a) In furrows before planting
b) Just after thinning
c) At flowering
d) / at planting, 'A at thinning
e) 1/ at planting, 'A at flowering.
There was a response to K in the six years of the experiment but there were no sig-
nificant differences between the different methods of application. Nevertheless, the
authors report that potassium application with nitrogen as a side dressing followed
by cultivation just after thinning was better than application before planting.
In recent years, many responses to potassium were reported. Nabhan et al [1987]
report the following results in selected countries.
No. of experiments Average increase kg seed cotton

in yield (%) per 1 kg K
Thailand many - 6
Punjab (Pakistan) 1866 5.2 2.2
Sind (Pakistan) 130 13.6 10.1
Blanguernon[1978] in summing up ten years of research in Senegal recommends for

cotton 38 kg K/ha. Biswas et al [1984] in India report that in earlier years no
response to K has been observed, but in recent years 24-60 kg K/ha gave increases
of 52-92 kg seed cotton/ha. Islam et al. [1982] in field trials in Bangladesh report an
increase of yield from control 1.21 ton seed-cotton to 1.67 ton/ha with 48 kg K/ha.
Some have found an effect of K on cotton quality. Sabino et al [1984] in Brazil
summarize 10 experiments over six years on red latosolic soils. 0, 50 and 100 kg K/ha
were applied partly as side dressing. Potassium fertilizer increased uniformity of
fibre length, micronaire, index of maturity, average boll weight and 1000 seeds
weight.
36
Lachover and Arnon [1964] in Israel found the following results in a greenhouse
experiment in 50 kg soil containers.
NP NPK
Average boll weight (g) 3.1 6.8
% undeveloped seeds 14.7 0.7
% lint 39.9 43.8
% oil in seeds 23.2 26.7
1000 seeds weight (g) 80.4 106.0
The addition of K increased average boll weight, 1000 seeds weight, lint percentage
and percentage of oil in seeds.
6.4 Calcium and liming

One cannot deal with Ca as with the elements dealt with above since it is difficult to
differentiate between Ca added as a plant nutrient and Ca-containing compounds
used for amelioration of either acid soils or alkaline sodic soils. Adding calcium
containing materials- liming- by changing the soil pH also changes the availability
of other nutrients in the soil. In experiments in Brazil (Silva [1988]), responses to P,
K and B application were stronger when the pH was raised by liming (Figures 7, 8,
and 9). Le Mare [1972] in Tanzania reports the same for P and K. He also found that
lime application inhibited Mn toxicity. The exchangeable Mn increased far more
without lime than with lime.
LIME (t/ha) ph soil
68 (20 - 40 cm)
3 12 5.5
85.
r 5.0
0
3aVh
U) 4.8
5 a
60 120 P.0, (kg/ha)
Fig. 7. Effect of P and lime on soil pH and seed-cotton yield (Da Silva [19881).
37
3.0 z-+ KO
z
0K.
w
CO)1.0
0 2 4 6
LIME (t/ha)
Fig. 8. Effect of K and lime on seed-cotton yield (Da Silva [1988]).
2.5
IE
S2.0
C-
0 3 6
LIME (Vta)
Fig. 9. Effect of lime and boron on seed-cotton yield (Da Silva f]988]).
38
6.4.1 Soil criteria useful in diagnosing Ca status
The amount of calcium available to cotton grown on acid soils depends upon the
amount held on the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil. The type of the clay
is important. Montmorillonitic clays require a calcium saturation of 70% for good
availability, while kaolinitic clays can supply the calcium requirements at saturation
of 40% (Hinkle and Brown [1968]). The practical way is to use the soil pH as a cri-
terion for Ca availability. Lime is added when the pH of the soil is 5.5 or less. In
Brazil, Quaggio et al. [1985] suggest the following formula for calculation of the
quantity of CaCO 3 to be added to acid soils:
LR=CECV V)
100
LR = lime requirement (in t/ha) of CaCO3 for a depth of 20 cm.

V1 p resent %base saturation.
V2 = base saturation to reach.
CEC = cation exchange capacity of the soil (in me/ 100g/soil).
This formula is based on 85 soil samples of the State of Sao Paulo that have similar
colloidal matter, and therefore there was a close correlation (r=0.97) between pH
and base saturation percent.
6.4.2 Plant analysis

Leaf Ca is not used for recommendation of Ca application because lime is added
only before planting- Leaf analysis may be used to judge the efficiency of a fertilizer
practice. Silva et al. [1980] report the following values of Ca in leaves after liming in
different levels:
Dolomite limestone t/ha %Ca in leaves

0 1.73 a
1.5 1.88 ab
3.0 2.06 b
6.0 2.31 c
Different letters indicate significancy at 0.05 level.

Calcium is added as limestone (CaCO3) or dolomite, which also contains mag-
nesium. Field trials over three years in Arkansas showed that soils with a pH of 5-5
or below, responded to 6.3 t/ha/year of limestone; soil pH was also raised (Table
18).
39
Table 18. Effect of liming on seed-cotton yield (Hinkle and Brown [1968]).
pH Yield of seed-cotton (kg/ha)
1st year
- lime 5.0 2087
+ lime 5.9 2980
2nd year
- lime 5.1 1399
+ lime 6.4 1478
3rdyear
-lime 5.2 1863
+ lime 6.6 2322
In an experiment in Brazil (Ferrazet al [1977]) on red latosolic soil 4 t/ha lime were
added in 3 years by various methods of application (Table 19). There was a signifi-
cant difference between the control and all modes of lime applications. This exper-
iment shows that splitting the amount gave the same yield as applying it in one dose.
A significant residual effect was also measured for 3 years.
Table 19. The effect of method of applying lime on yield (Ferrazet al., [1977]).
Mode of application Yield of seed-cotton % Yield of seed-cotton %
kg/ha Average kg/ha
4.5 t/ha lime Average 1968-70 1970/1-1972/3
Control 2754 b 100 2351 b 100
All in 1st year 3301 a 120 2580 ab 109
1/ 1st year +
1h 2nd year 3301 a 123 2903 a 123
1A each year 3263 a 118 2768 a 118
'A1st year +
1/ 3rd year 3434 a 125 2703 ab 115
6.5 Magnesium
6.5.1 Diagnostic methods
Lancaster [1958] studied the effect of Mg upon cotton production in Mississippi
and found a close relationship between the response to applied Mg and the satu-
ration of the CEC with Mg (Table 20).
Table 20. Expected response of cotton to Mg as indicated by saturation of the CEC with
exchangeable Mg (Lancaster[1958]).
%Saturation of CEC with Mg Expected response of cotton to Mg
Below 3.0 excellent
3.0-4.6 good
4.7-6.4 probable
Above 6.4 none
40
The leaf blade can be used as an indicator for deficiency or sufficiency. Sabbe and
Mackenzie [1973] cite results from several authors. Sufficiency ranges were: 0.3-
0.75% or0.50- 0.90% and deficiency was indicated by less than 0.2% (= 2000 ppm).

The most widely used material for adding magnesium to soils is dolomitic limestone.
It also corrects Ca deficiency and raises soil pH. Dolomitic limestone is a natural
rock which contains calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate- High grade
dolomitic limestone contains 42% magnesium carbonate. Other fertilizers com-
monly used are potassium-magnesium sulphate ('Patent kali' or supermag) and
magnesium sulphate (kieserite). These fertilizers are mainly used on sandy soils
when a quick response is needed. The amounts of Mg which are applied to correct
Mg deficiency range between 20-67 kg Mg/ha. Some reports in the literature indi-
cate that an unfavourable calcium-magnesium balance may produce magnesium
deficiency. Excess of potassium or ammonium in the soil solution may also cause
magnesium deficiency.
6.6 Sulphur
Sulphur may be considered as a macronutrient. The amount of S that is taken up by
the cotton plant at least equals the amount of P.
6.6.1 Soil tests

Many soil tests for available S have been suggested (Hinkle and Brown [1968];
Kamprath andJones [1986]). Summarizing the soil analysis from many experiments
they concluded that soils with less than 14 ppm of acetate extractable S or less than
10-15 ppm as 'A' value were responsive to applied S.
6.6.2 Plant analysis

Critical levels are reported by several authors to be 1500-2000 ppm in leaves
(Hinkle and Brown [1968]; Kamprath and Jones [1985]). S concentration in leaves
and petioles of cotton fields that were not deficient in S ranged in 29 soils in North
Carolina between 0.29-1.5% S with an average of 0.85% S (Kamprath and Jones
[1985]). Brand [1974] summarizing more than 200 analyses from 7 countries in
Africa found that critical S leaf levels depend to a great extent on the leaf P content,
and become higher as the P is higher (P 0.1-0.9% when S 0.2- 0.5%). Malavolta et al.
[1962] in Brazil found the following concentrations of S (% in dry matter):
Leaves: Normal: Deficient:

Young 1.33 0.171
Old 0.75 0.365
41
Silva etal. [1981] obtained an increase from 0.22% in the control to 0.251% for P + S,
0.282 for 2P + 2S and 0.403% for 4P + 4S. Because of the interaction between P and
S, S was always applied together with P.
Sulphur deficiency is commonly corrected by the application of gypsum or
elemental S. Since application of elemental S tends to reduce the soil pH, this would
not be a good choice for a very acid soil. The fact that elemental S is not immediately
available but has to undergo a period of oxidation, must be considered. Other
materials that also supply other nutrients together with S are: single super-
phosphate, ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate. The rates of S applied
according to the level of deficiency are 4-63 kg S/ha (Hearn [1981]).
6.7 Fertigation
Fertigation is defined as the application of fertilizer with the irrigation water (FER-
Tilization + irriGATION). Fertigation may be practiced with sprinkler irrigation,
irrigation machines as the centerpivot and the travelling line system and, more
commonly, with drippers.
The principles of fertilizer use for drip-irrigated crops have been discussed by
Haynes [1985] and Rolston et aL [1986]. Most of the irrigated cotton areas in the
world use gravity methods. In the USA and Israel sprinkler irrigation is used exten-
sively. Drip irrigation was introduced in Israel in 1975 and now covers more than
60% of the irrigated area. Originally, drippers were applied mostly on shallow soils
with low water holding capacity, stony soils, coarse textured soils, fields of irregular
size or steep slopes which were difficult to irrigate with tractor-towed sprinkler lines,
but now they are used in normal fields. Drip irrigation has some operational advan-
tages in irrigating cotton fields: water can be applied at lower pressures and dis-
charge rates; there is no limitation to the time of day when the fields can be irrigated,
since wind is not a problem; furthermore, once the laterals are installed, no more
labour is involved in irrigation, except the opening and closing of valves which can
be automated. Field experiments in Israel and New Mexico have also shown 8-10%
higher yields of cotton in drip irrigation compared with conventional irrigation with
the same amount of water used (Dasberg and Bresler [1985]).
The drip system for cotton is usually designed with emitters having a flow rate of 4
litre/h, spaced one metre apart along the row, one lateral for every two rows
(approx. 2 m between two laterals). The increased yield obtained with drip irrigation
was attributed mainly to better water distribution. The soil volume wetted by the
drippers is smaller than that wetted by sprinklers. Moreover the soil is under con-
ditions of continuous leaching, therefore, the soil tests and the amounts of fertilizers
used in conventional irrigated cotton are not appropriate for drip irrigated cotton.
As a guide for fertilization the daily uptake of N, P, and K (Halevy [1976]) found for
sprinkler irrigated cotton can be used. Application of fertilizers according to the
daily rate of nutrient uptake is generally too high because of the residual nutrients
42
found in the soil at planting time, and those that will become available during plant
growth are not accounted for. Therefore, a combined technique is suggested. The
initial amounts of fertilizer are applied according to soil tests. Afterwards the
amounts of N, P, K added in the irrigation water are applied according to uptake
(Table 21).
Table 21. Fertilization guide for drip-irrigated cotton.

Initial dressing before planting
Extractable Method Critical value ppm kg/ha to add if
nutrient under critical value
N0 3-N water extract 12 in soil 50 N
P NaHCO3 extractable 14 in soil 25 P
K in CaC12 solution 10 in solution 80 K
Dressing in the drip system - kg/ha/day

Nutrient Deep Soil Shallow Soil
Stage A Stage B Stage A Stage B
N 2.5-4.0 2.0 3.5-4.5 3.0
P - 0.5-0.8 -
K 1.6-2.4 12.0-2.8 -
Stage A: From first flower (approx. 50 days after planting) till 100 days
Stage B: From 101 days after planting till 120 days.
The types of fertilizers used for drip irrigation must be water soluble and the most
convenient way is to use commercial fertilizer solutions which contain NPK and
sometimes also other necessary elements. In Israel, it was found that the N supply of
drip irrigated cotton can be monitored by soil and petiole analyses for nitrate during
the season (Halevy and Kramer [1986]).
7. Interactions
7.1 Interactions between plant nutrients

Despite the fact that interactions are seen by many to be an important key to future
advances in farm profitability, there are relatively few reports in the literature of
their study under field conditions (Sumner and Farina[1986]). A few interactions
between plant nutrients and their significance for cotton production will be dealt
with in the present chapter.
43
7.1.1 Nitrogen X Phosphorus
Phosphorus interaction with other nutrients in field cropping systems was recently
reviewed by Sumner and Farina[1986]. Williams [1966] in New Mexico has shown
that lint yields of Acala cotton were not or only slightly influenced by P applications
when low rates of N were used under irrigation. But, when the same rate of P was
applied with a high rate of N the yields went up. Similar results (Table 22) have been
obtained in Israel by Halevy (unpublished data).
Table 22. Interactive effects of N and P on seed-cotton yields (t/ha) (from Haley,un-
published data).
P applied (kg/ha) N applied (kg/ha)
No No N 20 Nimo N 240
P0 3.37 4.38 4.87 5.65 524
P10 3.50 4.44 6.25 6.36 6.54
Po 3.63 4.88 6.21 6.23 6.53
PQ 3.78 4.83 6.49 6.66 6.47
P60 3.81 4.67 6.49 6.68 6.49
7.1.2 Nitrogen x Potassium

Interactions of potassium with other nutrients were widely reviewed by Dibb and
Thompson [1985]. N can be absorbed by plants either as a cation (NH 4 + ) or anion
(NO 3-). This presents the unique possibility of both a cation-cation as well as a cat-
ion-anion interaction with K + .
Halevy [1970] conducted a field experiment in a region where K deficiency
occurred. Two varieties, Acala 1517 C and Acala 4-42 were compared at two levels of
N (0 and 180 kg N/ha) and two levels of K (0 and 300 kg K/ha). Both varieties
responded to nitrogen. There was a marked N × K interaction in Acala 1517 C. Pot-
assium slightly reduced yield at No and increased yield at N180 (Figure 10).
1600
1500 Acala1517c
91400
SAcata 4-42
.--
1300
1200 - _ __
0 180
N - FERTILIZATION (kg/ha)
Fig. 10. N x K interaction effect on lint yield (Haley [1970]).
44
7.1.3 Potassium and other elements
Thomas [1956] reports that liming of acid soils to maintain the pH around 6.0 will
give the most efficient utilization of fertilizer K. The same was reported by Silva
[1988] in Brazil.
A mutually antagonistic association was demonstrated for K and Mg by Pageand
Bingham [1965] in California. Increasing additions of Mg to cotton reduced K con-
tent in the petioles, and addition of K reduced the content of Mg in the petioles:
Concentration of element Content of element

in solution in petiole
m mol/l %
Mg2 +0.04 K+ 2.2
Mg 2 + 2.06 K 0.9
K+ 0.03 Mg 2 t 1.09
K 1.28 Mg 2 + 0.3
7.2 Interactions between nutrients and water

7.2.1 Nitrogen x water
The interaction between nitrogen and water in cotton was reviewed by Bieloraiet al.
[1983]. As with many other crops, several field studies with cotton have shown that
as nitrogen application is increased there is a greater plant response to increasing
3000 3000
0 0
0 W0 '5
lfruS ,9l,
Fig. 11. Effect of water antd nitrogen on seed-cotton yield (Hamilton et a). [1956]).
45
water supply. The results in Figure II from Arizona (Hamilton et al [1956]) show
that a combination of high water and high N resulted in greater yield than did the
additive effects of both. A strong interaction was also found in Australia by Hearn
[1975] between irrigation-cutoff date and nitrogen level on yield (Figure 12). When
nitrogen was terminated early the response to nitrogen was less than when irrigation
was continued for another 4-8 weeks. Despite the demonstrated interaction of
water and nitrogen in influencing cotton yield, manipulation of these factors must
be considered from an economic point of view, because the costs involved may not
always justify achieving potential maximum yield.
1600
1400
21200
I-
z
1000
800I I
0 100 200
NITROGEN (kg hal)
Fig. 12. Effect of nitrogen and irrigation cutoff date on lint-cotton yield (from Hearn
[1975]). 0: early cutoff; 0: 4 weeks later; 0: 8 weeks later.
7.2.2 Interaction between other nutrients and water

Studies of the relationship between soil water and response to other nutrients such
as phosphorus and potassium in cotton are largely undocumented. Since diffusion is
the mechanism that governs most of P and K uptake by plant roots, it is obvious that
increasing soil water content reduces the tortuosity of the diffusion path, and, hence,
increases the effective diffusion (Barber [1986]). In Upper Volta, Brand [1971],
found that the K level in the plant was positively related to the water supply when
complete (NPKS) fertilizer was applied. Halevy (unpublished data) compared K
uptake by cotton plants grown in pots at four irrigation levels, and found a positive
interaction between medium to high irrigation levels and high and very high K
applications (Figure 13).
In Bangladesh, Islam et al.[1982] reported a stronger effect of N, P and K on yield in
rainfed than in irrigated cotton (Table 23).
46
800.
K4
600
t.
0 -
uS 00
QK.
S00 Ar--- -AL
20K
LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY HIGH

IRRIGATION LEVEL
Fig. 13. Effect of irrigation on K uptake in pot experiment (Halevy, unpublished data).
Table 23. Interaction between fertilization and irrigation (Islam et at [1982]).

Treatment Irrigated Rainfed
Flowers Boils per Yield Flowers Bolls per Yield
per plant plant (kg/ha) per plant plant (kg/ha)
Control 37.3 11.6 1210(100%) 25.6 7.0 670(100%)
N,* 37.6 12.0 1270(105%) 30.6 8.0 810(121%)
N2 31.3 10.0 1190( 98%) 28.0 6.3 820(122%)
N2 P 43.3 13.3 1290(106%) 34.6 10.0 980(146%)
N 2PK 51.6 17.6 1670(138%) 39.0 13.6 1470(219%)
Rates (kg/ha): N = 0, 50, 100, 150
P20 5 = 80
K20 = 60
7.3 Interaction between potassium and diseases

The interactions of K with plant diseases were reviewed by Huber and Amy [1985]
and Perrenoud[19771.
In cotton as in many other crops, it has been found that potassium fertilization may
reduce the severity of many plant diseases (Table 24).
47
Table 24. Influence of K on decreasing diseases in cotton (Adapted from Huberand Aray,
[19851).
Diseases Pathogen References
Bacteria
Angular leaf spot Xanthomonas malvaceum Rolfz [1915]
Fungi
Wilt Verticilliwn albo-atrum Hafez et al [1975]
Wilt Fusariumoxysporum Sadasivan [1965]
Root rot Phyrmatotrichumomnivirun Tsai and Bird [1975]
Seedling blight Rhizoctonia solani Ramasami and Shanmugan [19761
Leaf blight Cercosporagossypina Miller [1969]
Leaf blight Alternariasolani Miller [1969]
Nematodes
Reniform nematode Rotylenchus reniformis Oteifa and Elgindi [1976]
It is very difficult to differentiate between the effect of K on parasites or the effect of

K as a nutrient. Difficulty in diagnosing nutrient deficiency may occur because the
expression of end products of host-pathogen interaction resembles the symptoms
induced by K deficiency. An example of that is the phenomenon which is called in
California: 'Potassium Deficiency Disease Syndrome'. There is a twenty-year-old
controversy over the cause of a severe late-season potassium deficiency which
reduces yields of 600 000 ha planted to cotton each year in San Joaquin Valley/Cali-
fornia by 20%. Several soil scientists and plant pathologists believe that a pathogen
as yet unidentified, is the cause of the K deficiency. They argue that no other crops
including alfalfa, maize, wheat, barley and sorghum respond to K on these soils, and
several cotton cultivars are 'resistant' to the late season K deficiency, while others
are 'susceptible'. Other scientists believe that all the observed anomalies, which at
first glance appear to be inconsistent with a true K deficiency can be explained
purely on the basis of soil-plant K relations (Cassman[1985]; Weir et aL [1986]).
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48
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50
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52

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by J. Halevy and M. Bazelet

International Potash Institute

Fertilizing for High Yield

International Potash Institute

I. Introduction ......... ................................... . 5

Cotton belongs to the genus Gossypium of the family Malvacae. According to

3. Effect of climatic conditions on plant development

3.3 C0 2concentration in the air

3.4 Moisture availability

cotton Irrigated In Western USA

Fig. 2. Root growth of cotton plants (Bielorai [1973]).

5.1 Dry matter accumulation

2500 SHED LEAVES

10 -z10 SHED LEAVES

LEAVES 250 NITROGEN LINT

ASHEDAND BURS 100 LEAVES

Nitrogen uptake, removal and deficiency.

Bassett et al. 119701 Basinski et al. [1975]

uJ Ofson and Bledsoo [19421

Table 9. N uptake by seed and whole plant (calculation).

PkIte 2, fffCCIl Of IIIhI1-

potas h Ipp] I at Iln onl ivd,

6. Fertilizer evaluation and application

6.1.2 Plant tests

Table 13. Desired concentration of N-NO, in petiole during the season.

*Ray el aL, [1964]

6.1.3 Fertilizer application

Table 14. Classification of soil P levels (Thomas and Peaslee [1973]).

6.2.2 Plant tests

6.3.2 Plant tests

No. of experiments Average increase kg seed cotton

Blanguernon[1978] in summing up ten years of research in Senegal recommends for

6.4 Calcium and liming

60 120 P.0, (kg/ha)

Fig. 8. Effect of K and lime on seed-cotton yield (Da Silva [1988]).

LR = lime requirement (in t/ha) of CaCO3 for a depth of 20 cm.

6.4.2 Plant analysis

Dolomite limestone t/ha %Ca in leaves

6.4.3 Fertilizer application

6.5.2 Fertilizer application

6.6.1 Soil tests

6.6.2 Plant analysis

Leaves: Normal: Deficient:

Table 21. Fertilization guide for drip-irrigated cotton.

Dressing in the drip system - kg/ha/day

7.1 Interactions between plant nutrients

7.1.2 Nitrogen x Potassium

Fig. 10. N x K interaction effect on lint yield (Haley [1970]).

Concentration of element Content of element

7.2 Interactions between nutrients and water

7.2.2 Interaction between other nutrients and water

S00 Ar--- -AL

LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY HIGH

Table 23. Interaction between fertilization and irrigation (Islam et at [1982]).

7.3 Interaction between potassium and diseases

It is very difficult to differentiate between the effect of K on parasites or the effect of

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